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THE ULTIMATE VISUAL GUIDE TO THE EVENTS THAT SHAPED THE WORLD

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DORLING KINDERSLEY
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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

Project Coordinator
Ellen Nanney

First American Edition, 2011
Published in the United States by
DK Publishing
375 Hudson Street
New York, New York 10014

15 1412 1110987654321
001— 178147—Sep/2015

Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means
\ (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise),
without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner
and the above publisher of this book.

Published in Great Britain by
Dorling Kindersley Limited.

A catalog record for this book is available
from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-1-4654-4248-2

DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk
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details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 375 Hudson Street,
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Printed in Hong Kong

Discover more at
www.dk.com

HUMAN ORIGINS

Dr. Fiona Coward

Research Fellow at Royal Holloway University
of London; contributed to DK’s Prehistoric.
Additional text by Dr. Jane McIntosh

EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

Dr. Jen Green

Author of over 250 books on a range
of subjects from history to nature.
Additional text by Dr. Jane McIntosh

THE CLASSICAL AGE

Philip Parker

Historian and writer; books include The
Empire Stops Here and DK Eyewitness
Companion to World History.

CONSULTANT Sn

Dr. Jane McIntosh

8mya-7008cE

Senior Research Associate, Faculty of Asian and
Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge, UK

Professor Neville Morley
7008cE-599CE

Professor of Ancient History, School of
Humanities, University of Bristol, UK

Dr. Roger Collins

600-1449

Honorary Fellow, School of History, Classics,
and Archaeology, University of Edinburgh, UK

TRADE AND INVENTION

Joel Levy

Writer specializing in history and scientific
history; books include Lost Cities and Lost
Histories.

REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION
Thomas Cussans

Author and contributor to The Times
newspaper; previous titles for DK include
Timelines of World History and History.
Additional text by Frank Ritter

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
Dr. Carrie Gibson
Writer who has contributed to The Guardian

and Observer newspapers; gained a doctorate

in 18th- and 19th-century history from the
University of Cambridge, UK.

Dr. David Parrott
1450-1749

Fellow in History and University Lecture
New College, University of Oxford, UK

Dr. Michael Broers
1750-1913

Fellow and Tutor, Lady Margaret: Hall,
University of Oxford, UK

Professor Richard Overy
1914-present
Professor of History, University of E

TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
R.G. Grant

History writer who has published more than
20 books, including Battle, Soldier, Flight,
and History for DK.

Sally Regan

Contributor to several books for DK including
History, World War II, and Science; award-
winning documentary maker whose films
include Shell Shock and Bomber Command
for the UK's Channel 4.

GLOSSARY
Richard Beatty

SMITHSONIAN. INSTITUTION

Smithsonian contributors include historians

id museum specialists from:

National Air and Space Museum
The. Smithsonian’ 's National Air and Space

is one of the world’s most popular
s. Its mission is to educate and
isitors, by preserving and displaying

eum of American History

National Museum of

dedicates its collections and -

piring a broader understanding.
ation and its many peoples.

8mya-3000BcE

010 HUMAN
ORIGINS

Features
014 Colonizing the Planet
020 Prehistoric Peoples

Pree:

3000-700BceE

700BcE-599cE

600-1449

022 EARLY
CIVILIZATIONS

Features

028 The Story of Writing
032 Ancient Empires
038 Ancient Egypt

042 THE

-CLASSICAL AGE

Features
048 Ancient Greece

054 The Story of
Metalworking

064 ‘The Story of Money

074 The Rise of the
Roman Empire

084 Ancient Rome
096 Classical Trade

106 TRADE &
INVENTION

Features
122 The Vikings
134 The Islamic World

144 The Aztecs, Incas,
and Maya

154 The Story of Printing

1450-1749

1750-1913

1914-2011

164 REFORMATION

& EXPLORATION

Features

172
182

Voyages of Exploration
The Story of Astronomy
Edo Period

Mughal Empire

The Renaissance

The Story of Arms
and Armor

The Rise and Fall of
the Ottoman Empire

The Story of Navigation
The Story of Agriculture

294 THE AGE
OF REVOLUTION

Features

262
274
282
290

European Nation States

The Story of Steam Power

The Story of Medicine
American Indians

The Story of Electricity
American Civil War
The Qing Dynasty

The Imperial World
The Story of the Car

338 TECHNOLOGY
& SUPERPOWERS

Features

344
350
354
364
374

The Eu ropean Union, i
Global Economy.

The Great War
Soviet Propaganda
World War |

The Story of Flight

The Story of
Communication

War in Europe
War in the Pacific
World War II

‘The Space Race»

End of Empire

The Story of Genetics

Collapse of the USSR

468 DIRECTORY

Categories

468
478
480

Rulers and Leaders
History in Figures
Wars

Explorers

Inventions and
Discoveries

Philosophy and Religion

Culture and Learning

Disasters

Foreword

Like many people, my early
enthusiasm for history focused
on particular dates and events
1588 and the defeat of the Spanish
Armada; the battle of Waterloo in
1815; the fall of Constantinople
in 1453. Some had personal
connections: July 1, 1916, when
my grandfather, serving as an
artilleryman, lost several of his
closest friends on the first day
of the Somme offensive

From the earliest times, history
was cast as a grand chronicle
of events and actions, the work of
often larger-than-life protagonists,
and was intended to enthrall and
capture the imagination in the
same way as a great novel. But
during the 20th century, academic
historians grew skeptical about the
“history of the event.” Most often
the events were battles, treaties,
and political struggles, a narrative
that excluded the lives of the
great majority of men, women,
and children. In reaction to this,
historians focused on cultural,
social, and economic continuities,
looking for their evidence in

everyday objects, trading records,

accounts of childhood and old age
The result was certainly a richer
and more diverse account of human
experience, but one that often left
little sense of change over time

As the p
constructed on a timeline does not

ent book shows, history

have to be a narrow account of war
and conquest, treaties and treason
All of these feature here, but so

do the dates of intellectual and
technological innovations, the
creation of key works of art, crucial
shifts in patterns of agriculture,

Lost city of the Incas
Perched 7,970 ft (2,4. 1] above
in the Peruvian Andes, the Inca
Machu Picchu was probably co
the 15th century, and abandone

exploration, and commerce. This is
an exhilarating and comprehensive
account of human creativity as
much as its destructiveness, of
discovery and understanding as
well as natural disasters and
human folly. Spectacularly
illustrated and succinctly explained,
key events in history from the first
beginnings of agriculture to the
most recent astrophysical
discoveries are laid out along what is
probably the most comprehensive
timeline ever assembled

No less exciting for me in helping
to compose this book and to choose
from all facets of human history
to build up the timeline, is the
contribution that History Year by Year
makes to an understanding of global
history. Throughout the book, events,
discoveries, and achievements
occurring in Europe and North
America are set against the equally
momentous and significant events
in the Mideast and East Asia, India,
Africa, or South America and the
Pacific Rim. This is a history that
stimulates awareness of a wider
world by placing events from
across that world side by side
and reminding us that progress
and discovery, feats of social
organization, and challenges toa
political status quo are no monopoly
of the Western world, but as Likely to
originate in India or Egypt as in
France and Spain

The design of this book offers a
unique opportunity to appreciate a
global history of mankind in all its
facets. | hope that you enjoy reading
History Year by Year and using it asa

reference as much as we enjoyed

planning and writing It

DAVID PARROTT

University of Oxford

HUMAN

ORIGINS
MYA-3QQQBCE

Our earliest ancestors lived in Africa almost aiaiie million
years ago. Over seven million years later, we appeared and,
developed the skills—including sophisticated toolmaking: .
and agriculture—that allowed us to colonize the world.

Me eR

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
HUMANS AND OTHER APES DNA
and blood proteins suggest that
our lineage separated from that
of the chimpanzees between

rs ago (MYA)
specimens date
to this time: Sahelanthropus
tchadensis (7-6 mya), Orrorin

8 and 4 million ye

Only a few fos

THE TIME
WHEN

THE FIRST
HUMAN
ANCESTOR
APPEARS

tugenensis (6.1-5 yA), and
two species of Ardipithecus,
kadabba (5.8-5.2 mya) and
YA}, While all
s seem to
have walked on two legs
like us,

ramidus (4.4

of these spec

tis not certain
r any were actual
ors of humans

Because species are
constantly evolving, and
individuals of those species
can vary, it is difficult to tell

SEVERAL DIFFERENT
AUSTRALOPITHECINE species
lived in Africa between 4.2 and
2 mya. Although they walked on
two legs most of the time, they
were rather small and apelike

Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is a site of great archaeological significance and is sometimes referred
to as the “Cradle of Mankind.” At least two species of early hominins are associated with this area.

and still lived partially in trees.
Their brains were about the size
of those of modern chimpanzees,
but some australopithecines seem
to have used tools. The earliest
stone tools come from Ethiopia
and date to 2.6 MYA, but bones
with cut marks made by stone
tools have been found associated
with Australopithecus afarensis
nearby, and date to 3.4 mya. The
australopithecines descendants
followed two distinct modes of
life: members of the genus
Paranthropus had huge jaws

and big teeth for eating tough
vegetable foods; meanwhile, Homo
rudolfensis and H. habilis seem to
have eaten more protein, using
tools to get at the protein-rich
marrow inside long-bones by
scavenging from carnivore kills

OLDOWAN TOOL

(TOOLS

ULTIMATELY, THE
PARANTHROPINES’ WAY OF LIFE
was unsuccessful and they became
extinct after about 1.2 MYA, while
their cousins Homo habilis and
H. rudolfensis survived. These
early Homo species were not very
different from australopithecines.
It was with Homo ergaster (1.8
mya) that our ancestors started
to look much more familiar.
H. ergaster was tall and slender,
and may have been the first
hominin [a term used to describe
humans and their ancestors)
without much body hair. Their
brains were larger than those of
their ancestors, and they lost the
last of their adaptations to
tree-climbing to become fully
adapted to walking and running

ACHEULEAN TOOL

fre

preser

1 and often poorly
ved fossils which species
they should be assigned to, or how

the

Lucy
This unusually complete skeleton
of Australopithecus afarensis,
discovered in Kenya in 1974, was
named after the Beatles’ song
Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.

related to one another.
these fossils do tell us
4 3 bout what the last
common ancestor shared
th ct was like.

Many animal species use natural objects as tools, but the
manufacture of stone tools is unique to hominins. The earliest are
simply sharp flakes broken off stone cobbles by striking them with
a “hammerstone.” These are known as “Oldowan” tools, after
Olduvai Gorge, where they were first found. Later tools, such as
Acheulean handaxes, required more skill. Our manufacture of tools
might be one explanation for the evolution of the human brain.

— NeKonso-Garduta
Lake Turkana & Kobi Fora

Dlorgesailie

NOT LONG AFTER THE
APPEARANCE of Homo ergaster,
hominins expanded their range
beyond Africa for the first time
A species called H. georgicus
appeared in Dmanisi, Georgia, by
1.7 mya. Another close relative of
Homo ergaster, Homo erectus,
lived in China and Indonesia
perhaps not long afterward.
Some archaeologists believe that
earlier groups of hominins may
also have left Africa, as some of
the skulls from Dmanisi and from
the much later site of Liang Bua
in Flores, Indonesia, {currently
known as Homo floresiensis|
resemble those of Homo habilis
and Homo rudolfensis.

Living farther north would have
required a different way of life

~ Hexian
Lantian’ #Yunaian

lanjing

iy Trini
Sanbiiatygfe Mojokecto
Ngandong

KEY
® Site of fossil finds
> More likely route

~» Less likely route

Hominins beyond Africa

Our earliest ancestors evolved in
: Africa. Possible dispersal routes

from Africa are shown on this map,
: with dates referring to the earliest

fossils known from each region

to life in the African savanna.
The climate was cooler and
environments were more
seasonal, with significant
variation in food resources
over the course of a year.
Fewer edible plants meant
that hominins would have had
to rely more on harder-to-find
and fiercely competed-for
animal protein for food. They
needed to move over greater
distances and work together to

share resources and information

to survive in these regions.

1.6-0.35 mya

ACHEULEAN HANDAXES made by
Homo ergaster and H. erectus were
produced across most of Africa
and Eurasia, and demonstrate the
ability to learn complex skills
from one another and pass them
down over generations. To make
these tools, knappers had to think
several steps ahead in order to
select a suitable stone and to
prepare and place each strike.
Handaxes were used for a wide
range of activities, including
butchery, but they might also have
been important for personal or
group identity, demonstrating
their makers’ strength and skill

Australopithecines
28 cubic inches
461 cubic cm)

Paranthropines
32 cubic inches
517 cubic cm)

Homo habilis
Homo rudolfensis
40 cubic inches
648 cubic cm)

Homo erectus
Homo ergaster
59 cubic inches
“a 969 cubic cm)

arr

While Homo Erectus continued
to thrive in Asia, Homo antecessor
had appeared as far west as
northern Spain and Italy by 1.2Mya.
Marks on their bones at the site of
Atapuerca in Spain suggest they
practiced cannibalism. However,
these early colonists may not
have thrived in these unfamiliar
landscapes, as very few sites are
known. By 600,000 years ago,
anew hominin species, Homo
heidelbergensis, had spread
much more widely across Europe
H. heidelbergensis seems to have
been a good hunter, or at least a
proficient scavenger.

Homo heidelbergensis
73 cubic inches.
(1,204 cubic cm)

Homo neanderthalensis
87 cubic inches
(1,426 cubic cm}

y
—"—s=) Homo sapiens
~~ 90 cubic inches
(1,478 cubic cm)

Humans have a disproportionately large brain for a primate of
their size, but archaeologists disagree about how and why this
expansion happened. Switching to fatty and calorific foods such
as bone marrow and meat may have “powered” brain growth, and
also demanded more complex tools and effective hunting and
foraging skills. Social skills were also a part of this process, as
increasing group cooperation and pair-bonding were necessary
to sustain the longer periods of childhood that infants needed

for their larger brains to develop.

350,000-160,000,a

BY AROUND 350,000 YEARS AGO,
while Homo erectus continued to
hold sway over eastern Asia,
Homo heidelbergensis in Europe
and Western Asia had evolved into
Homo neanderthalensis
Neanderthals were stockier and
stronger than modern humans,
and their brains were as large
or even larger, although shaped
slightly differently. Neanderthals
were almost certainly very
accomplished hunters. They were
also highly skilled at making
stone tools and heavy thrusting
spears with which they tackled
even large and dangerous animal
prey, such as horses and bison
However, despite burying their
dead—which may have indicated
ceremonial practices or belief in
an afterlife—Neanderthals do not
seem to have created more than
the most limited art or used any
symbols, as all modern humans
do. Whether or not they spoke ina
similar way to modern humans is
also difficult to establish. Although

@ ALL LIVING HUMANS DESCENDED
FROM COMMON ANCESTORS WHO LIVED
AFRICA LESS THAN 200,000 YEARS AGO. 99

en Jay Gould, American paleontologist, from J Have Landed: The End of
ning in Natural History, 2002

Burying the dead
Neanderthals often disposed
of their dead with care. Some

were buried in graves, as here
at Kebara Cave in Israel, which
dates to 60,000 BCE.

their throat and voice-box anatomy
suggests that a Neanderthal
language may have been limited
compared to that of humans, they
must have communicated in some
fashion, perhaps by combining a
less complex form of vocalization
with expressive miming

THE NUMBER
OF YEARS THE
NEANDERTHAL
DOMINATED
EUROPE AND
WESTERN ASIA

8 mya—3000 sce | HUMAN ORIGINS

COLONIZING THE

PANEL

Skeletal and DNA evidence suggests that our species, Homo sapiens, evolved fo WP atenes
in Africa and then spread across the globe. The first traces of modern ) 4~> Se eAce
humans beyond Africa come from fossils in Israel and possibly from stone Aue

tools found in Arabia. They date to before 100,000 years ago.

Meadowcroft

Homo sapiens colonization of the globe involved many stops, starts, and sometimes retreats, as well
as waves of different groups of people in some areas. Homo sapiens may have moved into Eurasia f
via the Mediterranean coast of western Asia, spreading into Western Europe by 35,000 years ago f
(va). Archaeological evidence suggests that people may also have taken a “southern route”
across Arabia into southern Asia. There may also have been movement eastward, perhaps
much earlier, as stone tools have been found in India from 77,000YA and Malaysia from
70,000 YA. Some possible Homo sapiens finds from southern China are dated to 68,000 YA
{Liujiang), and even 100,000YA (Zhirendong). However, these finds remain controversial, and
most scholars favor later dates here. In Australia, widespread colonization probably did ,
not occur until 45,000 YA, though some sites have been dated to as early as 60,000YA.

Farther north, Homo sapiens first spread across northern Eurasia around 35,000YA.
However, they may have retreated during the last Ice Age, and not recolonized the i
region until after 14,000-13,000 YA. Genetically, the North American colonists are likely
to have originated in East Asia. They probably traveled across the plain of “Beringia”—
now beneath the Bering Straits between Siberia and Alaska, but exposed by low sea
levels at the height of the last Ice Age. Distinctive “Clovis” spear points [flaked on both
sides) are found across North America around 12,000 Ya, so modern humans were i i
widespread at that point, but earlier sites are also known, including South American j
sites such as Monte Verde (15,500-15,000YA).

NORTH AMERICA

Pedra
Furada

NEW
ZEALAND

Tracking language
The spread of languages can
en be tracked to reflect the

movement of people. This map

shows the spread of Austronesian

speakers across Oceania. Earlier

6 re already present in

reas.

Benng Straits

Pe nese ARE Nc COLONIZING THE PLANET

| —Ushki Lake
Tuluag Hill

e
(Sluiceway-
Tuluag complex} KEY

> General direction
@Berelekh of Homo sapiens
Yana around the world
Site of early
Homo sapiens

YEARS AGO

Kara-Bom e
e Tianyuan 32,000
YEARS AGO

42,000

31,000 YEARS AGO YEARS AGO

EUR ae Ole Pee E
Trou Magrite

Hohlenstein-Stadel @ Kostienki

Vindija Cave 45, YEARS AGO
@ Korolevo |

e =
Paviland Cave 2 Yamashita-Cho

Kent's Cavern___—®

Arcy-sur-Cure
SaintCésairee

istall6sko

El Castillo_—_» ele Plage — Pestera cu Oage
Cueva Morin 7,4 be SS
Gato Pretoe 00 , oe
ElPendo Years ago'\)\ Bacho 77,000-45,000 YEARS AGO a
*, 7 . Kiro Liujiang @ O
Gorham's Cave @: pee ae Temnata.@ Ucagizli Magara Phirendona)
Jebel Irhoud @ papmenely eee giserani a
jaizel
- mw
100,000 Ext
YEARS AGO Zz

@ Jebel Faya

Matenkupkum, Balof 2,

@ Jwalapuram
and Panakiwuk

Kota Tampon de Caves Huon Peninsula

INDIAN
OCEAN

160,000 YEARS AGO

Omo Kibish @

1.7MYA Temperate grassland,
mediterranean shrubland

Malakunanja B
Nawalabila |__~

Riwi and
Carpenter's Gap__‘»

Ngarrabulgan —

TIME pase
Puritjarra @, E>
~
40,000vA 45,000 =
Temperate forest, YEARS AGO SF
Blombos Cave.e=® boreal forest, tundra
Klasies ie 3 aS
River Mouth TMYA Tropical and subtropical Upper Swan @ Aj
e 2
dry broadleaf forest, savanna Ce. a ude
Lair prings
Going global Changing environments
Skeletal and genetic evidence suggests that modern humans The ancient ancestors of modern humans
originated in Africa and spread across the globe from there, evolved in the African tropics. Over time, as Lake Mungo @
as reflected on this map. This is called the “Out of Africa” human species evolved larger brains and
theory. An alternative “multiregional” theory suggests that developed more advanced skills and behavior Kow Swamp...»
Homo sapiens evolved simultaneously in many different parts they became better equipped to deal with the Willandra Lakes__-”

of the world, from ancestors who had left Africa much earlier. challenges of new environments. a

IN AFRICA, HOMININ FOSSILS
gradually began to reveal the
chara' stic skeletal traits of
Homo sapiens from around

400,000 ya: smaller brow ridges,
higher and rounder skulls, and
chins. DNA analysis of living
humans suggests that the
common ancestor of all living
humans [known as Mitochondrial
Eve} lived in Africa around
200,000 vA. An Ethiopian fossil

WHEN HOMO
SAPIENS FIRST
APPEARED

almost

skull from 160,000Ya is

nin shape; this has been

aS a subspecies of
modern humans, Homo sapiens

vans moved north inte

tern Asia some time before

00 YA, but they do not seem

>d there for long
ed

whe

her uniquely

ors such as

nan be

language and the ability to use

symbols evolved before or after
nodern human anatomy. One

theory is that such behaviors

became vital only after 74,000va,
hen the massive eruption of

Mount Toba in Indonesia triggered
bal “volcanic winter.” DNA

s that many

Jied out at this

These cave paintings from Lascaux, France, date to around 17,000 years ago. Most cave paintings are from a similar
period, though some were created by the earliest Homo sapiens to arrive in western Europe, around 32,000 years ago.

Prepared core and flake
Neanderthals and other hominins
prepared ¢ one core before
striking off a sharp flake to use

In Europe this technology is
known as the “Mousterian.

time and, in such harsh conditions,
complex modern language and
symbolism would have allowed
groups to exchange resources
and information with one
another, which could have made

the difference between survival
and extinction. However, others
argue that the impact of the
eruption of Mount Toba has been
exaggerated, and that archaeology
in Africa suggests complex hunting
practices and the development of
symbolism even before this.

It is not clear when modern
humans first spread into Eurasia
Some researchers argue they left
Arabia before 74,000 ya. Others
say the major migration occurred
later, 50,000 ya, and via western
Asia, after developing a new form
of stone-tool technology that
involved producing long, thin flint

blades,” which probably formed
part of composite tools

45,000-35,000 va

HUMANS SPREAD RAPIDLY

across Europe and Asia. In
Europe, modern humans
appeared in Turkey from 40,000,
and in western Europe shortly
afterward. In Asia, fossils of Homo
sapiens in Indonesia and China
date to at least 42,000 ya, and the
sea crossing to Australia
occurred before 45,000yA. These
dates suggest that the earliest
modern humans in Asia may
have encountered groups of
Homo erectus, who survived in
China until at least 40,000 years
ago. In Indonesia the picture

was even more complicated
Fossils found on the island of

HOMO SAPIENS

MODERN HUMANS AND NEANDERTHALS

NEANDERTHAL

Flores date to less than 38,000
years ago, and seem to represent
specialized, extremely small
forms of Homo erectus, or
perhaps even the descendants
of earlier hominins, More
evidence comes from Denisova
Cave in Russia—DNA analysis

of bones found here reveals
genetic material distinct from
that of both modern humans and
Neanderthals, dated to around
40,000vA. It seems increasingly
likely that several groups
descended from hominins who
left Africa before Homo sapiens
may have coexisted in Eurasia
at this time

Neanderthal skulls [right] were about the same size as
anatomically modern human skulls (left), but they had lower,
more sloping foreheads and a double arch of bone over their

eyes that created heavy brow ridges. Their lower faces jutted

out and they did not have chins. Overall, Neanderthal skeletons
reveal that they were much more muscular than modern humans,
as well as being extremely physically active and well-adapted

to cold climates

46TH
NEANDERTHALS
WERE NOT
APE-MEN...
THEY WERE

AS HUMAN AS
US, BUT THEY
REPRESENTED
A DIFFERENT
BRAND OF
HUMANITY. 99

Chris Stringer and Clive Gamble, from
In Search of the Neanderthals, 1993

[ey

IN EUROPE, MODERN HUMANS
overlapped with Neanderthals,
who survived until at least 30,000
years ago. How and why
Neanderthals died out is one of
the most intensely debated topics
in archaeology. There is little
evidence of violent interactions
between the species, and
comparison of DNA increasingly
suggests that there may have
been some exchange of mating
partners between the groups
Early humans may have
outcompeted their relatives for
food and raw materials in the
rapidly changing environmental
conditions. Environments at the
time were highly unstable, so
even a slight increase in
competition could have been
significant, However, populations
were small and spread out, and
coexisted for up to 10,000 years
in Europe, and more than 30,000

in Indonesia. Alternatively, the
exchange of resources and
information allowed by modern
humans’ language and symbol
use, and their planned and
flexible technologies made
Homo sapiens better able to
withstand climatic downturns
than Neanderthals

Others believe that these
behaviors were not unique to
modern humans. Hominins
would have needed to use rafts
or boats to reach the island of

,000-21,000 va

a V

21,0 000 va

ATLANTIC
~~ OCEAN

PACIFIC
OCEAN

THE MAXIMUM EXTENT OF THE LAST ICE AGE

European climates after 23,000.8ceE grew steadily cooler, and
during the “Last Glacial Maximum” (21,000-18,000ya), ice caps
covered most of northern Europe. Farther south, huge areas of
grassland with few trees offered good hunting for groups of
humans able to survive the cold.

Flores in Indonesia by 800,000 ya
Some late Neanderthal sites
also contain elements of
technologies normally associated
with Homo sapiens, although it is
possible that Neanderthals may
have copied, traded with, or even
stolen from modern humans.

A combination of environmental
unrest and increased competition
is currently considered to be the
most likely explanation for
Neanderthal extinction

THE “GRAVETTIAN” CULTURE OF
Europe and Russia (28,000-
21,000 YA) is known for its
elaborate sites, which often have
complex structures and burials,
as well as large amounts of shell
jewelry, and sculpted bone and
antler. Also found at Gravettian
sites are some of the earliest
known clay objects, including some
of the famous “Venus” figurines.
These may have been fertility or
religious charms, or part of a
system of exchange between
social networks across the region
as the Ice Age intensified.

“Venus” statuette
This figurine

from Willendorf,
Austria depicts

a stylized pregnant
or obese female

KEY figure.

*® Neanderthal sites

® Modern human sites

Neanderthal and human ranges
Modern humans and Neanderthals
coexisted for several thousand

years. Sites appear to show evidence
of interaction between the groups.

exaggerated ff
belly _@

AT THE HEIGHT OF THE GLACIAL
Maximum, when the ice caps
were at their maximum extent,
people living in more northerly
and mountainous areas retreated
to “refuge” areas such as—in
Europe—northern Spain and
southwest France, where this
period is known as the “Solutrean.”
Globally, many groups probably
died out, but some held on in
more sheltered regions. To survive
the harsh conditions, much time
and effort was invested in hunting
Weapons include beautifully
worked points known as ‘leaf-
points.” Although little evidence
survives beyond finely worked
bone needles, people probably
developed sophisticated clothing
to keep them warm. Perhaps
more importantly, hunters
would have worked hard to
predict and intercept the
movements of herds of large
animals, ensuring the
hunting success that was
the difference between life
and death

18,000-12,000

eae

IN EUROPE, SOPHISTICATED BONE
and antler points, needles, and
harpoons characterize the
“Magdalenian” technologies that
were used to hunt a wide range of
species, especially reindeer.

The Magdalenian (18,000-
12,000 ya) is famous for its
beautiful art objects, engravings,
and cave paintings. There are many
theories about what these mean
and why they were produced. As
most depict animals that were
hunted, the paintings may
represent a magical means of
ensuring hunting success, or
show information about the best
ways to hunt different species
Paintings of imaginary half-human,
half-animal creatures and the
inaccessibility of some cave art
suggest that painting may have
been a magical or ritual activity,
perhaps practiced by shamans
or during initiation or religious
ceremonies. Alternatively, paintings

and art objects may have helped
establish group identities and
territories, as the number of
archaeological sites in this period
suggests that populations were
growing, and competition for rich
and localized resources may have
been intensifying

A rise in temperature led to the
retreat of the ice sheets that had
covered northern Europe, and
these areas were rapidly
recolonized, with groups
expanding as far north as Siberia
by around 14,000-13,000 ya. Some
groups later moved on into Alaska
and the Americas. Farther east, in
China and in the Jomon culture of
Japan, some of the first pots
manufactured from clay appeared
between 18,000 and 15,000ya.

Altamira cave paintings
This Paleolithic cave painting
of bison was discovered at the
Altamira cave site in Spain

10,000-3000 sce

Megalithic (large stone] architecture

Population density

AS STEEPLY RISING TEMPERATURES
betweer )0 and 10,800 BcE
melted the northern ice sheets.
jlobal sea levels rose, lake

formed { rainfall increased

spread of forests

and grasslands

ing sea levels were

rich sources of aquatic foods, a

Grasslands

arge herds of animal

argins provided
ibundant plant food
Most hunter-gatherers moved
seasonally t

and game

exploit the

f different areas, but

red places such

4 r estuaries could support
pre yea und. One such
astal Peru and Chile
1 Humboldt current
ally rich fisherie
rw’
Oo

was used for monumental tombs in Neolithic Europe. Developments around
3300 ce included the construction of stone circles, such as this example at Castlerigg in northern England.

Settled communities lived here
by 7000BCcE, including the
Chinchorro, who created
the world’s first mummies
(see panel, opposite)
Another area with
favorable condition
was West Asia. Here
vegetation included wild
cereals that could be
stored, sustaining
communities throughout the

year when

upplemented
by other wild

foods such a
gazelle. A period
of cold, arid
conditions from

10,800 to 9400 BcE

led toa steep

decline in the availability of wild
ils. This

West Asian villager

prompted some

to turn to

cultivation, planting cereal
Agriculture began in many
parts of the world at different
times, using local resource
Domesticated plants and animal

pread by trade between

neighboring groups and when

farming communities colonized
new areas, Aqriculture was not a
discovery: hunter-gatherers had a

deep knowledge of the plants and

inimals on which they depended,

and often took actions to increase

x$
>
= aes iS
ot fae
SR ate PF pe
ao co” CS eg?
D gory
{ Ws
sot or" ,
Paes 5
ot »
o oo? AG
« os
e
o

productivity. Farming was
therefore a choice that people
made, increasing local
productivity, often at the cost of
increasing work and risk. Their
reasons for farming may have
included extending their period of
residence ina settled village,
providing extra food for feasting or
to support a growing population,
and boosting the supply of
preferred or declining foodstuffs
Cereals were common staples of
early agriculture. Wheat and barley
were domesticated in West Asia,
spreading into North Africa,
Europe, and Central and South

Asia. Broomcorn and foxtail millet

were domesticated in the Yellow
River valley and rice in the Yangzi
valley in China, from where they
spread through East and Southeast
Asia. In Africa, other millets and
African rice were domesticated
after 3000BcE. In the Americas,
corn was the principal cereal
However, although it was cultivated
by 6000BcE, it was not until
2000 BCE that corn was sufficiently
productive to support permanently
settled villages. Legumes and
vegetables were grown alongside
cereals in many parts of the world
Tubers, such as manioc and
and treecrops were
cultivated in moist tropical

yam

regions, beginning at an early date
in the New Guinea highlands and
the rainforests of Central America
and northern South America
Domestic sheep, goats, pigs,
and cattle were raised across
Eurasia and Africa, initially just for
meat. However, in the Americas

Lepinski Vir “fish god”
Abundant fish supported a settled
hunter-gatherer village on the
Danube in Serbia. Its inhabitants
carved fish-human sculptures,
probably representing gods.

only the Andes had animals
suitable for domestication
guineapigs, llamas, and alpacas
Birds, particularly chickens,
ducks, and turkeys, were also kept

bone and antler
lightened by

scraping

Star Carr deer cap

This skull cap from a hunter-
gatherer site in England may have
been used in hunting rituals.

by Old and New World farmers. By
50008CE cattle, sheep, and goats
were raised for milk as well as
meat, while cattle were used to
pull plows, enabling people to
cultivate much larger areas.
Wool-bearing sheep were bred in
West Asia in the 4th millennium
BCE, and rapidly spread into
Europe and Central Asia, The use
of pack animals such as llamas
and donkeys allowed long-
distance transport

Agriculture was more productive
than foraging and could support
larger communities. Settled life
also encouraged population
growth. Many early farming
villages in West Asia grew to
a considerable size. Most
remarkable was Catalhoyiik in
Turkey, occupied around 7400-
6200 BCE, which housed as many
as 8,000 people, Its tightly packed
houses were entered from the
roof by ladders, and were
decorated with paintings and

44 THE NEOLITHIC WAS... A POINT
IN A CONTINUOUS STORY OF
GREATER ECONOMIC CONTROL

OVER RESOURCES..
SCAVENGING TO..

_ FROM
FARMING. 99

Clive Gamble, from Origins and revolutions: human identity in earliest

prehistory, 2007

modeled animal heads

After 7000 8cE farmers spread
from Turkey into southeast
and central Europe, while
Mediterranean hunter-gatherers
gradually turned to agriculture,
using imported West Asian crops
and animals, By 3500 BCE most of
Europe had adopted farming

Megaliths—stone chambered
tombs of which a wide variety were
built, often with earthen mounds—
were constructed in western and
northern Europe from the early 5th
Most housed the
bones of a number of individuals.

millennium BCE

ASIA
Benita EUROPE «A000 BCE
7000 Bce & 8000 BCE
92500 ace 9000 ace f000 CE 7%
4500 Bc! 5 500 BCI 100 BCE
Boov0 BoE 7c etnies $800 be
4000 ace /2500 ace
7000 sce A SOUTH AFRICA @7000 BCE
6000 BCE ‘AMERICA
5000 BCE
AUSTRALASIA

KEY

A Livestock
A» Cereals

The spread of agriculture

Other

@ Areas with agriculture

Humans began to cultivate plants and manage animals independently,
in different areas at different times, across the world.

Native {naturally occurring pure)
copper and gold were being
shaped into small objects by cold
hammering before 8000BCE in
West Asia. Around 7000 BCE, ores
were smelted here to extract
metal and by 6000BcE copper and
lead were also cast. Metals were
initially made into small personal
objects that could enhance
prestige and status. Later,
however, copper began to be used
for tools, and by 4200BcE copper
ores containing arsenic were
deliberately selected to produce a
harder metal. The addition of tin
created a stronger alloy, bronze,
which was in use in West Asia
by 3200 Bcé

The development of water-
control techniques enabled West
Asian farmers to colonize the
southern Mesopotamian plains,
where agriculture depended
entirely on irrigation but was
highly productive. By the mid 4th
millennium BCE, this region was
densely populated, and villages
were developing into towns, with
craft specialists. There was a
growing demand for raw
materials, including metal
ores, which often came from
distant sources. A trading

CHINCHORRO MUMMIES

The earliest mummies come
not from Egypt, but from
coastal northern Chile, an
arid region where natural
mummies occur from

7000 ce. After 5000 BcE the
Chinchorro began artificial
mummification. They removed
the flesh, reassembled and

reinforced the skeleton, stuffed

the skin with plant material,
coated it in clay, and painted
it with black manganese or
red ocher. Only some
individuals, particularly
children, were mummified

network developed that
stretched from Egypt through
West Asia to the mountainous
borderlands of South Asia, with
towns controlling sources of
materials and strategic points
along the routes. Sumer
(southern Mesopotamia) was at
the forefront of this development,
but social, religious, economic,
and political complexity was also

Copper ax heads
Gold and copper were
first metals to be worked.
They became widespread
in Europe around
2500 BCE

emerging in Elam (southwest
Iran) and Egypt. Before 3000
all three regions developed
writing systems, used to
record and manage economic
transactions and the ownership
of property. The earliest known
pictographic writing, around
3300 BCE, comes from Uruk in
Sumer, a huge and complex
settlement that is deservedly
known as the world’s first city.

Soo

8 mya-3000 BCE HUMAN ORIGINS

olorful

rals define

eometric hole fo!
J uh | features
design cord
|

reed
amework geometric
oated in abstract
hick plaster pattern

Schist plaque
4000 BcE « PORTUGAL

Human figurine
6750-6500 8cE + JORDAN

Pottery shard
4000 8CE © ROMANIA

Different cultures can be identified This large statue from Ain Ghazal It is unclear what Neolithic engraved
by their unique ways of decorating is one of several from sites in plaques, like this one from Alentejo
bjects—this shard is typic Mf the the Near East that may have symbolized, but they seem to have
ucuteni-Tripolye culture represented ancestors or gods been made for burial with the dead

ved antler

Prehistory is traditionally divided into the Stone, Bronze,

carefully c

and Iron ages, but many other kinds of raw materials SELB I SIAN,
such as wood, hide, and plant fibers were also used in |
early technologies. Little evidence of these survives.

leather or

sinew binding

In addition to being functional aids to survival and subsistence, the objects
made by prehistoric peoples would also have been important in their social
lives. Different groups develop their own ways of manufacturing and

decorating objects, and distinctive designs may become badges of identity

r status symbols. The trade and exchange of objects Is another vital way in

which individuals and groups establish social relationships and hierarchies a { &:
cars where
slades chippe
i fr nip 3 long, thin
: blade
remains of ‘
flaked cobble
wan tool Blades and core
* AFRICA 100,000 ace ONWARDS * WIDESPREAD
tone tools were Early modern humans produced uniform,
p-edged flakes of narrow blades that would have been fitted
triking a stone to wooden and antler handles or held in the
hard “hammerstone hand, as tools for many different purposes.

_ thick base is
easy to hold

Flint hand-ax

A 200,0008cE « uk

barbed head made Hand-axes, such as this one from
from antler Swanscombe, were skillfully made
and used for a wide range of activities,

including woodworking and butchery,

finely detailed

engraving

Engraved bone
13,000-8000ece « FRANCE
Paleolithic artists often carved as well
as painted their depictions of animals,
cene of a bison being
chased, from Laugerie-Basse.

as with th

flint head
set into
wooden
sleeve

reproduced
wooden handle

Digging tools with adze heads
11,660-4000BceE « euRoPE

These Mesolithic adzes were used
for digging up edible roots or cutting
wood in the forests that spread across
| Europe after the last Ice Age ended.

PREHISTORIC PEOPLES

excavation
damage

Carved spear-thrower

10,500 8ce « FRANCE

Spear-throwers, such as this one from
Montastruc, were often carved into animal
shapes—here, a woolly mammoth made
from antler, They enabled hunters to throw
spears farther and with greater force

exaggerated
features

Lespugue Venus
24,000-22,0008ce * FRANCE
This ivory figurine from Lespugue in ;
the Pyrenees is one of many “Venus
figurines—depicting women who are
pregnant or obese, or whose female
features are greatly exaggerated

Neolithic flint blade
set in reproduction
handle

Bronze Age
sickle

vw
Gold jewelry ~ | a=
4700-42008ceE « BULGARIA ¥
At the cemetery of Varna in E a. s
Bulgaria, more than 3,000 = -, Paee i
pieces of some of the earliest 5 yy ><;
we band

gold jewelry have been found, 4
mainly buried with elite males

soft clay was baked
to preserve design

\__ iron sickle blade

Neolithic seal
7500-57008CE * ANATOLIA

Seals such as this one

Agricultural tools

9500 8cE-1834 cE « WIDESPREAD
First wild and later domesticated
cereals were harvested using
sickles like these, until they were
superseded in most places by the
invention of the combine harvester,

from the settlement of
Catal Hdylik were used
during the Neolithic to
stamp decorative designs

on to skin or cloth

bone
shuttle

Clay burial chest

4000 BCE * NEAREAST

One Chalcolithic (“copper age")
burial practice involved leaving
the dead out to decay, then
collecting the bones and placing
them in clay chests like this one

Mummified head
7000-3000bcE « PERU

In very dry climates, bodies can
become mummified. Some of
the earliest mummies have
been found in Peruvian deserts.

gold easily worked
into decorative
animal shapes

loom
weight

Cloth-making tools

65008CE © ORIGIN UNKNOWN

From the mid-Neolithic, weaving
became common. Loom weight
held vertical threads taut; bone
shuttles were used to weave
horizontal threads in and out

This period saw the emergence of complex civilizatio
Communities flourished and trade developed in the
valleys of Egypt, India, western Asia, and China. Europ:
Centrat and South America also flourished during this.

and a circle of wooden posts were later replaced by the outer circle of stones seen here.

DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE
FOURTH MILLENNIUM BCE, the
world’s first civilizations arose,
first in Western Asia, then North

Africa and South Asia. Civilization

also appeared in China in the
early second millennium BCE. By
3000 the world’s first urban

culture had begun to develop in
outhern Mesopotamia, in what

is now Iraq. The lower Euphrates
river plains had been farmed
from c. 62008ce, after the

development of irrigation
systems—the Greek word

amia means “land

me
between the rivers.” By 3500:
farming communities were

Ng into towns and then
Ur, Uruk, and
Eridu. Over the next 300 years,

such a

y came to dominate its

nding area, forming a
s in the land
n southeast

Mesopotamia.

Metalworking had begun in
Mesopotamia around 6000 ace
Around 3200 Sumerian

Tights

Evphry,

Syrian
Desert

Arabian Peninsula

Ancient cities of Mesopotamia
+} M,

st urban

agricultural success

spotamia was

civilization

THE POPULATION
OF THE CITY OF
URUK c. 2800 BCE

smiths began manufacturing
bronze. The plow had been in
use since about 5000ace, wheeled
carts from around 3500s8ce, and
such advances made farming
more productive. The resulting
food surplus freed some people
from the farming life, allowing
specialization into professions
such as priesthood, crafts, trade,
and administration. The world’s
first tiered society developed,
headed by kings sometimes
known as lugals

In Egypt, one of the world’s most
complex ancient civilizations
was forming along the banks of
the Nile River by 3100ece. The
Nile formed a narrow strip of
cultivatable land, floodplain, as the

KEY

Extent of Early Dynastic
y
city-states

oot! Ancient coastline

river's annual flood [known as the
inundation) spread black silt along
its banks. The Egyptian farming
year began in the fall when the
inundation subsided, and farmers
cultivated wheat, barley, beans,
and lentils in the fertile soil

By the end of the 4th
millennium sce, farming
communities had evolved into
two kingdoms: Upper Egypt in
the south and Lower Egypt in
the north. King Narmer united
the two kingdoms c. 3100 8ce
After Narmer came Menes,
although historians are
unsure whether Menes
was Narmer’'s successor
or a different name for
Narmer himself, Menes
is credited with founding
the Egyptian capital at
Memphis and Egypt's
first dynasty.

As in Mesopotamia,
efficient agriculture
produced prosperity and
specialism, allowing arts,
crafts, engineering, and
early medicine to develop

Narmer Palette

This carved piece of green siltstone
records the triumph of the legendary
King Narmer of Upper Egypt over

his enemies.

The Early Dynastic Period
(c. 3100-2686 sce) was already
characterized by many of the
celebrated aspects of Egyptian
culture: hieroglyphic writing, a
sophisticated religion [including
belief in an afterlife), and
preserving the dead using
mummification. A complex
hierarchical society developed,
with the king at the apex
accorded semi-divine status
Egyptian kings—later known as
pharaohs—ruled with the help of
a chief minister, or vizier, regional
governors ([nomarchs], and a
huge staff of lesser officials
including priests, tax collectors,
and scribes

In China, civilization originated
in the valleys of eastern rivers

such as the Huang He [Yellow
River], where the rich loess soil

we oe

Dé

made the land fertile. As early
as 8000 sce, millet had been
cultivated in the area around
Yangshao in Henan Province
Around c. 2400 sce, the
neighboring Dawenkou culture
developed into the Longshan
culture of Shangdong Province
Longshan farmers grew rice
after developing irrigation
systems. As in other early
civilizations, agricultural success
allowed the development of an
elaborate society. Chinese
craftsmen were making bronze
tools c. 3000ace, jade vessels
c, 2700 ce, and silk weaving had
begun by 3500 ace
The Bronze Age was underway
in western Asia by 3000 sce, and
possibly considerably earlier. The
Bronze Age in Europe seems to
have developed separately from
around 2500 bce, using ore
sources from the Carpathian
Mountains in Central Europe
This era also saw the
beginnings of the Minoan
civilization on the Greek
island of Crete around
2000 BCE, with trading links
to the nearby Cyclades
Islands and the wider
Mediterranean. In Western
Europe, the earlier tradition of
megalithic tomb building and a
growing interest in astronomical
observation gave rise to a new
megalithic tradition of erecting
stone circles, stone rows,
standing stones, and tombs
including astronomical features.
These include Newgrange in
Ireland, Stonehenge in England,
and Carnac in France

MILLION

THE NUMBER OF
BLOCKS USED TO
BUILD THE GREAT
PYRAMID OF GIZA

5 ee m

fs — be 4
The three pyramids at Giza were

Vere vrery VENT Tl wee te wwe Ore er

PY EOOVOes tery Te VOPOTY BeTTe ew
et ey

FRRER

Standard of Ur

This boxlike object has two side
panels—one depicting war, the other
(shown here] times of peace

mound—provided the focus for
religious ceremonies, and grain
was kept in storerooms within the
temple precincts. From around
2500 Bce, some citizens of Ur were
buried in tombs along with

uch as the Standard
of Ur. The purpose of its intricate

SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA was

a patchwork of over 40 city-states,
among which Ur, Uruk, Nippur,
and Kish were the most important
Trade flourished using a network
of rivers and canals, and trade
links extended to Anatolia
(modern-day Turkey), Iran,

and Afghanistan, with grain,
minerals, lumber, tools, and
vessels traded. The Sumerian
population was unique in being
predominantly urban. |n Ur,
Uruk, and other centers, people
lived in clustered mud-brick
houses. At the heart of the city, the
ziggurat—a terraced temple

treasur

= tas
built for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura between 2575 and 2465B8CcE.
They are guarded by the statue of the Sphinx, which may bear the features of King Khafra

CONTRO }
Ba GH
Ta\t He ct |

——
VVwv 7 Vwew
~

Adan Canadian Aa ee Dh ahe 2 od eee ned ban
2 NAA ee cee A tee a ae mee AS Tf

side panels is still a mystery; they

may have formed the
of a lyre
Arising from the need to keep
economic and administrative
records, the first pictographic
writing developed in Sumer
(c. 3300.8ce}. Pictographs (pictorial
writing representing a word or
phrase] evolved into a script called
cuneiform c. 2900.ce, in which
scribes pressed sharpened
reeds into soft clay to leave
wedge-shaped impressions.
Southern Mesopotamia
became densely populated,
putting pressure on natural

Cuneiform tablet

Over time, the inventory of signs
regularly used in cuneiform script
was greatly reduced.

resources. This led to conflicts
over land and water, and alliances
between cities were forged

ind broken

The first signs of civilization in
the Americas appeared along the
coast of Peru and in the Andes
c. 2800 8ce. Andean farmers grew
potatoes and the cereal quinoa,
and raised alpacas and llamas
There were fishing communities
on the coast, while inland towns
became ceremonial centers,
built around mud-brick temple
platforms. An exceptional example
is Caral, about 125 miles (200km)
from Lima and dating from
c. 2600ace. Another, Aspero, had
six platform mounds topped by
temples. Cotton was grown in the
region, and corn was cultivated
from around 2700 sce

The Indus Valley civilization
began to emerge in South Asia in

the fourth millennium see, as flood
control technology developed. By
600 ace, the Indus Plain contained

dozens of towns and cities, Of
these, Mohenjo-daro on the
Indus River, and Harappa, to the
northeast, were preeminent, with
populations of around 100,000 and
60,000, respectively.

In Egypt, King Sanakht acceded
to the throne in the year 2686 sce,
marking the beginning of the Third
dynasty and the Old Kingdom
era—a time of strong, centralized
rule and pyramid-building
These magnificent monuments
were built as royal tombs. In
Early Dynastic times, kings had
been buried beneath rectangular
mud-brick platforms called
mastabas. Around 2650.sce, the
first pyramid, the Step Pyramid of
Saqqara, was completed for King
Djoser. Designed by the architect
Imhotep, it resembled six stone
mastabas on top of one another

Straight-sided pyramids
appeared soon after, the greatest
of which were the three pyramids
at Giza. These incredible feats of
engineering were constructed not
by slaves as was once thought, but
by a staff of full-time craftsmen
and masons supplemented by
farmers performing a type of
vice during the Nile

floods, Enormous blocks of stone

national se’

(lower stones of 6-10 tons; higher
ones of 1-2 tons] were cut from
local quarries, hauled on site using
sleds, and then heaved up ramps,
which grew ever higher as

construction progressed

The ruined citadel of Mohenjo-daro was made up of various buildings. It was
built on a platform to guard against flooding of the Indus River.

Silbury Hill in Wiltshire, England, is one of the tallest man-made chalk mounds
in Europe. These mounds probably had a social or cultural function,

IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 3RD
MILLENNIUM BCE, civilizations
continued to develop in western
Egypt, and and southern
Asia, and complex societies

Asia

5 were
emerging in China, Europe, and
South America

In southern Asia, the Indus
civilization [see 2700-2500sct
emerged in its mature form

around 2500eCcE, stretching

1,060 miles (1,700km) from east

to west and 800 miles (1,300km]

from north to south. The region's
prosperity was based on farming,

mining, crafts, and trade. More

than 100 sites have been
excavated, including the cities
of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa,
and Dholovira

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa
re well-planned cities laid
out on a grid system. Each city
was protected by brick walls

and dominated by a citadel
overlooking a lower town’ of
public buildings and residential

town houses of one or two stories

were seemingly

The residential areas

divided by industry,

suite)

Iranian
Plateau

Naushart

Sutkagen-

Indus civilization
Excavations suggest that the Indus

civilization covered an area far larger than

Mesopotamia and Egypt combined.

such as pottery, bead-making,
and metalworking

Indus cities and towns had the
most advanced plumbing system
in the ancient world, with enclosed
and covered drains. Latrines
emptied waste into drains, which

wel

ran below the streets
Tt

conne

2 urban centers were also
ted by extensive trade
links, Merchants
supplied craft
products from
the valleys to

Agrarian lives

A clay model of

a bullock cart
found at Mohenjo
daro, dating back to
c. 2500-1900 BCE, gives
an insight into farming
life in the Indus
civilization.

KEY

e@ Urban centers

Modern coastline

the surrounding regions in return
for metal ores, precious stones,
and timber. Long-distance trade
routes reached as far as
Mesopotamia and Afghanistan

By around 25008ce, an Indus
script of hundreds of signs
appeared on seals and pottery.
Attempts to decipher the script
have failed; hence, many aspects
of this culture remain a mystery.

In western Asia, Mesopotamia
{see 2700-25008cE) remained a
patchwork of small but powerful
city-states, each controlling the
surrounding farmlands where
barley, legumes, and date palms
were grown. To the west, city
states were developing in Syria
and the Levant, A trade network
linking Mesopotamian towns
suggests cooperation between
states, but there was frequent
warfare as well

ANEW POWER AROSE IN
MESOPOTAMIA c. 23348CE, King
Sargon (c. 2334-2215 8ce) from
the northern region of Akkad
defeated Lugalzagesi of Umma to
become the ruler of Sumer
Through subsequent campaigns
to the Levant, Syria, and Anatolia,
Sargon carved out the world’s first
empire—the Akkadian Empire—
stretching from the eastern
Mediterranean to the Gulf.
Sargon’s exploits were recorded
in several documents, such as the
Sumerian King List. His name
means ‘legitimate king,” which
led some scholars to believe that
he took power through force
Sargon spoke Akkadian, a
Semitic language that replaced
Sumerian as the official
language of the empire

LAY [CONTENTED]

MEADOWS, AND
THE LAND
REJOICED. 99

Lugalzagesi, king of Sumer,
defeated by Sargon c, 2316BCE

Akkadian rule was enforced
through regional governors who
collected tributes and taxes, The
empire's weakness lay in its lack
of defensible borders, and it
came under regular attacks from
neighboring hill tribes, Sargon’s

Bronze-working had begun
in West Asia c. 32008cE [see
10,000-3000sce). It was
developed by the Unétice
culture of Bohemia and

Poland c. 25008ce, and
200 years later had
spread to Italy and the
Balkans. Bronze
provided a hard metal
for forging armor,
weapons, and tools
such as this hand ax.
The bronze industry
also increased trade,
making Europe more
interconnected than
ever before.

grandson, Naram-Sin, extended
the empire, but it lasted for only
four generations before falling
to attacks. Sargon’s rule
established a practice of
statewide bureaucratic controls
and standardization in many
aspects of economic life.

In Egypt, this period saw a
weakening of the power of the
Old Kingdom rulers [see
2700-25008ce), in favor of
regional governors called
nomarchs, who administered
different parts of the Nile valley
and delta. To the south of the first
cataract on the Nile, the kingdom
of Nubia also grew more
powerful, Nubia was centered
around the city of Kerma at the
third cataract. By the end of
the Sixth dynasty [c. 21848cE],

the authority of the Egyptian
rulers had steadily eroded

In Western Europe, the Bell
Beaker culture flourished
Named after the distinctive shape
of pottery vessels found in
graves, this culture emerged by
c. 26008CE in France, Spain, and
the Netherlands. Over the next
three centuries, it spread to
Germany and Britain. Around
2300 Bce, bronze technology
from Mediterranean regions and
from Central Europe started
to spread northward
along the Rhine and
Danube. The
increasingly
militaristic societies
used bronze to create
weapons, triggering
the appearance of
small chiefdoms
across Europe

As populations grew,
competition over land
and resources
intensified. Fields were
enclosed, farming
expanded, and boundary
walls built. Imposing
structures such as chalk
mounds were constructed
in many areas

In South America,
societies continued to
develop in two distinct
regions: the upland valleys
and high plains of the Andes,

Akkadian warrior king

This bronze cast of an Akkadian
ruler may depict Sargon | or his
grandson, Naram-Sin, who
extended Sargon’s empire.

and along the Pacific coast and
inland valleys. Andean cultures
were based on farming and
herding. Coastal settlements
such as Aspero (Peru) were
unique in their dependence on
fishing rather than on agriculture
The coastal people grew cotton for
textiles, and gourds, which were
used as fishing floats

z Fan =
——— = a at E Ss rd — = a -
Relief sculptures in Egyptian tombs represented everyday life and religious rituals. This carving from
the Sixth dynasty shows boys with sticks, on the left, and youths wrestling, on the right.

THE MOUNTAIN PEOPLE OF
GUTIUM ATTACKED the Akkadian

Empire c E. Sumerian
states sucha Ur, and

Lagash took the opportunity to
reassert th ndependence

For the next 80 years, t

time of unrest calle
Intermediate Period

city-states vied for cont
Mesopotamia. In 21
Ur-Namm

) gained as

if Ur r

Mesopotamia and Elam, and
regained much of

Sargon’s empire.
Ur-Nammu foun: the
Third dynasty of Ur,

which witnessed a
revival of Sumerian
power, as wel
artistic and cultural
renaissance. Sumerian
scholars d da hoi
counting, based on units of

60. This system is ed

in our modern di of

In China, the

Longshan culture |

d to confirm the
of a centralized state

end of th d millennium,
Europe's first civilization was
e Mediterranean

hours into 60 minu
minut
and a circle into 360
degrees
Ur-Nammu also
commissioned the first
Ziggurat in Ur—an impos
stepped platform topped
with a temple. The
later becar hari
of ancient western

nto

archaeological evidence has

Mediterranean trade
Known as the Minoan
civilization, it grew prosperous
through trade and farming
Cretan farmlands produced wheat,
olives, wine, and wool, which could
be easily transported by sea, The
Minoans also made bronzework,
pottery, and dyes for export. By

2000 BCE, Crete was home to
several small kingdoms

architecture.

In c. 2181 BCE, Egypt's Old
Kingdom collapsed fc
a series of natural disaste
including famine. This
undermined the authority of
the king, who was believed to
secure the annual floods that

THE LIKELY
POPULATION
OF UR c.2100

3000-700 BcE

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hieratic script reads

from right to left

Prehistory
Pictograms
Pictures painted

years ago are co!

3300BCE

of caves up to 25,000

aprecursor to writing,
recording information
that could then be

understood by others.

Cuneiform

The first true written

script is developed by the
Sumerians of Mesopotamia.
Writing with a reed stylus
creates a wedge-shaped
impression on tablets of wet
clay, which then dry hard.

| EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

hieroglyphs
+ are picture f

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illustration shows a

priest making an offering
to the god Osiris

papyrus, made
by pressing

together layers
of strips of reed

¢. 3200BCE

Egyptian hieroglyphs
Egyptian writing develops
100 years after cuneiform
This script begins as a form
of picture writing, and
includes signs for words and
also sounds. It remains in
use until the 4th century ce.

8th century BCE

The Greek alphabet

The first alphabets, using
only consonants, develop

on walls

nsidered

Cave images by Anasazi Indians who add vowels.

c. 1900 BCE
Chinese writing

The first surviving Chinese
writing appears on oracle
bones, used in divination.
This ancient script is still
in use today. Chinese script
involves 50,000 characters
that stand for words.

a, beg

Mesopotamian tablet

in the Levant by c. 1150Bce.
They include the Phoenician
alphabet, which spreads to

the Greeks through trade,

Chinese paper scroll

_—
SSSR Sad
Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic script
This ancient Egyptian papyrus manuscript shows two forms of
Egyptian writing: hieratic script (left) and hieroglyphic script
(right] above the two figures. Hieroglyphic is an elaborate script
in which signs take a highly pictorial form, while hieratic is a
simplified version of hieroglyphic for ease of speed and writing.

100

The Roman alphabet

The Romans adapt the
Greek script to write Latin.
Through the Roman Empire,
this alphabet spreads across
Europe and is used for
personal as well as official
correspondence.

Greek wax tablet

c. 6th century BCE
Parchment

Made from dried and :
processed animal skins,
parchment becomes a
popular medium for writing
around the éth centuryece,
taking over from papyrus, a
paper made from reeds.

Chinese
parchment scroll

RY O

TE 516

The development of writing was an amazing breakthrough, as it allowed

people to communicate over distance an
Writing evolved separately in different c

d record information for posterity.
ultures: in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and

the Indus Valley before 2500 BcE and later in Crete, China, and Mesoamerica.

Some scholars think that prehistoric cave paintings
featuring images and symbols constitute a form of
writing. The first true script was developed by the
Sumerians of Mesopotamia (now Iraq) around
3300 BCE. Soon, a number of different ancient
cultures had developed writing, usually to keep
economic records or keep track of time. As writing
developed, it was commonly used to reinforce the
authority of rulers. Many early texts, including
monumental ones in stone, glorify the deeds of
kings and attribute their success to divine approval.

Writing systems can be divided into three types,
according to the function of the signs used:
logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic. However,
some scripts make use of two types of signs. In
logographic scripts, each sign stands for a whole
word; Chinese writing is an example, although it
also uses syllabic signs. The drawback is that a very
large number of symbols are needed (Chinese has
50,000 characters). In syllabic scripts, signs stand
for syllables. A smaller but still large number of
signs are needed—700 in Babylonian cuneiform.

In alphabetic scripts, each sign stands for a sound.
Far fewer symbols are needed—usually around 26.
The first alphabets developed in the Levant between
1450 and 1150 BCE. For years, the spread of writing
was limited by the labor involved in hand-copying
texts, but this changed with the invention of
printing. In the late 20th century, writing became
electronic with the invention of word processors.
In the 1990s, the spread of information was again
revolutionized by the arrival of the Internet.

Ancient texts in the digital world

Nowadays, ancient texts can be viewed digitally.

Here, a student examines a digitized page of the Codex
Sinaiticus, handwritten in Greek over 1,600 years ago.

THE STORY OF WRITING

1 IMPORTANT PART OF OUR CIVILIZATION

Roman mosaic

Modern sign

Pictograms, or picture signs, are an ancient form
of communication. Some scholars do not consider
pictograms to be “true” writing, since the symbols
do not convey the sounds of words in any language.
For example, the pictures above—from a house

in Roman Pompeii dating to 79 cE, and a modern
sign—convey the same warning. The symbol

can be read in any language—for instance, as
canis, chien, Hund, or dog. Those words convey

the same idea but reproduce the sounds of different
languages—Latin, French, German, and English.
Pictograms have limited use but remain
widespread, appearing, for example, on street
signs, maps, and clothes labels.

7th century

Arabic script

The Arabic alphabet is
used to write down the
Qur'an, the holy book

of Islam. Its use spreads
with the Islamic faith to
become one of the world’s
most widely used scripts.

Medieval

7th-9th centuries
Illuminated manuscripts

In early medieval times, the
use of writing spreads through
the copying of Christian texts.
Illuminated manuscripts are
highly decorative, with ornate
capital letters and marginal
illustrations.

4th century
The codex
The codex, or manuscript
in book form, gradually
supersedes the roll of
parchment. Originally
developed by the Romans,
the use of codices spreads
with the Christian religion.

c. 1450
Invention of printing

In medieval times, the laboriousness
of copying by hand limits the
spread of writing. The invention

of printing using movable type
makes writing far more accessible,
In 1500, an estimated 35,000 texts
are in print.

1884
The fountain pen

quill pen. Ballpoints,

1867-1868
The typewriter
American inventor Christopher ©
Latham Sholes helps to build

the first practical typewriter.

The patent is sold to
Remington, which puts
the first typewriters

on sale in 1874.

The Remington

Book of Durrow Model |

The first practical fountain
pen is produced by American
inventor L. E. Waterman,
and quickly replaces the

invented by Laszlé Bird,
are in use by the 1940s.

1990-present
Text messaging
In the 1990s, the first text
messages are sent via mobile
phones. Texting becomes very
popular in the 2000s. In 2009,
more than 1.5 trillion

text messages
are sent.

Waterman
fountain pen

Smartphone

1965
Writing enters the digital age

In the mid-1960s, the first
electronic messages (emails)
are sent from one computer to
another. Emails become popular
with the spread of personal
computers in the 1980s.

110 Ye 6710 77°70]
AME = 3 “No A?

Te;

AD AO AY TRY

Egyptian hieroglyphics involved the use of pictorial signs. This example
is from a coffin from the Middle Kingdom period.

THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION, named
after the legendary King Minos,
flourished on the Aegeanisland
of Crete in the early 2nd
millennium, reaching its peak
between 2000 and 16008CE. It is
thought that Crete’s prosperity
was based on the export of
pottery, gold, and bronze, as well
as possibly grain, wine, and oil,
to Egypt, Cyprus, and Palestine.
The Minoans established colonies
in many parts of the Aegean,
including the islands of Kythera,
Thera, Melos, and Rhodes, and at
Miletos on the Turkish mainland.
The farmlands of Crete were
ruled from cities with central
palaces that housed workshops,

the administration, religious
facilities, and state storerooms.
Those at Knossos, Phaestos,
Mallia, and Zakros were

their remains. Around 1700BceE,
these palaces were burned down,
and only Knossos was rebuilt, on
amore magnificent scale than
before, suggesting its dominance
over the entire island. The palace
was five stories high, with rooms
opening onto inner courtyards.
This mazelike complex is thought
to have given rise to the labyrinth
in the legend of the Minotaur, a
bull-headed monster.

Bulls certainly featured in
Minoan ceremonies. The deities

: worshipped in Minoan shrines

: seem to have been female, with
» a goddess of nature being the

: most popular. However, details of
particularly impressive, judging by |
: since the Minoan scripts, known as |
: Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A,
: have yet to be deciphered.

Minoan culture remain obscure,

In Egypt, King Mentuhotep

» had reunited the country at the

| 2350-2000sce). Yet the second of
i Egypt's eras of strong, centralized
» rule only began with the reign of

» Amenemhet I, from about

: Kingdom. In 1965BCcE, his

» successor Senwosret I conquered
© the land of Nubia to the south,

‘THE NUMBER
OF DAYS IT

TOOK TO
MUMMIFY

A BODY

extending Egypt's borders as far

| as the second cataract of the Nile.
: Nubia yielded gold, copper, and

slaves to swell the ranks of

: Egypt's army. Around a century
| later, Senwosret III also made

Levant a vassal state of Egypt.
Middle-Kingdom Egypt was
more democratic than it was
during the Old Kingdom period.
Rulers presented themselves as
shepherds of the state rather than

» absolute monarchs. The process

of mummification, once confined

: to kings, was now permitted for
' ordinary citizens. |n order to
: preserve it as a permanent home

for the spirit, the body was dried
in natron salt, its vital organs were
removed, and it was stuffed with
linen and wrapped in bandages.

Charging bull

Minoan rituals included a bull-leaping
ceremony, in which athletes grasped
the bull’s horns and vaulted over

its back. This Knossos fresco dates
back to c. 1500BcE.

Shang bronze

This bronze plate was found at
Erlitou, and is of the Xia period. It is
inlaid with turquoise mosaic, believed
to represent a dragon's scales.

IN CHINA, THE SHANG
CIVILIZATION developed along
the Yellow River by 1850BcE.
According to legend, China’s first
dynasty was the Xia, but current
archaeological evidence points
to Shang as the first dynasty.
At Erlitou in Henan province,
archaeologists have uncovered
a palace complex built on a

0,00

THE NUMBER
OF CLAY
TABLETS SO
FAR FOUND
AT MARI

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44 If A MAN PUTS OUT THE
OF AN EQUAL, HIS EYE S

KEY
Area of Shang influence
Shang city

Shang China

The middle course of the Yellow River
was the heartland of the Shang
civilization c. 1800-1100 BCE. From
here, Shang influence, such as
bronze-working, spread elsewhere.

platform of compressed earth.
They have also unearthed bronze
vessels. Evidence suggests that
many features that were to
characterize Chinese society later,
such as a strong bureaucracy
and the worship of ancestors,
date back to this time.

In southern Asia, the Indus
civilization, which had thrived
during the 3rd millennium [see
2500-2350 BcE), went into a
decline by around 18008cE.
Scholars believe that this was
partly caused by the changes in
the regimes of the rivers that
provided water for irrigation.
Cities seem to have been ravaged
by diseases such as cholera and
malaria. Trade with Mesopotamia
also declined. Meanwhile, new
crops such as millet and rice were
introduced. All these factors seem
to have led to a decline in urban
culture, characterized by writing
and a centralized bureaucracy, in
favor of arural-based culture.

In South America, large-scale
cultivation was taking place along
the Pacific coast by about
1800 8ce. Substantial settlements
such as El Paraiso and Sechin
Alto in Peru were dominated by
massive temple complexes.

—

ASIA

Yellow Rive,

Xi'ang
Shang capital
1400-13008CE

Huixian

Xingtai

Anyang

Bo Hai

*Taixicun

oo
gre
Yellow
Shang capital Sea
1300-10278ce

——__ Zhengzhou

Luoyang

Erlitou

Long-distance trade routes linked

in Andean valleys to the east and

: beyond. This allowed for the
: spread of pottery from Colombia

to Peru by 1800BceE. Meanwhile,
in North America, crops such
as sunflowers and gourds began

: to be cultivated in the east.

In Western Asia, the fall of the
Ur Ill Empire led to the rise of two

: states—Assyria in the north and
| Babylon in the southeast—which

were to dominate Mesopotamia
for the next 1,500 years. The first

: dynasty of Babylon was established

Shang capital
1600-1400BCE

‘
suai

Henan

&
é
ae?

Pantongcheng

East China S€4

Wuchenge

inc. 18948CE. In the north, the city
of Ashur became an important
trading center in the 20th century
BCE. In 18138CE, it was taken over
by the Amorite king Shamshi-
Adad, who carved out a kingdom
in northern Mesopotamia. This
kingdom was a forerunner of the
Greater Assyrian Empire of the
9th century Bce (see 900-800Bce).
Clay tablets recovered from
Mari in central Mesopotamia hold
records of trade and tributes
levied by Assyria from vassal-
states. Writing from this period
included copies of the earliest
surviving work of literature,
The Epic of Gilgamesh.

Sumerian hero
from the Old Babylonian
the Epic of Gilgamesh,

previously passed down
in the oral tradition.

Tablets and stone carvings

period provide a record of

BE PUT OUT. 99

EYE
ALL

Law Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon

WHEN THE ASSYRIAN KING
SHAMSHI-ADAD died in 1781BCE,
he was succeeded by his son
Ishme-Dagan. During his reign,
Assyria declined, allowing the
state of Babylon to come to the

Adad, Babylon was probably a
vassal state of Assyria, but as
Assyria declined, King Hammurabi

a wider kingdom. From 17608CcE,

Hammurabi embarked on aseries :

of conquests, which made
Babylon the region’s foremost
state. Between 1763-17628cE,
he defeated Elam to the east and
Larsa, which controlled Sumer, to
the south. In 1757-1755 BCE, King
Hammurabi conquered much of
northern Mesopotamia and took
the city of Eshnunna after
diverting its water supply.
Hammurabi introduced the
Babylonian law code in the region
under his control. Its 282 laws
covered property, family, trade,
and business practices. The Law
Code of Hammurabi is famous
for punitive laws that meted out
punishments in the same

Setin stone

Hammurabi’s code was inscribed on
stone pillars called stele. This stele
shows the god of justice Shamash
(left) dictating laws to the king.

: measure as the crime committed
: ("an eye for an eye"). However, it is
: thought that the law code was

: more ofa moral statement of

» principle than an enforced judicial
i system. As such, the code bound
fore. During the reign of Shamshi- :
' as ordinary people; the strong
were exhorted to refrain from
: oppressing the weak.

of Babylon saw his chance to seize

the powerful and wealthy as well

3000-700 ecE |

EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

Sardinia

The importance of trade

Trade was essential to supply societies with the raw
materials and manufactured goods needed for daily life
(such as metals and lumber), for displaying status [such as
fine weaponry), or for embellishing religious monuments
and royal palaces (such as lapis lazuli). Trade also promoted
the spread of knowledge, technology, and ideas.

KEY

Mycenaean Greece Elam

Hittite Empire New Kingdom Egypt
Mitanni Arzawa
Assyria ~~ Trade routes c.1350BCE

Kassite Babylonia

ANCIEN

THE BIRTH OF ADVANCED SOCIETIES

to Central and
Northern Europe

MYCENAEAN
GREECE

onia® & |

Sea
Orchomenos & , -
= Thebes
i 3 Apasa M/RA
A " . XQ a= : ieee
Athens,
Pylos >fF

<) aes
Menelaion S<

TUS Gs ¥ r

nossos n

SEHA
RIVER MASA
AND

TRADE COMMODITIES —
© gold ® timber glass Wa)
© silver © srain faience objects
@ tin ® ivory turquoise YY
®@ copper © ivory objects © murex dye x
fine metalwork perfumed oils @ seashells
© fine pottery © olive oil horses i
textiles wine © weapons

T EMPI

In the 3rd millennium sce, states emerged in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the
Indus. Urban society was consolidated in Western Asia in the 2nd millennium,
and powerful states vied for control of lands; in contrast, in South Asia, towns
disappeared. Complex societies emerged in China and the Americas.

The exceptional agricultural productivity of the
Nile, Euphrates, Indus (see p.26), and Yellow {see
p.31) river valleys undoubtedly played a part in the
precocious emergence of civilizations in these
regions. So did international trade, which was also
important in the development of the first New
World civilizations. Trade also enabled many
neighboring societies to achieve prosperity:
through time they developed complex cultures

increasingly focused on urban centers, and came
into competition for resources and markets.
High-level diplomacy was essential to the smooth
operation of international trading networks and

to success in inter-state power struggles. Royal
letters found in the Egyptian capital, Akhetaten
{Amarnal, provide a fascinating picture of relations
between the 14th-century BCE rulers of the rival
great states of the eastern Mediterranean.

44 FORALONG TIME WE HAVE
HAD GOOD RELATIONS BETWEEN

US KINGS... 99

Babylonian king Burnaburiash I to Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten,

from the Amarna letters, 14th century BCE

to sub-Saharan Africa

THE WORLD PICTURE

Urbanism and complex societies became more
widespread during the 2nd millennium Bce.
While they shared many features such as

trade, high agricultural productivity, dense
populations, and their managerial needs, urban
societies took many different forms. In the
Americas, large ceremonial complexes with
residential suburbs provided the focus for the
communities of the wider region, strongly
connected by shared religion and trade.

Advanced centers

This map shows
established and
emerging civilizations
in the later 2nd
millennium BCE.
Societies of farmers
and hunter-gatherers
occupied other
regions.

KEY

1 Mycenaeans

‘gypt
@ Babylonia

WD Assyria
HE Hittites
© Mitanni
@ Elam

TUMMANNA

KINGDOMS OF ANCIENT EGYPT
The Nile Valley's exceptional agricultural

PALA KASKAS fertility promoted the early development
Hattusas, Ppp of urbanism in Egypt. Settlements clung
PLayy to the Nile delta and riverbanks, beyond
HITTITE URUADRI which lay arid desert. The great mineral
; EMPIRE ISUWA (URARTU]) resources of the flanking desert regions
HAPALLA c and Nubia, which included gold, were
R As 4 important both for domestic use and to
\ TARHUNTAS3 1 Carchemish Sm aerent anni . support international trade.
MUKISH Harran
Alalah e Nineveh @ @ @,rbil KEY
Aleppo: Emar_ MITANNI ASSYRIA ~~ Trade routes Capital cities
Cyprus é
(Alashiya) 4 Tunip Ashur

so a gory
Shechem

l
tachisee™

Sharuhen

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

San|

Lorenzo

Chavin de
Fuantar

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

PACIFIC
OCEAN

SAHARA

to Afghanistan
6 @DurKurigalzu

BABYLONIA

Babylon ® a ALAND

Susa ELAM
Nippur, A e

Uruk
is
Anshan

Arabian
Peninsula

Mycenae one
Pe Xiahoee
Babylo:

Memphis

PACIFIC
OCEAN

Zhengzhou_/

INDIAN
OCEAN

Org

iterranean $24 i

Elephantine
NUBIA

SATIU

YAM
s
ens

nue
peo

Old Kingdom c. 2686-2181 BCE
Rulers exercised centralized control
and commanded impressive resources,
as shown by the pyramids at Giza.

yer ag

Me,
“diterranean Se?

~ capital
1650-1850 BCE

Sinai

capital_/
¢.1985-1650.BCE

UPPER
EGYPT

capital 2 /
c.2055-1985 BCE
and ¢.1650-1950 BCE
NUBIA,
WAWAT
Bln
NUR OF
pe?
KUSH:

Middle Kingdom c. 2040-1640 BcE
Decorated tombs record prosperous life
under the stable 12th dynasty, but the
state disintegrated under later rulers.

My
Pditerranean Se

er-Ramesse (Qantir)

cna) Desert
Akhetaten [Amaral 99°
Waset Thebes)

UPPER
EGYPT.

9,
O¢07E,
ese_ PN

New Kingdom c. 1550-1069 BcE

Egypt reached its greatest power and
prosperity, conquering Nubia and the
Levant, and building several temples.

Hattusas, the Hittite capital, was founded by Hattusalis |
in 1650BcE and destroyed in 1180BcE.

AFTER HAMMURABI'S DEATH in
17508CE, the Babylonian Empire
(see 1850-1790BcE} declined.
At the same time, other powers
were on the rise, such as the
Hurrians of Mitanni in Syria, and
the Hittites of Anatolia in Turkey.
By 16508CE, the Hittites had
built an extensive kingdom in
central Anatolia, with its capital
at Hattusas. The Hittites had
developed advanced bronze- and:
ironworking skills, and they were =
also known to be fierce fighters.
In 1595 sce, the Hittite king
Mursilis (r. 1620-15908cE] raided
Babylon and expanded his
empire. However, he was killed
soon after, and the empire shrank :
back for about a century. j
In Egypt, the Middle Kingdom
(see 2000-1850BcE) was waning

The Hittites developed iron
smelting by c. 1500 Bce. At
first, iron was used only in
luxury objects, such as in the
decoration of this box from.
Acemhoyek. Later, as
technology developed, iron
was used to create superior
weapons. Though the Hittites
traded iron goods, they kept
this technology secret for
about 300 years. Around
12008cE, ironworking spread
to Greece, and then to
Central Europe by c. 7508cE—
the dawn of the Iron Age.

; by 1670 BCE, partly due to erratic

; governors became more

powerful, civil war broke out.

Outsiders soon took advantage

of the unrest. The Nubians

won back lands that the

H Egyptians had taken earlier
(see 2000-18508ce). In 1650Bce,
the Hyksos from the Levant

: seized Lower Egypt, but

: Upper Egypt remained under the

: control of Egyptian kings.

Man and beast

The Hittite Empire was known for its
bronze craftsmanship. Bronze
weapons and artifacts fetched a high
price. This statuette of aman anda
horse was probably a commission.

Built over 300 years, the temple complex at Karnak, Egypt, includes the world’s
largest temple, dedicated to Amun-Re, the patron deity of the pharaohs.

IN c. 1550 BCE, THE THEBAN KING
Ahmose | (r. 1550-1525 Bc)
drove the Hyksos from Lower
Egypt, ushering in the third
period of settled rule in Egypt,
known as the New Kingdom

(c. 1550-10708ce). During this
time, Egyptian rulers assumed

: on the Greek mainland. Its

Egyptian religion was very
complex. Every village, town, and
district had its own patron deity. In
paintings and sculptures, many
deities were shown with animal
heads, representing their most
important attributes. For example, =
the falcon god Horus protected
the king, while the ibis-

headed Thoth was the

patron god of scribes.
By 1600BcE, a
new civilization

» emerged

: people are now known as the
Mycenaeans, after the fortress-

: palace of Mycenae, believed to be

: the home of the mythical king

Agamemnon from Homer's Iliad.

However, the Mycenaeans

THE NUMBER
OF NAMES FOR
GODS AND
GODDESSES
IN ANCIENT
EGYPT

the title “pharaoh,” meaning
“great house.” A succession of
warrior kings campaigned to
expand Egypt's boundaries
once more. Tuthmosis |

(r. 1504-1492 Bce] drove the
Nubians back in the south and
recaptured Sinai and parts of
Syria and Palestine. Under
Tuthmosis Ill (r. 1479-1425 gece],
Egypt controlled a strip along the .

Mediterranean coast and north of / - R
the Euphrates (see p.33). Mask —<—~ Whe
The conquered states paid huge = of gold ~S ti ha
annual tributes to Egypt, a part of Caan &
which was spent building one of {| 2/chaeologist 7
F Ate 4 Heinrich
the world’s largest religious siteS | cchtiemann found this
at Karnak and the impressive funerary mask ata grave
mortuary temple of Queen in Mycenae, and claimed it
Hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 Bce]. : belonged to King Agamemnon. »

Tutankhamun was buried with fabulous treasure. This detail from the

probably called themselves

Ahhiyawa. They had migrated
from the Balkans or Anatolia
about 500 years earlier. Their

lands were a patchwork of small :

kingdoms, each later dominated
by a palace-citadel such as the
ones at Mycenae, Tiryns, and
Pylos. They spread their influence
through trade. After the collapse
of the Minoan Empire c. 1450 BcE,
the Mycenaeans took over several
sites formerly occupied by the
Minoans, including Knossos.
After c. 1400 cE, they also took
over Minoan trade networks

: and established settlements

», _onRhodes, Kos, and the

Anatolian mainland.

The Mycenaeans

inherited Minoan arts
and crafts, adapting
the Linear A script
to write an early
form of Greek
known as the
Linear B script.
They were great

traders, and

ventured out to Sicily

and Italy. A ship

’ believed to be of

+). * Canaanite origin,

Sin ey
ra

» found to contain tin from Iran
«| or Afghanistan, copper and

* = pottery from Cyprus, ivory and
jewelry from Egypt, and
Mycenaean swords.

The late Bronze Age was a
time of unrest in Western Asia.
From 1550-1400 8ce, there was
a struggle between various
powers in the region, including

Black Sea
k THRACE
a
we
Lemnos
THESSALY
lotcus# Lesbos
Sporage» Aegean Anatolia
ed
fonian Orchomenus WPS? "Fiboes 907
Islands Gulhor WThedes Chios
‘hs
MycenaemeDengrastre"=
9 A
aps @ Miletus
Peloponnese Cyclades 2
lonian Beiiilensiaion = Ce
Sea Ryloemy Vapheio i
q Melos @ Phytakopi %,
5

Mediterranean

Chania
Sea

Sea of Crete

Thera

Rhodes

Knossos

Crete

Phaistos #

: Aegean civilizations

: Around 1450BCE Mycenaean

| influence spread throughout the

| Aegean, including to several sites that
: had been part of the Minoan Empire.

i the Hurrians, Hittites, Elamites,
: Egyptians, and Kassites. In the
: 1570sBce, the Kassites had

gained control of Babylon.
However, by 1450BCE, the Hittite

| New Kingdom was growing

» in influence, partly due to an

: alliance with Egypt. Around this

| time, the Mitanni dominated Syria,
= but by the 1400s, the Hittites were
© fighting for control of the region.

In China, the Shang civilization

| around 15008CE, with its rulers

: dominating a large area of

: central China. However, the

: Shang had to regularly fend off

: nomadic tribes to the north.

: Shang capitals were surrounded

KEY
* Mycenaean site
® Mycenaean major palace

by defensive walls. Kings and
nobles were buried in tombs,
which held fabulous grave goods.
The Shang capital moved several
times during this period. Shang
society was believed to be well
organized and extremely
hierarchical. Writing began
around 1900BcE. Most examples
of early writing took the form of
oracle bones, attesting to the
Shang rulers’ practice of
consulting their ancestors on
important decisions. Questions
concerning the future were
inscribed on the bone of an ox or
ona turtle shell, which was then
struck with a hot metal tool.

The way the bone cracked was
believed to provide the answer.

pharaoh’s throne shows him being anointed by his wife Ankhesenamun.

IN c. 1352BCE, AMENHOTEP IV,

a religious reformer, became
Egypt's pharaoh. He broke with
the traditional religion, with its
pantheon of gods, and initiated

to Akhenaten, meaning ‘living
spirit of Aten,” and founded a new
capital between Thebes and
Memphis. He named it Akhetaten,
meaning “horizon of Aten.”
Akhenaten’s religious reforms
were believed to have been
unpopular, especially with the
influential priestly elite. After his
death inc, 1336 BCE, his son
Tutankhamun ascended the
throne at the age of nine. He
restored the old gods
and abandoned the new
capital. Tutankhamun is
believed to have died
under mysterious
circumstances at 18,
and was hastily buried
in a minor tomb. It was
thought for years that
Tutankhamun died of a
blow to the head, but
the latest evidence
suggests he died of
blood poisoning after
breaking his leg ina
chariot crash while out
hunting in the desert.

Sun worship

Akhenaten instituted the
worship of the sun-disk
Aten. In this relief carving
found at Akhetaten
(modern el-Amarna], he
is seen worshipping the
sun with his wife Nefertiti.

Since the 1570s 8ce, Egypt's

: pharaohs had been buried in

= rock-cut tombs in the Valley

: of the Kings, on the west bank
© of the Nile. Rulers hoped their
the worship of a single god, Aten, i
or sun-disk. He changed his name =
: tombs were robbed of their

: rich goods. However, in 1922,

: British archaeologist Howard

: Carter found Tutankhamun's

: tomb virtually intact. The

: shrine room had four gilded

| shrines, holding the king’s

; golden statues, and musical

» instruments.

tombs would be safe from
robbers, but almost all the

tana 7

TOWARD THE END OF THE 2ND
MILLENNIUM BCE, the eastern
Mediterranean and Western Asia
were a mosaic of empires, which
comprised Egypt, Babylonia, Elam,
Assyria, and the Hittites in Anatolia.

strove to gain ascendancy over its
neighbors through conquest or
diplomacy. In war and peace, vital

trade routes, through which tin and |
© (c.1274Bce). Although
» Ramesses claimed
: victory at Qadesh, the
battle is believed to

copper for bronze reached the
region, remained intact.

A frequent flashpoint for conflict
was the Levant (modern Syria and
Lebanon], which Egypt had lost to
the Hittites following the reign
of Akhenaten (see 1350Bce]. In the

13th century BCE, Pharaoh Seti! and :
: further campaigns in

his son Ramesses Il campaigned
to win it back. Ramesses’ 67-year
reign (r. 1279-12138ce] was

44 YOU AREA

GREAT WARRIOR |

: (he had about seven wives in total).
: Following the treaty, Ramesses
: kept up a friendly correspondence

WITHOUT EQUAL,
VICTORIOUS IN

SIGHT OF THE
WHOLE WORLD. 99

Inscription commemorating the
victory of Ramesses II at Qadesh

atime of stability and prosperity
for Egypt. Through a combination
of war, diplomacy, and strategic
marriage, Ramesses sought

to extend Egyptian influence to
Western Asia. In the 1270sBCE, he
fought a series of wars with the
Hittite king, Muwattalis II, of which

: Ancient propaganda
A detail fram the temple

i firing an arrow, taking
on the Hittite army

‘ 8
The facade of the temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel features four colossal seated
statues of the pharaoh, but the statue second from left has crumbled.

of Ramesses I! at Abu
Simbel shows the king

Battle of Qadesh.

the most famous was
the Battle of Qadesh

have been inconclusive,
and the Hittites held on
to the region.

In 1259 BCE, after

Syria, Ramesses tried

| adifferent tactic, and
: negotiated a pioneering peace

treaty with the new Hittite king,
Hattusilis III. Ramesses also took
two Hittite princesses in marriage

with the Hittite ruler, which was

: recorded on clay tablets in
Akkadian cuneiform script.

Ramesses also embarked

» monument-building. On Egypt's

: southern border with Nubia, he

: constructed the magnificent

: temple of Abu Simbel. He founded

a new capital at Per-Ramesses in

: Lower Egypt, although Thebes in
» Upper Egypt remained an
* important center. West of Thebes

he built a vast mortuary temple,

: which doubled as a palace, court,
: and center of learning.

The late 2nd millennium BCE

: sawthe resurgence of Ashur,

_ in whatis now called the Middle
: Assyrian Empire (1350-

: 10008cE). Following the death of
| Shamshi-Adad in 1781 BcE (see

| 1850ece), Ashur had become

: avassal first of Babylon, then

i of Mitanni. A revival of Ashur's

: fortunes began under Ashur-

: uballit I (r. 1363-1328BcE), who

: broke free of Mitannian rule and

: carved out a kingdom in northern
| Iraq. His later successors,

: Shalmaneser | and Tukulti-

: Ninurta |, continued to gain

: territory, expanding the kingdom's
: borders west to conquer eastern
Mitanni and briefly, from 1225-

: 1216BcE, southeast to Babylonia

In the Aegean, the Mycenaean

| palace-kingdoms of the Greek
: mainland continued to thrive.

The boulders used to make these walls, now in ruins, at Mycenae on the Greek
mainland were so huge, later civilizations believed they were built by giants.

BETWEEN 1250 AND ABOUT 1050
BCE, many of the powers that

had dominated Western Asia for
centuries went into decline, and
some disappeared altogether. The
eastern Mediterranean entered
atime of turmoil, and many
coastal cities were laid waste by
unknown invaders—written
records of the period give few
clues as to their identity. First to
succumb were the Hittites, whose
capital Hattusas was sacked

and abandoned c. 1200BCE.

By c. 1180BcE, Hittite possessions
in the Levant were lost and the
empire fragmented.

These conflicts were most likely
instigated by the waves of migrants
known collectively as the Sea
Peoples. These warlike peoples
came from many different areas,
including Sicily, Sardinia, Greece,
Libya, and Anatolia. Whatever
their origins, their movements
through the eastern Mediterranean
inc. 1200-11008CcE led to attacks
on Cyprus, Egypt, Anatolia, and
Canaan and Syria in the Levant.

In 1178BceE, the Egyptian pharaoh
Ramesses Ill drove the Sea
Peoples from Lower Egypt, but

could not prevent them from

: colonizing the Levant.

Around 12008ceE, the
Mycenaean kingdoms entered a
time of upheaval, a result of both
internal disintegration and

: external threats. The defenses of

many Mycenean palaces were

i strengthened. Records at Pylos

= show the inhabitants feared attack
: from the sea. By 11008cE, most of
© the Mycenaean palaces had been

: sacked and abandoned. This

» triggered the so-called Dark Age

of Greece, when writing fell out of

the Homeric age [see 800Bce).

In the late Bronze Age, parts of
Europe came to be dominated by
the Urnfield Culture—named
after the practice of cremating the

: dead and burying the remains in
© funerary urns, sometimes

accompanied by rich grave goods.
This culture originated in the

» Danube region in 13008cE, and
: spread to Italy and central and
eastern Europe in the following

centuries.
Between 1200 and 7008ceiron
technology spread northward

: from Greece to Central Europe.

44 THEY CAME BOLDLY
SAILING IN THEIR WARSHIPS
FROM THE MIDST OF THE
SEA, NONE BEING ABLE TO
WITHSTAND THEM... 99

An inscription by Ramesses II (r. 1279-1213), referring to the Sea Peoples

Iron rapidly replaced bronze in
tools and weapons, signaling the
end of the Bronze Age.

In Mesoamerica, the region's
first great civilization, the Olmec,
was emerging in the lowlands of
Mexico's southern Gulf coast. The
Olmecs built ceremonial centers,
including San Lorenzo, constructed
temples and houses on earthen
mounds, and carved huge stone

heads clad in helmets. They also

: established long-distance trade

routes. Meanwhile, other cultures

' were emerging, suchas at Cerro
: Sechin, in what is now Peru.

: Stone warrior

Monumental carvings from temples

: at Cerro Sechin on the Peruvian
| coast show warriors, torture victims,

and human sacrifices.

~ ff WHEN ALL LONGINGS THAT ARE

IN THE HEART VANISH, THEN A
MORTAL BECOMES IMMORTAL... 99

Krishna Yajur Veda

THE CLOSE OF THE 2ND MILLENNIUM
SAW MAJOR CHANGES in the
power politics of West Asia.

In 1070BceE, the Egyptian New
Kingdom ended and Egypt
entered a time of unrest called
the Third Intermediate Period,
which lasted until 747 BCE [see
800-700 sce). Historians believe
that the power of the pharaohs
had been eroded bya priestly elite
who had gained control of many
areas. By 1000BcE, all of the
territories won by New Kingdom
pharaohs had been lost.

In Mesopotamia, there were
frequent wars between the
Babylonians, Assyrians, and
Elamites; the region was also
subjected to devastating raids by
Aramaean nomads from the west.

Meanwhile, other powers were
rising in the region. A Semitic-
speaking people, who called
themselves Canaanites, had
inhabited the Levant for centuries,
living in city-states that controlled
the surrounding territory. They
were skilled seafarers and played

a maior role in international trade. : Asia since
By 11008ce, Canaanite port cities the 1500s8ce.
such as Arwad, Byblos, Tyre, and By the

Sidon were expanding their
operations, establishing trading
posts and colonies throughout the
eastern Mediterranean. They
traded cedarwood from Lebanon,
glass- and ivory-ware, metal ores,
and, most important, an expensive
purple dye made from murex
shellfish. It was this luxury
commodity that caused them to
be known by their more familiar
Greek name, the Phoenicians,
after phoinix, Greek for “purple.”

In China, a new dynasty replaced :
the Shang in 10278CE, when King
Wu of the Zhou defeated the last
Shang ruler, Di-Xin. The Zhou
dynasty was to rule China for
700 years. This long erais usually
divided into two periods: the
Western and Eastern Zhou.

During the first era, the Zhou capital
was Zongzhou. This was a time

of prosperity and strong central
control. Zhou territory was divided
into fiefs held by trusted noblemen, :
in return for military allegiance.
But many aspects of Chinese
tradition already present in the
Shang period continued in the Zhou, ‘
including ancestor worship and the :
use of oracle bones for divination.

Meanwhile, in Japan, the Jomon
culture, named after the cord
patterns (jomon) that decorate its
pottery, continued. The Jomon
people were still hunter-gatherers, ©
albeit prosperous and sedentary.

In northern India, small groups
of nomadic pastoralists had been
migrating into the Ganges basin
from Central

1100s BCE, most
had begun to
settle and cultivate
crops. They spoke
Sanskrit, which became
the language of early Indian

Mark of a culture

In this example of late-Jomon
pottery, the bowl and stand bear
the distinctive rope patterns that
give the Jomon period its name.

oe we
ie eo
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sacred writings. Sanskrit, an Indo-

: European language related to

Iranian and almost all European

: languages, is also the ancestor
© of modern languages such as
= Hindi and Urdu.

Sacred writings called the
Vedas were transmitted orally
in Sanskrit for many centuries.
Although the Vedas are largely

the geographical information that
they contain not only describes
the gradual spread of farmers

to the Ganges basin, but also
gives some information about
conflicts with other groups, and

varnas or castes is described
in the Vedas, first appearing in

is nothing in the text to suggest

: that the system was hereditary
: at the time.

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3000-700 sce | EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

neck is circled
by a collar. x

Perpauty and
his wife

Statue with stele
c. 1360BcE

Cat figurine
c. 600BcE

children bringing ;

ec CECT LG @

.
ai

knob is part of
locking device

Decorated box of Perpauty
c. 1370BcE

This sycamore box belonging
to a man called Perpauty may
have held linen. All four sides
are painted with scenes. This
side shows Perpauty and his
wife being offered gifts by their
son and three daughters.

offerings

Duck-shaped flask
c. 17008cE
This jar is carved in the shape of a

This copper alloy figurine sits ona
wooden base. Cats were linked with
the goddess Bastet, who protected
the pharaoh. A hole through the

Acarved figure representing a high priest

of Amun holds a stele, or carved slab. These
slabs were used as grave or commemorative
markers. The inscription is a hymn to the Sun

duck, which appears to be trussed
and plucked. It probably held cosmetic
paste, such as eye-paint, which was
likely removed and applied using a

nose originally held a ring. god and lists local dignitaries.

ANCIENT EGYPT

A REMARKABLE CIVILIZATION REVEALED THROUGH EVERYDAY ITEMS AND TREASURES

Artifacts manufactured over some 2,000 years bear
witness to the skills of Egyptian craft workers. Theyalso <
reflect Egypt’s wealth and its trade network, through

which ebony, lapis lazuli, and turquoise were imported.

Many of the objects shown here were used in daily life by well-to-do
Egyptians. They reflect belief in the afterlife and the practice of burying
possessions that it was believed would be used by the dead person's
spirit in the afterlife. The ruling classes were buried with great wealth,
but almost all of their tombs were stripped of their riches either in
antiquity or more recently.

mask of cartonnage—a combination
of plaster and linen }

Shabtis

1292-1190BcE

Statuettes of servant-figures called shabtis
were commonly placed in tombs. The Egyptians
believed they would come alive to serve the
dead person's spirit in the life to come.

Funerary mask

c. 1500BcE

This mask would have been placed over the head
of a mummy. The Egyptians mummified bodies
because the deceased spirit could not survive
unless there was a body for it to return to.

details such _/
as eyes are

stopper/applicator, now lost.

material is the rare
blue stone anhydrite

Mummiform shabti

c. 1300BcE

This large shabti figure
was carved from wood.
The tools the figure carries
are traditional symbols of
kingship, while the scarab
represents the god Khepri.

_— scarab ornament

on chest

modeled
in paler
wrappings

inlay __/

>
cea
lapis lazuli

Mummified jackal or dog

c, 600 BCE

Jackals and, from the 8th century ace
onward, also dogs were mummified in

honor of the jackal-headed god Anubis,

who presided over funerals and embalmings.

ANCIENT EGYPT

Necklaces
c. 1550-1069 ece

Egyptian craftsmen had access
to many semiprecious stones and
precious metals. Necklaces were
worn in daily life and also buried
with the dead.

Ear studs and earring

c. 1550-1069 ace

Once the basic shapes for these
studs and earring were made,
strands of glass in a contrasting
color were wound around

them. The studs required large
perforations in the wearer's lobes.

backing for__/

mirror
Wooden comb

c. 300BcE

This double-sided comb has a
row of longer and shorter teeth.
Many Egyptians had short hair handle and
and wore wigs. Combs were backing made
used to keep both natural hair of ebony
and wigs tidy.

gold band

purple amethyst

ibex symbolizes grace
and mastery over the
natural world

Cosmetic spoon

c. 1360BcE

This spoon for cosmetic paste
was carved from schist in the
shape of an ibex, with its head
bent over its back, so that its

straight horns touch the bowl.

disk representing sun

Amulet Mirror handle

912-3438cE c. 1360BcE

The wedjat eye symbolizes This hardwood mirror setting
the eye of the god Horus. This originally held a polished
charm was placed on mummies bronze mirror disk. The handle
to protect the dead person's is carved in the shape ofa
spirit in the afterlife. It also papyrus column topped with
symbolized regeneration. the god Bes—a popular deity.

Male figure amulet Frog amulets

c, 2200BcE c. 1360BcE

This golden charm shows a Frogs were a symbol of life
kneeling male god clasping and fertility. Women wore
two palm ribs. He is probably frog amulets for luck. These
the god Heh, who symbolized charms are made of blue
eternity. The palm ribs are faience (pottery) with details
notched, representing years. picked out in gold.

inlay held
within cells
of gold

charm may
have been part
of a necklace

Scarab pectoral Winged scarab

¢. 1361-52BcE 644-322BcE

This magnificent chest ornament Scarabs were common lucky charms.
represents the scarab god Khepri The scarab beetle was a symbol for
rolling the red sun-disk. It was found rebirth and was worn as jewelry

in the tomb of King Tutankhamun. in ancient Egypt.

In the mid-
modern Israel) was an important Isra

IN THE 10TH CENTURY BCE, THE
PERIOD OF DECLINE in the major
powers of Western Asia continued.
Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria had

weakened, enabling the rise of the :

short-lived but historically
significant Kingdom of Israel.
The Israelites were Semitic-
speaking pastoralists who,
according to the Bible, migrated
into the land of Canaan in the
1200s Bce. There, they came into
conflict with the local Philistines
and Canaanites. Around 1000 BCE
King David (r. 1006-965 sce)
united the Israelite tribes and
established his capital at
Jerusalem. David's son Solomon
(rc. 965-928 Bce] increased
Israelite territory and built a
magnificent palace and temple in
the capital, but on his death the
kingdom split in two. Eventually

Etched in gold

This golden plaque showing the
protective wedjat eye symbol dates
from the reign of Psusennes | of the

21st dynasty, when Egypt was divided. :

Sa
Oth centuryece, during the reign of King Solomon, Megiddo [in

elite fortress and administrative center.

The jaguar featured in many Mesoamerican and South American religions.
Here it is depicted in a stone carving from Chavin de Huantar.

SHALMANESER III (858-824 Bce)

: Israel and, later, Judah became
part of the Assyrian Empire.

Meanwhile, Assyria began to

| reemerge as a major power in

» Mesopotamia. King Ashur-dan II

: (r. 934-912BcE] boosted agriculture,

: bringing prosperity. His successor
Adad-nirari Il increased Assyria’s

: been held by the Middle Assyrian

Empire in the 13th century BCE.

se
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es as = ot
\) acy oO so er ae
rr cess ce” Wve ee ora rio
or Rtas ory of
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In the 9th century Bce, King
Shalmaneser Ill of Assyria
greatly expanded his empire,
with campaigns against
Mesopotamian tribes, Israel
and Judah, Syria, Urartu, and
Anatolia. This black limestone
obelisk commemorates his
deeds and those of his
commander-in-chief, Dayyan-
Assur. It details, in cuneiform,
the enforced tributes paid by
the people he conquered.

THE OLMEC CULTURE CONTINUED
TO DEVELOP IN MESOAMERICA

in the 9th century BCE. After

San Lorenzo was destroyed

in c. 9008cE, La Venta to the
northeast became the main
Olmec center. This larger
settlement was dominated by

a 111ft (34m) high pyramid, the
forerunner of Mayan temples.
The Olmecs also devised a script
of glyphs—the first in the region.
Their influence spread across
Mesoamerica, impacting on other
cultures that were starting to
emerge at this time—the
Zapotecs and the Maya.

In eastern North America, the
Adena culture was developing
in the Ohio Valley. It was
characterized by ritual earthworks
and burial mounds containing
objects of fine craftsmanship.

Far to the south, the Chavin
culture had appeared in the
Peruvian Andes by c. 1200Bce and
spread to the coast. The Chavin

SEN xs

were skilled engineers and
architects who built canals and
leveled slopes for farming and
construction. The main
settlement, Chavinde
Huantar, was high in the
: Andes, and seems to have
been a pilgrimage center for a
cult of supernatural beings that
were part-human, part-animal.
The main god, the “Staff God,” is
usually depicted with fangs.
In Europe, iron was gradually
replacing bronze as the metal of
: choice for tools and weapons. The
area around Hallstatt in Austria
became a center for an early Iron
Age culture that developed from
the Urnfield culture (see 1200Bce).
: Hallstatt chieftains dominated
local salt mining and ironworking.
They lived in hilltop forts and were
buried with rich grave goods.
During the 9th century BCE, the
Phoenicians were becoming a

major power in the Mediterranean. :
i nearby Syria and Phoenicia were
brought under Assyrian control.

Their trading ships, previously
confined to the eastern sea, now

_ KEY
© Assyria
© Egypt
* Phoenician
colonies
| E Phoenician
H city-states
Greek
colonies

Greek
city-states

Gadir
.

Emerging
Etruscan
city-states

Mediterranean region

Carthage

AFRICA

Grave goods
This Iron Age brooch

| was discovered in a grave at Hallstatt
© in Austria. The type of jewelry

| found suggests that a woman was

| buried there.

i plied the western Mediterranean.
: Colonies were set up in Cadiz, in
© Spain, on the Balearic Islands,

: and, most notably, on the North

| African coast at Carthage [in

| modern Tunisia). Through this

i trading network, the Phoenician

In Western Asia, the Neo-

: Assyrian Empire began to
: expand, and, one by one, Israel,

Judah, and the small states of

EUROPE

Black Sea

Caer
Pithekoussai ©

Athens:
weg Corinthgh —“eMiletus
Syracuse Sparta
M

Khorsabad,
ud

ea;
"erranean Seq

This map of the Mediterranean region in the 8th century BCE shows
the colonies established by the dominant civilizations of the period,
: including the Phoenicians and Greeks.

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~

king and his queen feasting in the gardens of the royal palace there.

ASSYRIA CONTINUED ITS POLICY
OF AGGRESSION through the 8th
century BCE, conquering rival
states in Western Asia and
reducing them to provinces.
Assyrian success was based

ona disciplined, technically
advanced army and an efficient
bureaucracy. Conquered peoples ©
had to pay costly tributes, and i
revolts were ruthlessly crushed.
Particularly troublesome nations
suffered forced deportations—
large numbers of people were
resettled in Assyria.

Following a period of weak rule
in the first half of the 8th century
BCE, Tiglath-Pileser Ill (r. 744—
727 BCE) recouped Assyria’s
losses. His successor Sargon Il
(r. 722-704 BCE) campaigned in

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: Ritual container

: Zhou smiths were highly skilled

| metalworkers. This bronze bowl
dates from the 8th century BCE, the
time of the Eastern Zhou dynasty.

Iran and Anatolia, conquering

: Babylon and, in 714BCE, defeating
: the Armenian state of Urartu. He

: also defeated the Israelites and

: transported the “ten lost tribes” of
© Israel to northern Mesopotamia.

In 705 ece, the Assyrian capital moved to Nineveh. This stone relief shows the Assyrian

In China, the Zhou capital moved
east to Luoyang in 770BcE,
marking the start of the earlier
part of the Eastern Zhou era,
which lasted until about
480Bce (see 5008cE). Royal
control had weakened, as the
lords who held large fiefdoms had
grown more powerful. Now
central control disintegrated, and
rival warlords fought one another.
Despite the chaos, this era was a
time of technical and cultural
advancement. Iron tools increased
efficiency in agriculture and food
production. Populations and cities
grew, and philosophy, the arts,
and literature began to develop.
In Egypt, the unrest of the Third
Intermediate Period continued.
Since 8508ceE, the country had

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been embroiled in a
destructive civil war and
was now divided into
small states. In the 8th
century BCE, the Kushite
ruler of Nubia to the
south, Piye (r. 747-
7168Cce), conquered
both Upper and

Lower Egypt, and
united them under
Kushite rule.

In the Mediterranean,
Phoenician influence
continued to spread,
as the city of Carthage
in North Africa grew
powerful. Greece,
meanwhile, was starting
to emerge from the Dark
Age that had followed the
Mycenaeans’ downfall.
City-states or poleis were
forming on the Greek
mainland, centered on
hilltop citadels. To
increase their territory, the
poleis founded colonies
around the shores of the Aegean.
Although rivalry between cities
was often intense, a distinct
Greek identity and culture
was emerging. All Greeks were

the first pan-Hellenic games were
held in honor of Zeus at Olympia.
By the mid-700s sce the Greeks had
adapted the Phoenician alphabet

Twin discovery

This painting by Charles de La Fosse
depicts the legend of Romulus and
Remus, who were abandoned as
babies and suckled by a she-wolf,
before being rescued by shepherds.

Kushite statue
This alabaster statue dates
from the period of Kushite
rule in Egypt. Amenirdis |,
sister of Shabaka |r. c. 716-
702 BCE], is shown holding
a flail—a traditional
symbol of Egyptian rule.

for their own language,
and not long after, Homer's
epic poems the /liad and
the Odyssey—hitherto
transmitted orally—were
probably written down.
In the 8th century BCE,
central Italy was a mosaic
of small states ruled by the
dominant Etruscans—ltaly’s
first indigenous civilization—
and Italic tribes such as the
Latins, Umbrians, and
Sabines. Rome is thought
to have been founded by
the Latin chief Romulus
in 753BCcE. Inits early
days, the city, built on

; seven hills, was ruled by various
© peoples, including the Etruscans,
: Latins, and Sabines.

identified as “Hellenes.” In 7768CE rT SUCH A
GREAT TASK
ITWAS TO
‘FOUND THE
ROMAN

RACE. 99

| Virgil, from Aeneid 1:33

THE

CLASSICAL AGE
7O0BcE-599 cE

Culturally dynamic civilizations emerged in Greece, Rome,
Persia, India, and China, marking the beginning of the
Classical Age. The impact of Classical developments in
science, art, and politics is still felt to this day.

44 HE EVERYWHERE
SOUGHT EXCUSES FOR
STIRRING UP WAR.99

Livy, from Histories book I, xxi, on Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome

IN CHINA, THE CITY OF LUOYANG
HAD FALLEN TO THE SHEN in

771 BCE, and the Western Zhou
capital was transferred east to
Chengzhou. From there, the
Eastern Zhou dynasty presided
over the fragmentation of China
into as many as 148 states. From
around 7008CE the Zhou were
ruled by puppet-emperors, while
real power lay with the ba(“senior |
one”) among nearby states.
Under Qi Huan Gong [r. 685-

643 Bce], the state of Qi had
supremacy. After Huan Gong’s
death the competition for power
between his five sons weakened
Qi, and Jin Wen Gong [r. 685-
643.8cE), the ruler of Jin, rose to
become ba. By the end of the
century, power in China alternated =
among the states of Qi, Jin, i
Qin, and Chu.

Nubian Pharoah

Taharga ruled Egypt for 19 years
before an Assyrian invasion forced
him to return to Nubia in 671 BCE.

KINGS
OF ROME

In Italy, the city-state of Rome
was beginning to acquire an urban

: heart, and the first forum was
: constructed. The second king

of Rome, Numa Pompilius

| (r.716-6748ce) is believed to have
_ established the main Roman
: priesthoods and a calendar.

In the Near East, the Assyrians

* continued their expansion,
© confronting Egypt, whose

intermittent support for rebels

: against Assyrian rule in Syria had

: 671BCE, the Assyrian ruler

: the Egyptian royal capital of
Memphis. However, Assyrian

j control over Egypt was weak,

drove the invaders out.

The Etruscans expanded
southward from modern
Tuscany and Umbria around
700 BCE. Their language remains
undeciphered, but lavish tombs
indicate a rich material culture.
During their expansion, the
Etruscans founded cities such

as Capua, but came into conflict
with Greek colonies and with
Rome. Although more powerful
at first, the Etruscans were
politically disunited, and a long
series of wars with the Romans

: turned against them.

Pyramids from the cemetery at Nuri, Sudan, which was the burial site of the
Napatan and Meroitic kings from around 650BcE.

44 TAHAROA THE GODLESS
CAME OUT TO TAKE
EGYPT. 99

: Ashurbanipal's account of the conquest of Egypt, 664BCE

IT TOOK A CONCERTED CAMPAIGN
BY ASHURBANIPAL (r. 668-627 BCE)
in 664-6638CE to defeat the
Egyptians who had rebelled
against Assyrian rule, and to push
Assyrian control as far south as
Thebes (modern Luxor). This
was not the last rebellion against
the Assyrians—only ten years
later, the vassal king of Sais,
Psammetichus I (r. 664-6108ce],
revolted against his Assyrian
masters, driving them out and
founding the 26th Dynasty, under
which Egypt’s independence was
restored. After the final collapse
of Assyrian power, in 609 8ceE,
Egypt was able to establish a
foothold in Palestine under
Pharaoh Necho II (610-595 ace).
In Greece, the rise to
preeminence of a number of city
states, notably Athens, Sparta,
and Corinth, began. In Corinth,
a new type of ruler, the “tyrant,”
emerged with the overthrow of
the Bacchiadae kings in 658 BCE.

The newruler, Cypselus (reign
c. 657-627 BCE] relied on force of
personality rather than divine
sanction, and established a
dynasty under which Corinth
enjoyed a seven-decade period
of dominance, creating colonies

Mediterranean.
On the fringes of the Greek
world, in western Asia Minor, the

» kingdom of Lydia was increasing
| in power under Gyges [685-

647.8ce), its first great king. He
allied with Ashurbanipal of

: Assyria to see off a joint threat
: to their two lands by Cimmerian

raiders in 668-665 BCE, but then

ASHURBANIPAL [r, 668-627 BCE) y

Ashurbanipal initially shared
rule over Assyria with his

brother, Shamash-shuma-ukin. is

After defeating his brother's
revolt in 648BcE he greatly
expanded the Assyrian domains.
As well as annexing Egypt, he
attacked Elam, sacking its
capital, Susa, in 647BCE. His
latter years saw none of the
military successes of his early
reign. At his death a dispute
between his two sons further
weakened the Assyrian Empire.

as:

ey,
ABea:

rors ‘ ;

2) Soe ot &
0

assisted Psammetichus | of
Egypt in his revolt against the

: aggressive stance towards his

: Neighbors, the lonian Greeks of
» Miletus and Smyrna.

According to Japanese tradition,

throne in 6608CE. The stories
of his migration from southern
Honshu eastward to establish
his kingdom near Nara are

chieftains began to consolidate
their territories.
The third king of Rome, Tullus

THE NUMBER OF

CLAY TABLETS

UNCOVERED IN
_ASHURBANIPAL'S
LIBRARY

PHRYGIA
LYDIA

URARTU

Harran NEES

Carchemishe

BABYLONIA
Ss, tyrow @Damascus Babylon ELAM

“Sy ISRAEL SYRIAN Uruk® gy,
Jerusatem® AMMON DESERT

EeypT JUDAH
‘. MOAB
Memphis

: The Assyrian Empire

| From its core around Assur and

: Nineveh, the Assyrian empire grew to
encompass Babylonia, Media, Elam,

| Urartu, Syria, and Egypt.

» led the war against neighboring

: Alba Longa, which ultimately led

: deportation of its population to

i expanded Roman territory toward
| the coast, and founded Rome's

: great port of Ostia at the mouth

: of the Tiber. His successor,

» background, a sign of the high
level of Etruscan influence over

: the early city of Rome. Tarquinius
: Priscus won a series of victories

: over the Sabines, the Latins,

: and the Etruscans, who all

: competed with Rome for

: dominance over central Italy. He is
» also said to have established the

: public games in Rome.

Alion frieze from the Processional Way in Babylon, which was built

through the heart of the city to the Ishtar Gate.

THE ASSYRIANS HAD FINALLY
CONQUERED BABYLON in 6918CE,
partially destroying the city.
Reconstruction work began under
Esarhaddon (680-669 8CcE], and by
6528CE Babylon had recovered
its importance and became the
center for a major revolt led by
Shamash-shuma-ukin against
his younger brother Ashurbanipal.
It took four years of war to
suppress the Babylonians and
their Elamite allies, and the
fighting drained Assyria’s ability to
hold on to its empire. By 630BCcE,
Assyria had lost Egypt and
Palestine, and in 626 BCE the
Babylonians regained their
independence. By 616BCE
Babylon was strong enough to
invade Assyria, aided by the
Medes [whose base was in
northwestern Iran). In 612BcE
the Babylonians, Medes,
and Scythians sacked
the Assyrian capital of
Nineveh. The
Assyrian empire
crumbled.
A remnant of the
Assyrian army
regrouped and
established a small
kingdom around Harran,
but by 6098CE this, too,
had fallen.

The Scythians
formed part of a
culture of nomadic
horsemen which held
a large territory on the
steppes north of the
Caucasus from around
8008CcE. In 652BCE they
forced the Medes to submit

to them and the Scythian King
Bartatua was even sufficiently
influential to be given an Assyrian
princess as his wife. The alliance
with Assyria survived into the
reign of his son Madyes, but
around 615BCcE the Scythians
switched sides and played a key
role in Assyria’s destruction.
Their Median subjects soon turned
on them and around 590BcE the
Scythians retreated north.

In the Greek world, there was a
growing movement to establish
colonies in the Mediterranean.
Among the earliest were in Italy,
including Syracuse, founded
around 7338CE. In North Africa,
Greek settlers founded Cyrene (in
Libya) in about 6308cE, and
Massilia (Marseilles) around

around 600BCcE and ran

600BcE. New cities were
established as far west as Spain,
and around the Black Sea coast.

In Greece itself, the city-state of ©
Sparta was establishing its
dominance in the Peloponnese. A
defeat by the city-state of Argos,
in 669 BCE, was followed by
military reforms and victory
against the Messenians [660-
650Bce). By 6008cE, Sparta had
conquered almost all the
southern Peloponnese and
established a stratified social
system.

Sparta’s future rival, Athens,
gradually united the area
surrounding Attica under its rule

: in the 8th century BCE. The
: hereditary monarchy was
: replaced by nine “archons,”

chosen annually. Shortly after a

» damaging popular uprising by

: Cylon in 632Bce, Athens received

: its first law code, drafted by Draco
© in 621BCcE. The Draconian law

: was later known for the severity of
| the punishments it prescribed.

To the south of Egypt the state

: of Napata became a power of the
: first order, conquering Egypt

: under Piankhy (751-716 BcE) and

stylized
body

Scythian stag
The flowing lines and realistic
depiction of the stag’s muscled
flanks in this late 7th century shield
ornament are typical of the art

of the Scythians.

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~ ee ek

seen 4 a

was captured by the Babylonians in 597 BCE. It was taken again,

and largely destroyed, 10 years later. After both sieges many of its inhabitants were deported to Babylon.

HAVING HELPED DESTROY THE
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, Nabopolassar
(r, 626-605 Bce), first king of the
neo-Babylonian dynasty,
embellished the city of Babylon.
His son Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605-
562.8cE] defeated the Egyptians in
605BCE, repaired Babylon’s main
ziggurat, and ordered the building

of the famous “Hanging Gardens.”

The last neo-Babylonian king,
Nabonidus |r. 556-5398ce),
moved his royal court to the
Arabian oasis of Tema, but
discontent rose among the
Babylonians during his reign.
The Medes of northwest Persia
(Iran), consolidated their kingdom
under Cyaxares [r. 624-585 Bce)
and took part in the destruction
of the Assyrian Empire in 6128CcE.

Lawgiver and reformer

Under the last Median king,

: Astyages [r. 584-549 Bc), Median

armies campaigned in Azerbaijan

: and controlled land as far west as

Lydia (Turkey). But by the 550sBce,
Media was under pressure from
the Babylonians to the south and

» the new power of Persia.

The kingdom of Judah had long
acted as a block to Assyrian and

: Babylonian expansion to the west.
» In 597Bce, Nebuchadnezzar took
Jerusalem and deposed King

Jehoiakim. The king they installed

: in his place, Zedekiah, turned

against the Babylonians, and in

: 587BcE there was another siege.
: Much of the city was burned, the
: Jewish Temple destroyed, and

many of its inhabitants deported

: toa life of exile in Babylon.

This image shows the Greek statesman and lawgiver Solon teaching. His
reforms began to undermine the power of the aristocracy in Athens.

The powerful city-state of Athens

i experienced reforms under Solon
: about 600Bce, notably a law code

: that protected the property rights

: of the poor, forbade debt-slavery,

: and moderated the more extreme
' parts of the Draconian laws

| (see 650-601). Around 5608cE,

: Pisistratus seized power and began
: torule as a tyrant (dictator). Driven
: out once, he returned in 547 BCE

: and established a stable regime.

The Greek city of Miletus saw the

» beginnings of philosophical

| thought from about 6006cE.

| Thales (born c. 6248CE) tried

: to understand the basic nature

: of the universe and thought its

: fundamental element was water.

y >
eisieik et

Central Asia became a stronghold of Buddhist beliefs. These cave paintings

in Dunhuang, China, illustrate a variety of Buddhist parables.

CYRUS, RULER OF THE SMALL
KINGDOM OF PERSIS [also called
Pars] in the west of Persia [Iran),
revolted against his Median
overlords in 559BcE. By 550BcE
he had conquered the Median
capital of Ecbatana and
overthrown their ruler, King

Astyages. Afraid of the increasing :

power of Persia, the Lydians
under King Croesus opposed
Cyrus, but he struck west and
in 547Bce, on the Halys River,
defeated the Lydian army and
annexed western Asia Minor.

In 539 sce Cyrus captured
Babylon, acquiring most of
Mesopotamia and making the
Persian Empire the greatest in
the Middle East. Cyrus died in
530BcE while fighting in what
is today Turkmenistan, and was
succeeded by his son Cambyses.

In 526 BcE Cambyses sent his
armies south into Egypt. The
Pharaoh Amasis had just died and
his successor Psammetichus III

—
S
?

5 -

—

Darius the Great
: King Darius is shown enthroned and

bearing symbols of power in this

| frieze. His son Xerxes succeeded him.

» Cambyses died in 522 BcE and

» brother of Cambyses or someone

impersonating him, Darius, a

: Persian noble, took over as king.

Widespread revolts broke out,

: including in Media, but Darius put

44 | HAVE FOUGHT 19
BATTLES IN ONE YEAR...
T HAVE WON THEM. 99

The Behistun inscription of Darius

was not well established.
Cambyses defeated the Egyptian
army at Pelusium in 525ece and
then captured the royal capital
at Memphis. He installed himself
as the pharaoh and then subdued
southern Egypt. Persian rule in
Egypt lasted until 402 ce.

: them all down. He then

: political power had coalesced

» around the Mahajapanadas, a

: group of around 16 powerful

482

THE NUMBER
OF YEARS OF
THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC

kingdoms. Of these, Magadha
was the most important state.
Afterward, Darius subdued most
of the Greek city-states of lonia,
before he crossed into Europe in
513 BCE to conquer Thrace.

» Inltaly, Servius Tullius (r. 578-
534), the sixth king of Rome and

: said to be a former slave, had
succeeded Tarquinius Priscus in

implemented important reforms, :

fixing the formal boundaries of
the city by dividing the Romans
into four “tribes,” a system that
would be extended as Roman
territory grew, and also into

© classes that were graded by
wealth. The population was
divided by what equipment they
could afford and what role they
played in the Roman army. The
wealthiest class fought as cavalry,
the higher classes as heavy

© infantry, and the poor as light
auxiliary troops. The votes of the
richer classes carried much
greater weight in the popular
assembly. The last king of Rome,
Tarquinius Superbus [r. 534-
509 Bce) was an Etruscan.
Concerned at the growing
tyranny of his rule, a group of

46EVEN DEATH IS NOT
TO BE FEARED BY ONE
WHO HAS LIVED WISELY 9g

4 Gautama Siddharta (Buddha), 563-483 scr

material life. He is known as the
© Buddha [which means the

“awakened one” in Sanskrit], and
his followers, who became known
as Buddhists, spread his ideas
throughout South Asia and, in the
late 3rd century CE, into China and
thence to Korea, Japan, and

Roman aristocrats led by Lucius
Junius Brutus and Lucius

i consuls were elected by the
| Tarquinius Collatinus [the king's

popular assembly each year.
Some time around 530BceE,
Gautama Siddharta, a Hindu
prince of Kapilvastu (now in
Nepal), had a religious revelation
and rejected his noble upbringing
to embark ona quest for
“enlightenment.” Six years later
he received it and began to preach
a way of moderate asceticism to
gain release from the suffering of

: Spring and Autumn period. From

» the age of 15 he devoted himself

: to scholarship, and the political

: the turbulent times. He taught

: must have regard to others and

» inflict no unnecessary harm.
Southeast Asia. © His philosophy, as developed

Confucius (or Kong Fuzi) was ~~ by his disciples, taught respect for

born around 5518CcE, in a period of § elders and became a cornerstone

cousin} won over the army and
barred the gates of the city to
: the king, who was deposed.
: The coup leaders then
» established a republic in which
: supreme authority was held by
: two magistrates called consuls.
: The power of the consuls was
_ limited by the fact that new

jot

AX \
Ot he Aceh Al
i aw
2 wad “

THE GREAT

CYRUS
(r. 559-539 BCE)

Little is known about the
early life of Cyrus. He was
the ruler of the kingdom of
Pars when he led a revolt
against his Median overlord
Astyages. By defeating
Astyages, Cyrus became king
of the Medes. He then
continued to expand Persian
influence with the conquest
of Lydia. Cyrus adapted local
ideas about kingship to cast
himself as an ideal ruler in
the cities he conquered.
Cyrus died in 539 Bce.

Persian elite
These archers from the palace of Darius at Susa were the elite of the Persian army, which
included representatives from provinces as far off as Ethiopia and Afghanistan.

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of 47

snake-haired
Medusa figure

Medusa antefix

DATE UNKNOWN

This terra-cotta
antefix—an ornament
placed at the cornice

of buildings or at roof
eaves—is in the form of
Medusa, the mythical
creature whose gaze
turned people to stone.

swept-forward
cheek piece

leaf-shaped blade _

Corinthian helmet Spearhead

600-500 sce 600-400 BcE

The Corinthian helmet, made Greek hoplites (armed
from a single bronze sheet, infantry soldiers) carried
was the most common type in a large thrusting spear,
Greece, from around 750-300 ace. of which this is the tip.

ANCIENT GREECE

FROM THE FUNCTIONAL TO THE DECORATIVE, THE GREEKS PRODUCED ART OF GREAT BEAUTY

Aphrodite,
the goddess
of love

Bronze mirror
490-460 BceE

This mirror is richly
adorned with an image
of Aphrodite flanked
by cupids.

While the Greeks created magnificent monumental art, smaller
items such as jewelry, musical instruments, weaponry, and
vases show the Greek love of intricate forms and decorative
adornment throughout all periods of their history.

fastening
chain

Greek art underwent a series of phases that were reflected in all aspects Sie 7,
of artistic production, but particularly on vases. In the Geometric phase Ne a ~ a
: : : In
(c. 850-700 BCE), decoration was mainly composed of geometric forms, Me >,
replaced in the Orientalizing phase (c. 700-6008CE) with floral and ere ‘ LS
animal themes, followed by the more naturalistic representations al s Z
of the Classical phase (from 600BCE) } Ly
ae ° é é eG
Bronze cymbals ; be
500-400 sce Gold earrings
420-400sBcE

Greek cymbals are bell- or

cup-shaped, and are often
depicted on vases being

% held by fauns or satyrs,

or by women in

These delicate gold filigree
earrings depict boats containing
sirens, mythical creatures
whose beautiful voices lured
unwary seafarers to their doom.

Bacchanalian revels.

Mirror lid and fibula
420-400 sce

This silver fibula (brooch) and
chain may have fastened together
a cloak. The ornate mirror-back
shows Aphrodite with the
half-goat god Pan.

cup-shaped form

Gold brooch

650-600 sce

This hawk-shaped brooch dates
from a period in which Oriental
(and particularly Egyptian)
influences were strong in Greece.

Aulos

400e8ce
This wind instrument was
originally a double one (one
wooden pipe has been lost),
played through a reed.

silver mouthpiece finger hole

Ostrakon
c. 475-470 8ce

In Athens, influential politicians could be
ostracized exiled) by public vote. The name
of the politician each voter wished to be
banished was inscribed on a piece of pottery.

Boeotian horse and rider figurine
550 sce

Boeotian figurine
400-200scE

This terra-cotta figurine of a
woman holding a jar comes
from Boeotia, where a tradition
of such sculptures began as
early as the 8th century sce.

The depiction of this horse and
rider has an archaic feel about it,
in contrast to the production of
Boeotian terra-cotta workshops
over 200 years later (see right)

lotus and
honeysuckle
pattern ___

Attic skyphos

525-500 sce

This drinking vessel shows a
couple at their wedding standing
ina chariot. The vase is painted
in the black-figure style.

pattern

hero Hercules carrying
Erymanthean boar —_/ double band

of meanders

lotus bud
pattern
top of foot and
lower base
painted black

Athenian amphora

540-530BcE

An amphora was a type of vessel used
for storing wine. This one is decorated
using the black-figure technique, which
predates the red-figure method.

Attic lekythos

480-470BcE

Greek vases were often painted with
mythological scenes. This black-
figure vase shows the goddess
Athena beating a giant to his knees.

retrograde
(right-to-left)
inscription

checkerboard

Discus
600-5008ceE

This fine bronze discus belonged to
an athlete named Exoidas. After he
won a victory in a sporting contest
using it, he dedicated the discus

to the gods Castor and Pollux.

Attic askos

425-4008ce

The askos was a type of vessel for
pouring liquids such as oil, shaped

in the form of a traditional wine sack.
The design is in the red-figure style
that became popular around 530 sce.

RAEN AAR NRERAM

Roa

—————
Apulian pyxis
500-400ece
Apyxis was often used for storing
small items of jewelry and cosmetics.
This south-Italian example is decorated
with geometrical shapes.

cylindrical
neck

Epichysis

375-340 BCE

The long-spouted epichysis was a vessel
used for pouring wine. This south-Italian
vase has its base decorated with a
pattern of white chevrons.

DO BATTLE IN THE SHADE. 99

Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, quoting words attributed to Dieneces, a Spartan, on being told that the P
archers shot so many arrows they would conceal the Sun; from Histories

Plebeians withdraw from Rome
The departure of the plebeians (on the left in this engraving) threatened to
split Rome irreparably, so the patricians (right) ceded some political power.

THE GREEK CITY-STATES OF IONIA
in western Anatolia had been
subjects of the Persian Empire

since Cyrus conquered Lydia, their =

previous overlord, in 547 ace (see
550-501 ace}. In 499 ace,
Aristagoras, the ruler of Miletus,
set out to mainland Greece to
recruit allies for a planned

600

PERSIA

The Battle of Lade

The lonian Greek navy fought hard at
Lade, but the prearranged defection
of the Samians to the Persians led to
its utter defeat.

uprising against the Persians.
j Sparta rejected his pleas, but only
Athens and Eretria sent forces. A
failed attack on Sardis led the
Athenian forces to return home.
The lonians gradually lost ground
to a Persian land offensive from
| 497 ece. The fall of Miletus to the
| Persians that year and the death
of Aristagoras undermined lonian
: unity and, after a great naval
defeat at the Battle of Lade in
4948ce, the revolt fell apart.
In Italy, the young Roman
© Republic was rocked by social
| dissent in 494ece when the
plebeians (the lower social
+ groups) withdrew from Rome en
masse in protest at their
treatment by the patricians (the
| higher social groups); they
: threatened to set up an alternative
| state. They were persuaded back
only by official recognition of their
: own representatives (tribunes).

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w Se wee Ra

This 19th-century painting shows the Spartan king Leonidas | (center, facing) and his men at the Battle of
Thermopylae in 480ece. Thermopylae became a byword for heroic defiance against overwhelming odds.

THE KINGDOM OF MAGADHA
emerged as an important state in
northern India under the rule of
Bimbisara [r. 543-491 ace), friend
and protector of Gautama Buddha
(c. 563-c. 486 sce), who founded
Buddhism {see 550-501 ece).
Bimbisara’s son Ajatashastru

(r. 491-461 ace} strengthened the
royal capital at Rajagirha and built
a center at Pataligrama on the
Ganges River, which later became
Pataliputra, the Mauryan royal
capital. By conquering Kosala
and Kashi, and annexing the Vrijji
confederacy, Ajatashastru turned
Magadha into the dominant
power on the Ganges Plain.

In China, the political system of
the Spring and Autumn period
evolved into the Warring States
period (481-221 sce), in which
seven main states engaged in
a constant round of diplomatic

THE NUMBER
OF WARRING
STATES

animals were
often the
inspiration for a
rhyton’s shape

: The Persian Empire enjoyed

—

maneuvers to weaken each other,
periodically interrupted

: by outbreaks of war.

In 490 ace, Darius I (548-486 sce)
of Persia decided to take revenge
on the mainland Greeks for their
support of the lonian revolt.
Darius despatched a huge naval
expedition under Artaphernes
and Datis, which sailed fram
Cilicia, landing first at Naxos

Persian winged-lion rhyton

vast wealth, as illustrated by
everyday items suchas this
golden drinking vessel. They
directed huge resources toward
the conquest of Greece.

: before seizing Eretria, which had

aided the lonians in 4998ce
Although the Athenians appealed
to Sparta for aid, the only help
they received came from Plataea,
which sent 1,000 reinforcements.
The Athenians opted to march
out to meet the Persians rather

: than wait for a siege, on the
» advice of their general, Miltiades
(550-489 ace). In 490Bce at

Marathon, the Greek hoplite
(heavy infantry) formation
advanced head-on against a far
more numerous Persian force to

THRACE
MACEDONIA

Black

THE ATHENIANS ENJOYED EARLY
SUCCESS under the direction of
Cimon (510-450sce), wresting
Eion on the Strymon River [in

Pellae Byzantium

win an unlikely victory. THESSALY mB Anatolia) from the Persians in
Chastened, the Persian eres Abyds 476ece and then attacking

expeditionary force withdrew from Artemisium 480: WEIS Carystos on Euboea [which had

Greece after Marathon, but in Thermopylae 480__Y LYDIA submitted to the Persians} in

481 ece Xerxes | (519-465 ace] en eee 470sce. An atternpt by the island

dispatched another huge Persian Pelaammeetee Anatolia of Naxos to leave the Delian

army, which crossed over the Spartae League around the same time led
Hellespont (near modern-day ORPREE to an Athenian expeditionary force
Istanbul) and proceeded south that powerfully suppressed the
toward Athens. Many northern The Greco- breakaway movement. In 469sce,
Greckestatesict foeubent Persian wars Ribonisat t : Athenian treasury at Delos
reek states chose to submit, Although the Crete pore lenian forces won a grea’ All members of the Delian League

but Athens and Sparta patched
together a league of southern
states. In 480sce, a heroic defense
of the pass at Thermopylae by
the Spartan king Leonidas I,

in which he and all his 10,000
soldiers died, bought time for the
Athenians to evacuate. The
Persians burned the city, but soon
after, under the command of
Themistocles (see panel below),
the Athenian fleet inflicted a
serious defeat on Xerxes's naval
force at Salamis. Further Greek

Persians possessed

vastly superior numbers, the
Greek forces were motivated
to win crucial land and sea
engagements.

victories followed in June 479 sce,
on land at Plataea in Boeotia and
at sea at Mycale off the lonian
coast. The Greeks then took the
offensive, and during 478-477 Bce
won a string of victories in lonia
and Cyprus, which reversed most
of the Persians’ gains.

THEMISTOCLES (c. 524-460 8cE)

A clever politician and strategist,
Themistocles persuaded the
Athenians to use the wealth of a
silver mine discovered at
Laurium in 483/2ece to double
their fleet. However, after the
naval victory at Salamis, he
became the object of increasing
jealousy from political rivals. In
about 470 sce Themistocles was
ostracized from Athens [exiled
by public vote].

= Persian campaigns

KEY

Annexed by Persia Src Vittor)

aaaineUGraere Persian victory
490-4798CE

* Indecisive battles

After the initial defeats of the
Persians in 480-479 sce, Athens
sought to formalize the league of
anti-Persian allies. A treasury
was Set up on the island of Delos
in around 477 sce. The league's
funds were to be deposited here
and regular meetings were to take
place. But this Delian League
soon became little more than an
Athenian empire, and Sparta and
its allies refused to take part.

44 THE GREAT
STRUGGLE
HAS COME. 99

Herodotus, ancient Greek historian,
quoting Pausanias, the Spartan
commander, before the Battle of
Plataea in 479BCE; from Histories

victory over the Persians at the
Eurymedon River on the south
coast of Anatolia, establishing

Athenian supremacy in the Aegean.

Pericles (c. 495-429 sce), the
Athenian statesman largely
responsible for making Athens
the political and cultural focus
of Greece, tried but failed to
prosecute Cimon in 463.ce, on
a charge of having neglected a
chance to conquer Macedonia.
From this maneuver, Pericles’
vision and ideas of expansion for
Athens were already evident.
When the leading figure among
the democrats, Ephialtes, was
assassinated in 4618ce, Pericles,
his protégé, swiftly took his place.

Periodically, the Persians had
tried to bribe the Spartans into
diversionary attacks on Athens,
initially to little effect. In 4648cE, a
revolt of the Messenian Helots
(unfree men) in the western
Peloponnese further distracted
the Spartans from any attempt to
stem the rising power of the
Delian League. The Messenians
received little outside assistance,

had to deposit funds at treasuries on
Delos, but the contribution of Athens
was the most important.

: and by 462sce their last stronghold

at Ithome had been reduced. Soon
after, open conflict broke out

| between Sparta and Athens and

their respective allies. The First
Peloponnesian War was
inconclusive. It ended in 451 sce
with a five-year truce, extended in
446sce to a Thirty Years’ Peace
between the two sides.
Meanwhile, the western part of
the Greek world was becoming

the rise of the Sicilian city-state of

| Syracuse. Under a series of able
© rulers (tyrants) that began with

» Gelon [r. 485-478 ece) and his

: brother Hieron (r. 478-467 sce),

Syracusan forces subdued the
neighboring city of Acragas and
expanded territory around Catana.
Although Hieron’s younger
brother Thrasybulus was driven

: out in 466sce, the Syracusans

retained their dominant position
in Sicily beyond the 450s sce.

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IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, the two
social classes—the patricians and
the plebeians (see 500-491 sce)]—
were still divided. The two sides
came to an agreement in 451 ace,
appointing a group of ten men
(the decemviri) to govern Rome
outside the normal constitution.
In 449 Bce, the decemviri produced
the Laws of the Twelve Tables,
which formed the basis for all
Roman law codes.

Around 450sce in Central
Europe, a new Celtic culture
emerged, called La Tene, which
supplanted the earlier dominant

THE NUMBER
OF TABLES OF
ROMAN LAW

Halstatt culture. Ruled over by a
warrior aristocracy that buried its
dead with swords, spears, and
funerary chariots, La Tene had
important centers in Bohemia [in
what is now the Czech Republic]
and around the Marne and

Moselle rivers (in modern France].

In Oaxaca on Mexico's Pacific
Coast, a new center arose shortly
before 450 ace at Monte Alban.
This proto-city, on a hilltop above
the Oaxaca Valley, drew people
from the surrounding agricultural

villages. Monte Alban’s center
housed large-scale public
buildings—including truncated
pyramids, great plazas, and
ballgame courts—as well as
elaborate burial tombs. Within
150 years, the population of
Monte Alban would swell to
around 17,000, making it the
largest city in Mesoamerica.

Zapotec figure from Monte Alban
This elaborate ceramic deity is
typical of the production of Monte
Alban, which became Mexico's
premier site in the 5th century ace.

In the late 5th century, the Mexican city of Monte Alban began to build its public
buildings—the ancestors of its later magnificent pyramids, shown here.

ATHENS AND SPARTA HAD FOUGHT
EACH OTHER BEFORE (see 451 sce).
The Athenian Empire had the
naval advantage as it included
most of the island and coastal
states around the northern and
eastern shores of the Aegean Sea.
Meanwhile, the city-state of Sparta
led an alliance of independent
states from the Peloponnese and
central Greece, as well as Corinth,
and had the strongest army.
Despite the Thirty Years’ Peace of
446sce, tensions remained high
between Athens and Sparta. The
events that led to renewed

44 THE EMPIRE YOU

POSSESS IS BY NOW LIKE A
TYRANNY—PERHAPS WRONG
TO ACQUIRE IT, BUT CERTAINLY
DANGEROUS TO LET IT GO. 99

Thucydides, ancient Greek historian, relating a speech by Pericles to the
Athenians; from History of the Peloponnesian War, II.63

hostilities in 430 sce began three
years earlier, when Athens had
intervened on behalf of Corcyra
in a dispute with Corinth; the
Spartans took it as a sign that
Athens had breached the peace.
An attack by Thebes, a Spartan
ally, on Plataea, which supported
Athens, was similarly taken by
the Athenians to indicate Sparta
was fixed on war. Athens, led by
Pericles, achieved early success in
the Peloponnesian War (431-
404.ce). In 426 8ce, the Athenians
invaded the Peloponnese, and
the following year landed a large

SOCRATES (469-399 BCE)

One of the greatest Greek
philosophers, Socrates served
on the Athenian Council in
406sce, but his challenges to
conventional morality at a time
of political uncertainty gained
him powerful enemies. He

refused to mount a conventional

defense against charges of
corrupting the Athenian youth
and was sentenced to die by
drinking the poison hemlock.

force at Pylos southwest of

| Sparta. Yet neither side could land

a fatal blow and in 421 ace they
agreed the Peace of Nicias, which
was supposed to last for 50 years.
The truce soon began to unravel.
Corinth refused to recognize its

authority, a pro-war leadership
i emerged in Sparta, and a complex
_ set of political maneuvers by
Alcibiades (450-404.ce], the
: newly dominant politician in
© Athens, led to the renewal of the

war in 4198ce. The following year,
Sparta’s allies won a key victory

: at Mantinea. Athens struck back

Lis

THRACE

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Aegospotami eiiampsacus’ 410

The Great
Peloponnesian War

The period of 431-404 ace
saw the destruction of
the Athenian Empire at
the hands of a coalition of

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2,800

ATHENIANS

Spartans

BATTLE OF SPHACTERIA 425BCE

in 4168ce by capturing Melos—the
only main Aegean island not in

its possession—but fatally
overreached itself in 415 ace

with an expedition to Sicily, ending
in the total destruction of the
Athenian force by the Syracusans °
in 413.ece. The Spartans,
meanwhile, established a fort at
Decelea in Attica that denied the
Athenians access to the rich silver
mines. An alliance with Persia
further strengthened Sparta’s
Position in 412ece, and ayear later ©
the democratic regime in Athens

7,000
ATHENIANS

BATTLE OF DELIUM 424BCE

: was briefly overthrown.

Democracy was restored the
following year, and, although the
Athenians won victories at Cyzicus
in 4108ce and Arginusae in 406 ace,
the total destruction of their
fleet at Aegospotamii off lonia in
405 ce left Athens defenseless.
The Spartans blockaded the city,

: and, despite a determined

resistance, the Athenians were

» forced to surrender. Athens was

deprived of its fleet and in 404 Bce

30,000 Spartans

ATHENIANS

SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 415-413 BCE

In Magadha in India the
Haryanka dynasty founded by
Bimbisara was replaced c.4138ceE
after the death of Ajatashatru
(c.459 ace) and a series of
ineffectual rulers. Shishunaga
founded a new dynasty, which
was responsible for overseeing
the final transfer of the Magadha
royal capital to Pataliputra.

The Shishunaga dynasty lasted
only 500 years.

AFTERITS VICTORY IN THE
PELOPONNESIAN WAR, Sparta
found itself embroiled in a quarrel
with Persia over whether the
lonian Greek cities should regain
their autonomy. Through the

390s sce, sporadic fighting and
abortive peace talks diverted
Sparta from a weakening position
in mainland Greece. The “King’s
Peace,” a definitive treaty with
Persia in 386 sce, deprived the
lonians of autonomy but allowed
the Spartans to quash any threats
to its supremacy. In 385.ce, they
attacked Mantinea in the central
Peloponnese and in 382 8ce
occupied Thebes. Spartan power
seemed unassailable.

In Persia, the death of Darius II
(r. 423-404 sce} was followed by a
brief civil war, when Cyrus the
Younger tried to overthrow his
older brother Artaxerxes Il

Etruscan tomb painting

: (404-358 ece). Cyrus was

: defeated and killed at the Battle
: of Cunaxa in 401 sce, but in its

| aftermath some 10,000 Greek

£ mercenaries were left trapped in

northern Mesopotamia. Under

: Xenophon, the Greeks marched
: to the Black Sea coast and

| safety near Trapezus (Trabzon

) in modern-day Turkey), a feat

: their commander immortalized
: in his book Anabasis.

In Italy, the Romans widened

| their territory and annexed the

5 city of Veii in 396 sce, whose

: submission represented the end

» of any Etruscan threat. However,
¢,390ece, an army of Celts, who

: had been attacking the Etruscan

: city of Clusium, turned south,

: defeated a Roman army at the

| Battle of the Allia, and then took

a pro-Spartan Council of Thirty
was installed to govern it.

The Etruscan language has never been deciphered, so it is through the
frescoes in their tombs that much has been learned of their culture.

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700BcE-599ceE |

Sutton Hoo buckle

Made of solid gold and decorated with an
interlaced animal pattern, the Anglo-Saxon
Sutton Hoo belt buckle was found in a 7th-
century ship burial in East Anglia, England.

Prehistory

Use of copper ore

In western Iran and
Anatolia, copper ore is
ground or beaten into
shape to make small
objects such as beads.

Copper ore

2600-2400 BCE
Use of beaten
copper plate
Early copper smelting
methods are refined,
allowing the beating
of copper while still
hot into more
complex shapes.

Sumerian copper bull

THE CLASSICAL AGE

plain boss co

nected

with sliding catch

on backplate

animal interlace
picked out in circles

bird's head
in profile

central interlace
pattern

c. 1500-1200 BCE
Refinement of
bronze casting

New techniques are
developed for casting
and adorning bronze
vessels, such as
decorating them by ang
beating on the inside. cauldron

c. 1500-30 BCE
Purifying gold
The ancient Egyptians learn how
to separate pure gold from silver
in around 1500 sce and begin to
use it more extensively for
decorative purposes.

Funeral mask of

Tutankhamun

animal interlace with gi

a biting head and tail

c. 900 BCE-100 CE
Using iron
Ironworking spreads
from western Anatolia,
reaching Greece around
900 Bce and West Africa
about 400 sce, enabling
stronger tools and
weapons to be made.

c. 640-500 BCE

Metal as money

Metal coins (made of an
alloy of gold and silver)

are first used in Lydia (in
present-day Turkey] around
640 sce. The ancient Greeks
adopt the idea and spread it
around the Mediterranean.

circular plate at base

of buckle tongue

Weapon heads

c. 100-700
Anglo-Saxon
metalworking

The Anglo-Saxons
bring a new level
of sophistication to
metalworking, often
using animal forms
as decoration.

Greek coin

THE STORY OF METALWORKING

Around 7000s8ce, naturally occurring metals,
notably copper, began to be used for small
items such as pins in western Iran and

eastern Anatolia. These were made by

simply grinding or beating the metal
into shape. Heating copper
to make it more malleable was
probably discovered by accidentally
dropping the metal in fire, but it was

the introduction of smelting in a

crucible around 3800sce that led to the

large-scale use of metals.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALLOYS
About 3000sceE, the first alloy—bronze—was
produced. Made by smelting tin and copper
together in a crucible, bronze is stronger and
more easily worked than either of its individual
constituents, and it remained the principal metal
for tools and weapons until the invention of
ironworking around 1250ce. The technology to
melt pure iron was not invented until the 19th
century, so early iron objects were made by first
smelting iron ore to an impure iron “bloom,” then
separating out the iron pieces and welding them

Since their earliest known use in the 8th millennium BcE, metals have
played a crucial role in the production of a vast range of objects, and even
today, with the availability of sophisticated polymers and composites,
they still permeate every aspect of modern civilization.

together in a furnace. This method of production
continued until the introduction of blast furnaces
in Europe in the 15th century. The Industrial
Revolution in the 18th century brought new
techniques and the use of coking coal in blast
furnaces, but it was English inventor Henry
Bessemer's invention of the Bessemer converter
in 1856 that permitted the large-scale production
of steel, a strong, high-quality, iron-carbon alloy.
Later in the Industrial Revolution, further advances
made it possible to produce other metals, such as
aluminum, magnesium, and titanium, whose light
weight and strength played a vital role in the
development of the aviation and space industries.

An alloy is a mixture of metals or of a metal with
a nonmetal (such as iron with carbon in steel).
Many metals occur naturally in alloyed form, but
synthetic alloys were not produced until around
3000 BceE, when copper was melted with tin to
produce bronze. The technique spread, reaching

||
| iw [ A

THE MELTING POINT OF
COPPER. WHEN COPPER

I$ ALLOYED WITH TIN, =| fosteguctuyerig
THIS DROPS TO 1,742°F = : a

700-800

Sword-making

In Europe, sword-makers
develop stronger swords by
welding together successive
layers of iron with carbon added,
or by beating out thin iron strips
then welding them together.

800-1300/1450

Christian objects in
precious metals

Medieval Christians make
sacred objects, such as
crucifixes and reliquaries,
from gold and other
precious metals, sometimes
encrusted with gemstones.

c. 15th century
Weapons from cast metal
Cast iron is developed. Because
itis strong and can be used
to make shapes such
as tubes, it finds an
immediate use in
making artillery.

The Verdun Altar

1950s
Titanium aircraft
Because of its high
strength-to-weight
ratio, titanium starts to
be used extensively in
military aircraft. It is
now also widely used in
commercial aircraft.

Medieval
cannon

Lockheed Blackbird

1910

Aluminum foil

The first aluminum foil

is produced. It was made
possible by the invention in
1886 of a method of mass-
producing the metal by
passing an electric current

through molten ore.

1810
Tin can

English inventor Peter
Durand patents the tin
can for preserving food.
His patent was for a can
made of iron and coated
with tin to inhibit rusting
of the iron.

1856
Bessemer converter
Englishman Henry
Bessemer invents a
converter that enables
large-scale production
of high-quality steel.

Bessemer converter

Acarving showing the pharaoh Nectanebo |, founder of the 30th Dynasty, making offerings to gods,

EGYPT HAD BROKEN AWAY FROM
Persian control after the revolt

of Amyrtaeus, who founded the
28th Dynasty in 4048ce. However,
the Persians had not given up on
Egypt. Nectanebo | established
the 30th Egyptian Dynasty in
380BCE. He was able to repel a
force sent by the Persians and
their Greek allies in 373BCE.
Persia was diverted from further
attempts to bring Egypt to heel by
the Great Rebellion of the
Satraps in the 360sBCE. This
rebellion was partially aggravated
by the campaigns of Tachos, son of
Nectanebo |, in Persian-ruled
Palestine from 361-3608CE.
Nectanebo Il (r. 360-343 Bce)
succeeded Nectanebo |, and
continued to meddle in the Persian
civil wars. In an ill-judged
intervention in 346 BCE, he sent
troops to aid an uprising in Sidon
(Lebanon). In response,
Artaxerxes Ill of Persia marched

11,000

SPARTANS

Battle of Leuctra

At Leuctra in central Greece, the
Thebans exploited the tendency of
the Spartans to shift right by
concentrating their attack on the left,
enabling them to defeat an enemy
with larger numbers than theirs.

including the crocodile-headed Sobek.

FORMED
THE ELITE
-MILITARY UNIT .
THE SACRED |
BAND OF
THEBES

: alarmed enough to revive the
: Theban alliance and try to

_ establish a Second Athenian
: Confederacy in opposition to

into the Nile Delta region in
343.8cE, and Egypt was defeated
within two years. Now under
Persian rule, Egypt was never

= again ruled by a native dynasty.

In Greece, the Spartan

= occupation of Thebes, which had
begun in 3828CE, was short-lived.

: In3798CE, the Spartan polemarch
(governor) of Thebes was
assassinated, and the Thebans
drove out the Spartan garrison
with the aid of two Athenian

: generals who arrived on their own
initiative to help. In retaliation,
the Spartans mounted an
expedition under King
Cleombrotus [r. 380-371 BcE). This
expedition failed to retake Thebes,
but it so alarmed the Athenians
that they executed one general and
exiled the other, and temporarily
abandoned the alliance with

: Thebes. The Spartans invaded
the region of Boeotia in 378-

: 377BCE but made little headway,
although the Athenians were

: Sparta. In 3758CE the Thebans,

: Athenians, and Spartans signed a

: “Common Peace,” but it broke

: down almost immediately. The

: Thebans then took the offensive,

» aided by a newelite force of citizen
: soldiers, the Sacred Band, which

mercenaries who largely fought
Greek city-states’ wars by this
period. Theban attempts to
conquer the region of Phocis and
retain dominance in Boeotia
rankled with Sparta, and
scuppered Athenian attempts to

: broker a peace in 372BceE. At

Leuctra in 3718Ce, the Theban
army under the general
Epaminondas fought a tactically
brilliant battle to smash the
Spartan phalanx. At Sparta’s

: mercy just eight years before,
: Thebes was now the dominant

power in Greece.
In Sicily, Syracuse continued to
flourish under the strong rule of

Temple of Thoth

Situated at Hermopolis in Upper
Egypt, the temple of Thoth dates
from the New Kingdom but was

renovated in the 4th century BCE.

Dionysius | (402-367 BcE), who
fought the third in a series of wars
against the Carthaginians from 383
to 375BCce. At first, the war went
badly for Dionysius, whose fleet
was wrecked in a storm.
Carthaginian efforts to mount an
expedition to Sicily were hampered
by plague in 379BcE and a revolt by
subject cities in Libya, so that it
was only in 3778CE that an army
was landed. Dionysius, who had
been campaigning against
Carthage’s allies in southern Italy,
returned to Sicily and crushed
Mago’s force—10,000 are said to
have died. Dionysius allowed the
remnants to slip away, and they
regrouped and returned the
following year under Mago’s son
Himilco to deliver a stinging defeat
to the Syracusans. Both sides were
war-weary and in 375BcE made
peace, leaving Dionysius in
possession of most of eastern
Sicily and parts of southern Italy.

The ruins of Thebes, Greece's
dominant city-state in the 360sBcE.

ALTHOUGH THE ATHENIANS
brokered a general peace in
Greece in 371BCE, the Thebans did
not participate. Thebes built up a
coalition of allies and invaded
Sparta in 370-369 Bce. As a result,
Messenia was finally detached
from Spartan control, but further
Theban success was hampered
by the temporary deposition of
Epaminondas, who was tried for
allegedly sparing the city of Sparta
in exchange for a bribe. Once
Epaminondas was back in control,
the Thebans won Persian backing
for their anti-Spartan alliance in
3678CE, and a further invasion of
the Peloponnese in 3668CE gained
recruits for the Theban coalition.
However, Theban successes relied
too narrowly on the personality of
one man, and when Epaminondas

Ancient theater

The Odeon was a temple built in the
town of Messene, which was founded
by Epaminondas of Thebes in 3678CE.

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IS MORE TO BE FEARED THAN AN ARMY
OF LIONS LED BY A DEER. 99

Attributed to Philip I, king of Macedonia, 4th century BCE

was killed in battle in 362BCE,

Theban power was rapidly eclipsed. | é

In India, the Nanda dynasty
began its expansion in the
370s BCE, and continued to expand
until it was able to take power from
the Shishunaga in 345Bce. The
dynasty’s founder Mahapadma
Nanda conquered much of north
India, building up a huge army.
He operated an efficient
administrative system with
centrally appointed tax collectors
and undertook irrigation works.
However, the deposition of Dhana
Nanda in 321 BCE was followed by
the absorption of the Nanda
empire into the Mauryan empire.

The state of Chu was the most
southerly of China’s Warring
States, centered on the Middle
Yangzi River. Throughout the 5th
century BCE it annexed a number of
states, becoming the dominant
power by 3808CE. In 366BCE a
resounding victory by the state of
Qin against the armies of Hannand :

x y q y

‘THE AGE OF

MAGAPADMA

NANDA AT
HIS DEATH

Wei, followed by another defeat of
Wei at the battle of Shimen in
3648CE led to Chu’s decline and the

| shift eastward of Wei’s royal center
: to Daliang. A rejuvenated Wei was

strong enough to force the rulers of
four other Warring States to attend
its court in 356BCE. Wei's

i supremacy was short-lived, and

defeats inflicted on it by Qi armies
at Guiling in 353BCE and Maling in
341 BCE reduced it to a Qi vassal.

IN 359 BCE PERDICCAS III OF
Macedonia died and his successor,
Philip Il (r. 359-3378cE) began to
transform the position of what
had been regarded by other
Greeks as a very minor kingdom.
In 357BCE, he made his first major
conquest, Amphipolis in Thrace.
He became involved in the Third
Sacred War (356-346 Bce), which
was fought over perceived
violations by Sparta and Phocis of
the sacred oracle at Delphi, using
this to cement his position as an
important player in the power
politics of central Greece and the
Peloponnese. In the 340s, Philip
strengthened his position in
Thessaly and became involved in
petty disputes between the
city-states, as rival factions
turned either to him or to Athens
for support. In 340 BCE open war
broke out between Philip and the
Athenian-Theban alliance. Just
two years later, at Chaeronea in
Boeotia, Philip defeated the

Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
Mausolus was the Persian satrap
(governor] of a region of south-
western Turkey. After his death in
353 BCE his wife built a tomb for
him, which became one of

the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World.

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ye 8 noe ant
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WR ce OEY pov’
3 gs co ON aw
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aK Ap ok 8
eo
oF

PHILIP OF MACEDONIA (382-336 BcE)

Philip I reformed the
Macedonian army and forced
the Greek states to joina
League of Corinth under
Macedonian control. After his
return to Macedonia, he took a
new wife, Cleopatra, but was
stabbed to death at his wedding
feast, possibly on the orders of
his son, Alexander the Great,
who stood to lose his position
if Cleopatra bore another heir.

Athenians and annihilated the
Theban Sacred Band (see
380-371 BcE}. Macedonian power
in Greece was now unchallenged.
Rome’s steady expansion in
central Italy had caused alarm
among its neighbors. This led toa
bitter six-year struggle with the

town of Tibur from 360BCcE, among °
other conflicts. In 340BCE, a
general war broke out between
Rome and the Latins, who
inhabited the modern region
of Lazio around Rome. The

Romans had just emerged from
a war with the Samnites, a
people who inhabited the
central Apennines, and
the Latins took

: advantage of Rome's exhausted

: state to launch an attack. During
: the first year of the war, at a battle
: near Vesuvius, the consul Publius
i Decius Mus is said to have

| dedicated his body to the gods

: of the underworld and then

: undertaken a suicidal charge
against the Latin ranks that

| turned the tide of battle in the

_ Romans’ favor. By 3388ce, the

| Romans had defeated the Latin
: League. The peace terms were

: favorable, with many Latins being
: granted Roman citizenship. The

i League was then dissolved, and

| many of the former Latin cities

' were absorbed into the Roman

: state, moving Rome further

: toward complete dominance of

» In Peru, the Nazca culture

| began around 350BcE. These
people created mysterious
geoglyphs, huge lines in the

» desert creating animal and

&
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Despite being heavily outnumbered at Issus, Alexander the Great, depicted here on his horse
Bucephalus, made brilliant use of his cavalry to wina stunning victory over King Darius III.

AFTER THE ASSASSINATION OF
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA in 336 BCE
(see 355-337 Bc), his 20-year-old
son Alexander [often referred to
as Alexander the Great] became
commander of the major Greek
city states. The next year Alexander
invaded Thrace, but a rumor that

he had been killed caused a major :
revolt centered on the Greek city of

Thebes, supported by Darius III of
Persia (r. 336-330 sce}. Alexander
reacted swiftly; the Thebans were
defeated and their city razed.

The other states soon submitted.
In 334BceE, Alexander hurried to
Anatolia, where a Macedonian
army was already established,
totaling perhaps 43,000 infantry
and 6,000 cavalry. Although this
figure was dwarfed by the forces
of the local Persian satraps
(governors], Alexander's cavalry
smashed the lines of the satrap
Arsites at the Granicus River in
northwest Turkey. He pushed on
toward the heart of the Persian
Empire. In 333 6ce, at Issus,
northern Syria, he routed an army

Ruins of Persepolis
i The Persian ceremonial capital of
» Persepolis was burned to the ground
| by Alexander's troops in 3308cE.

| now seemed to have acquired the
whole of the vast Persian Empire.

. Aristotle
| The philosopher Aristotle was
: employed by Philip of Macedonia
as Alexander the Great's tutor.

AFTER HIS MURDER OF DARIUS,
Bessus declared himself the new
king of Persia [as Artaxerxes V],
but some of the Persian satraps
submitted to Alexander instead of
Bessus. During 330-329 8cE,
Alexander pursued Bessus into
the easternmost regions of the
Persian Empire, beyond the Hindu
Kush and into Bactria. Finally,

in Sogdiana, north of the Oxus
River, the local nobles, led by the
Sogdian warlord Spitamenes,
betrayed Bessus and handed him
over to Alexander. Once Alexander
had continued his march north,
however, Spitamenes revolted. It
took Alexander a year of bitter
campaigning to relieve the siege

Alexander the Great’s conquests
Alexander penetrated the farthest
corners of the Persian empire. To
cement his rule, he founded a series
of new cities, almost all named after
himself, notably Alexandria in Egypt.

CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER
Macedonian Empire 336-323ace
-» Route taken by Alexander's forces

svt
Black 5
THRACE Byzantium’ Lewy
MACEDONIA | eHeraclea | ARMENIA
y. ordium CAPPADOCIA
HELLAS R M6,
Ephesus on
Spartae

Crete
Mediterranean §

Cyprus

~ 7

: of Macaranda [Samarkand] and
: pacify Sogdiana, although the
: fortress of the “Sogdian Rock”

managed to hold out against the

: Macedonian forces until 327 BcE.

Alexander then crossed into the

: Kabul Valley, and the following

year, at the Hydaspes River, he

who, demoralized and disease-
ridden, mutinied and demanded
to go home. Part of the army

: returned home by sea under
+ Nearchus, but a detachment
: under Alexander marched

: through the harsh Gedrosian

desert, suffering heavy losses.
His army reached central Persia
early in 3248Cce, but Alexander,

: still planning new expeditions

: Babylon in May 323Bce, at age 33.

: Incentral Italy, the Samnites of

Alexandria Eschate
Cs

THE AGE OF
-ALEXANDER'S
_FAVORITE

HORSE,
_BUCEPHALUS, |
WHEN IT DIED

: advance of the Romans
: into Campania after
| their abolition of the
. Latin League
: in 338BcE
"alarmed the

: Samnites, and
: the Roman placing
: of a colony in their land in
: 3288CcE and tensions over the

: control of Neapolis {Naples} led

_ to the outbreak of war in 326BCE.
| In 3218ce, the Samnites defeated

: a Roman army at the Caudine

| Forks. The Romans were

: humiliated by being forced to bow
: down and “pass under the yoke”

: (anarch made from their captured
| spears). Four years of peace

: followed before the Romans

| renewed the war and, despite

Cyrenew: H .
: dogged resistance by the
lemphis Ae : Samnites, finally emerged
“4414 a Arabian : victorious in 304 BCE.
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Samnite-style helmet
The Romans admired the Samnites

as fighters. This gladiator helmet is
based on the Samnite style of armor.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT had not
provided for an orderly succession
after his death in 323 BCE, and his
most experienced generals were
also dead—except for Antipater,
who had been left as regent in
Macedonia. Alexander's wife
Roxane was pregnant, and he
had a half-brother Arrhidaeus,
who was, unfortunately,
mentally unstable. A clique of
generals who were present at
Alexander's deathbed—
Ptolemy, Cassander,

Seleucus, and Lysimachus—
engineered a solution by which
Roxane’s newborn son Alexander
IV (323-310Bce} notionally shared
power with Arrhidaeus, who
became Philip Ill. In reality, this
military clique carved up the
empire between themselves and
four other generals. Perdiccas
emerged as the main power in
the center; Antipater and
Craterus took
Europe;
Antigonus
Monopthalmus
(“the one-eyed”) was given
Phrygia; Ptolemy got Egypt;
and Seleucus and Cassander
were promoted to senior
military commands.

These generals, who became
known as the Diadochoi
(“successors”), then fought a long
series of wars for dominance in
Alexander's former empire, at
first pitting the others against
Perdiccas, who was assassinated
in 320 Bce. Antipater rose to
power next, but he died of natural
causes in 318 BCE, leaving
Antigonus to make a bid for power

Battle of Ipsus

Although slightly outnumbered,
Lysimachus deployed his archers
against his enemy's flank, causing
Antigonus's infantry to flee in panic.

against the four remaining
principal players: Cassander in
Macedonia, Ptolemy in Egypt,
Lysimachus in Thrace, and
Seleucus in Babylon. War between
the parties raged inconclusively
until 3118ce. But when it was
renewed again in 3088CcE, it
looked as if Antigonus might
overcome all the others. Then, in
301 Bce, Lysimachus crushed the
Antigonid army at Ipsus, and
annexed most of Antigonus's
former territories, so cementing 2
tripartite division of Alexander's
empire between himself, Ptolemy,
and Seleucus.

In India, in around 320B8CcE,
Chandragupta Maurya [r. c. 320-
297 .8cE) overthrew the last of the
Nandas [see 370-356 Be] to
become ruler of Magadha and the
Ganges plain. An energetic ruler,
he then gradually absorbed the

outlying regions of the Nanda
Empire, pushing his control as
far as Gujarat and the Punjab.

In 305Bce, he began a campaign
against one of Alexander's
successors, Seleucus, which
ended in a treaty in 303 BCE, under
which the Greeks ceded control
of eastern Afghanistan and
Baluchistan to Chandragupta.
Having established the Mauryan
Empire in 307 sce, Chandragupta
decided to abdicate in favor of
his son Bindusara [r. 297-
2728ce). He then retired to
become a Jain monk, ultimately
starving himself to death.

In China, Meng Zi (or Mencius)
(c. 372-289 Bce) arrived at the Wei
court around 320BCE and rapidly
earned himself a reputation as
the “second sage” of the

44 TO THE STRONGEST! 99

Alexander the Great, on his deathbed in reply to a
question about who would succeed him

| Confucian tradition. His surviving
| work, the Shi Ji, is written in the

: form of dialogues with several

: contemporary kings. Meng Zi

: for aking and, more practically,

: recommends lower taxes, less

: harsh punishments, and ensuring
: that the people have enough to

: eat. He believed that if a king

» acted benevolently, everyone

' would want to be ruled by him,

| and he would have no need of

i conquest. Meng Zi’s benevolent

: view of human nature had a

: widespread appeal, and politically
© his views were most influential in
: the time of the Song dynasty

At age 20, Alexander inherited much of Greece from his father; by
his death just 13 years later, he had extended this to cover a vast
area from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in the west. He
was a brilliant general but prone to acts of impetuous violence.
His adoption of Persian court ritual alienated many native
Macedonians, and his not naming an heir proved catastrophic.

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The Pharos lighthouse was built under Ptolemy Il in around
2808CE. It guided ships into Alexandria harbor at night.

IN ITALY, A THIRD WAR broke

out between the Romans and
Samnites in 298 BCE, apparently
provoked by Samnite harassment
of their neighbors, the Lucanians.
Despite two Roman victories in
297 BCE, the Samnites, this time
allied with the Gauls, could still
field a huge army against the
Romans at Sentinum in 2958cE.

Demetrius Poliorcetes (c.337-

: 283 BCE], the son of Antigonus

: rebuilding his strength from bases
: in the Aegean islands and in

: Cyprus. He was able to exploit the
» need of Seleucus, in Babylon, for

: allies against the now overmighty

: Cassander had died three years

: before, leaving his two young

46 ANOTHER SUCH

VICTORY AND WE

Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus, 279 BCE

IN 281 BCE, THE APPEAL by envoys
from the southern Italian city of
Tarentum for protection against
the Romans provided Pyrrhus,
the king of the Greek state of
Epirus, with a perfect excuse

for fulfilling his ambitions and
intervening there. He arrived with
an army more than 25,000 strong,
including war elephants. He beat
the Romans at the River Siris in
2808Cce, but the Roman senate

: 500 20
i | J

At the Battle of Mylae, in 260BcE,
Rome defeated the Carthaginian navy.

IN INDIA, the accession of Ashoka
(c. 294-232 BCE) to the throne in
268BCE had marked a watershed
for the Mauryan Empire. On his
father Bindusara’s death (see
322-301 Bce], Ashoka had to fight
a four-year civil war with his
brothers before he was enthroned.
Around eight years later, he
launched a campaign against
Kalinga (modern Orissa}, which
was so bloody that around 100,000

+ sons to engage in a bitter civil refused to make peace. Pyrrhus people are said to have died. So

: war. Demetrius then attacked vanquished another Roman army | KEY struck with remorse was Ashoka

© Lysimachus's Asian territories, at Asculum the next year, but his | © Infantry ®@ Slingers at this slaughter, that he ever after
© but in 292ecE he was brought losses were so severe that it @ Cavalry @ War elephants rejected war and promoted the

: back to Greece bya revolt in seemed more like a defeat. After @ Archers Buddhist concept of dharma,

THE NUMBER
OF YEARS
THE
PTOLEMAIC
DYNASTY
RULED EGYPT

The equally vast Roman army—at
45,000, the largest they had ever
fielded—was threatened with
defeat until the Roman consul
Publius Decius Mus (d. 295 8c)
dedicated himself and the enemy
army as sacrificial victims to the
gods of the underworld and led a
suicidal charge that shattered the
Samnite line. A string of Roman
successes followed in 293 and
292BCE, and two years later the
Samnites finally surrendered and
their lands were annexed. Roman
territory now stretched across the

Italian peninsula to the Adriatic Sea. :

: Aetolia. By 289BceE, Demetrius

: had suppressed the revolt, but he
: had lost most of his island bases
: to Ptolemy's Egyptian fleet. He

= retreated to Asia, and died in

: 283BCE, a captive of Seleucus.

Of Alexander's successors,

: position. A naval defeat in 306 BcE
: by Demetrius Poliorcetes confined
: his ambitions temporarily to Egypt.
= Yet here he shrewdly chose to

: exploit the existing mechanisms

_ of power, establishing himself as

a pharaoh in the old style and

i setting up an administration that
: melded the best of Greek and

: Egyptian traditions. By 2958ce,

: Ptolemy's naval forces had

= recovered and conquered much of
» the Aegean. In Egypt, Ptolemy's

» position was sufficiently secure

: that, at his death in 2838ce, aged
: 84, he passed the kingdom on to

: (r. 283-245.Bce], the second king

: of a Ptolemaic dynasty that would

rule Egypt until 30 BcE.

invading Sicily, Pyrrhus retreated
back to Epirus in 2758ce, nursing
huge losses in troops and having
made no territorial gains.

The defeat and death of

Lysimachus in 281 BCE in battle

Pyrrhus of Epirus

Despite his many campaigns, when
Pyrrhus died he ruled little more
than the kingdom he had inherited.

| Pyrrhus's army

The army that Pyrrhus took over to

: Italy included a small number of war
: elephants, whose presence caused

: the Roman cavalry to panic and flee.

» against Seleucus, and the latter's

: assassination, soon led to

: instability on the frontier between

» the Seleucid Empire (now ruled

: by his son Antiochus |) and the

» Egyptian ruler Ptolemy II

: Philadelphos. Finally, in 274 BcE

: the First Syrian War broke out

: between them. The Egyptians

emerged victorious, annexing

| parts of the Syrian coast and
southern Anatolia. This position

: losses in the Second Syrian War

» (260-253 ec) and then renewed

» inthe Third Syrian War (246-241
bce), which was fought between
the Seleucid Antiochus Il and

» Ptolemy Ill. These three

| debilitating wars left the Seleucids

» particularly vulnerable to the now

: growing power of Parthia.

meaning mercy or piety. He set up
a series of edicts carved in rock
throughout the empire—many of
them on pillars topped witha
lion—promoting his adherence to
dharma. Under his patronage the
Third Buddhist Council met at
Pataliputra around 2508CE, and
Ashoka sought to export his ideas
abroad, exchanging diplomatic
missions with foreign rulers, such
as Antiochus II of Syria and
Ptolemy Il of Egypt. At his death
in 2328ce, the Mauryan Empire
had reached its greatest extent
and seemed securely established.
In China, Zhao Zheng succeeded
his father to the throne of Qin in
246BCE. From 228BCE, ably advised
by chancellor Li Si, Zhao Zheng
unleashed a final war of conquest
against the remaining Warring
States (see 370-356 ace). Zhao
and Yan soon fell to his forces, the
Qin armies captured Wei and, in
223 BCE, overcame Chu. Only Qi
still held out but, in 221 BCE, Zhao
Zheng finally annexed it, leaving

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the worship of the great gods,
such as Neptune (shown here],
with that of more local deities.
There were several different
types of priest: haruspices
made predictions from the
entrails of sacrificed animals;
augures determined the divine
will from signs, such as the
flight of birds; and pontifices
controlled the complex
calendar of religious festivals.
In their homes, Romans had
shrines to household gods and
the spirits of their ancestors.

him the master of all China. The
same year he proclaimed himself
the “First Emperor” as Qin Shi
Huangdi, and the first ruler of the
new Qin dynasty.

In Persia, the Greek Seleucid
dynasty, which had inherited the
region after Alexander the Great's

death in 323.6ce, faced a series of

nomad incursions
after 2808CE.
Antiochus | (reign
c. 292-261 BCE]

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: expelled the nomads, but wars
: with Egypt (280-272 Bce and
260-253 Bce) overstretched the
kingdom's resources. On the
death of Antiochus Il (r. 261-246
: Bc], civil war broke out between
the king's widow Berenice and his
© former wife Laodice. This led to
the breakaway of Bactria under
Diodotus and Parthia
under Andragoras.
Taking advantage
of this instability,

the nomadic Parni, led by
Arsaces, entered Parthia in the
mid-240s BCE.

Rivalry over Sicily, where the
Carthaginians had possessed
colonies since the 8th century BCE,
was at the root of the First Punic
War (264-241 sce), a conflict
between Rome and the North
African power of Carthage. In 264 :
BCE, the Romans sent an army to
help the Mamertines—a group
of south-Italian mercenaries
occupying the Sicilian city of
Messana—in their conflict with
the city of Syracuse, which was
in turn aided by Carthage. The
Carthaginian’s resistance was so
stubborn that the Romans made

little headway. However, after they

: had built their first-ever fleet, the

Romans’ fortunes changed. In
260 cE, they won an important
victory over the Carthaginians at
Mylae. A Roman invasion of North
Africa in 2568ce failed to capture
Carthage only through the
ineptitude of the consul, Regulus.
On land, the Romans took the
Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily
one by one until, by 249 8ce, only

: Drepana, in western Sicily, held

out against them. A massive

: Carthaginian naval victory there
= set back the Roman cause, but

: in 241 BCE, a new Roman fleet

: appeared off Drepana, took it,

and the next year smashed
a Carthaginian fleet at the

YEARS

THE LENGTH OF
THE FIRST PUNIC
WAR

: Aegades Islands. This defeat

: caused Hamilcar Barca, the

: Carthaginian general, to sue for

: peace. The peace terms involved

| The two sides’ spheres of

| of two future conflicts.

‘(4 1F THEY WILL
NOT EAT, LET
"THEM DRINK! 99

: Publius Claudius Pulcher, Roman

: consul and general, ordering the

| drowning of the sacred chickens

: when they refused to eat grain

: before the Battle of Drepana, 249BCE

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KEY

Great Stupa at Sanchi
This Buddhist stupa in central India
was begun by the Mauryan ruler

Carthaginian Empire in 264 BCE
Roman gains by 264 BCE
Roman gains by 238 BCE

The First Punic War

The two decades of fighting was
concentrated around Sicily, but
also saw Roman invasions of

Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. ® Roman victory North Africa and Sardinia.
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THE NUMBER OF

COMMANDERIES
(REGIONS) SET UP
BY EMPEROR OIN
SHI HUANGDI

IN 221 BCE, QIN SHI HUANGDI, the
first emperor of China, divided his
empire into 36 commanderies on
the advice of his minister Li Ssu.
The dispossessed aristocrats and
nobles of Qin’s former enemies
were moved to the capital Xianyang
to keep them under close control.
To further encourage a sense of
unity, Li Ssu commissioned a
single script and a standardized
system of weights and measures

made to the north and south in

colonists were sent to the new
territories. Shi Huangdi dealt
firmly with opposition. In 213 8cE,
he ordered the “burning of the
books,” by which the writings of
philosophers opposed to the Qin
state were burned, and in 212BCE
he had many intellectuals who
opposed him brutally killed.

Suppressing opposition

This watercolor-on-silk painting
shows Shi Huangdi, China's first
emperor, overseeing the burning of
books and the execution of scholars.

In the aftermath of the First
Punic War (see 264-241 BCE),

= which Sicily and Sardinia lost,

» Carthage turned its attention

» to Spain. In 238.8ce, Hamilcar

: was sent there, and he conquered
: almost all of southern Spain. He

: died in battle against the Oretani,

a Celtic tribe, in 229 8cE, but by

: then he had won a new empire

: for Carthage anda strong power
: base for his family, the Barcids.

for China. Further conquests were &
: Punic War, the Romans position
219 and 2146ce, and thousands of ©
: 225ece, the Celtic Insubres and

Despite their victory in the First
in northern Italy was still weak. In

Boii tribes tried to drive them out.

: Atthe Battle of Telamon, the Celts
: were trapped between two Roman
: armies and routed. Although the

: Boii accepted defeat in 224sce and
| the Insubres sued for peace two

: years later, the Romans rebuffed

them and pushed on for total
victory. The king of the Boii was
killed in single combat against a

: Roman consul, and their capital

| Mediolanum [Milan] captured.

» The Romans established colonies
» inthe Celtic territories in 218 BcE,

including at Piacenza.

A revolt led by Arsaces (see
265-241 BCE) in Parthava, a
former satrapy in the northeast of

: the Seleucid Empire, could not be
+ quelled by Seleucus II (r. 246-225
: BCE], anda separate Parthian

: kingdom emerged in the region

: of modern Iran. The Parthians

gradually annexed more territory

: to the west, especially under

» Mithridates I(r. 171-138 pce). By
| the early Ist century BCE, only a

: small area of Syria was under

: Seleucid control.

This rendition of Hannibal's crossing of the Alps is attributed to Italian artist

Jacopo Ripanda. Ama:

Second Punic War

There were three principal theaters
of conflict: Spain, Italy, and North
Africa. By 203 BCE, the Carthaginians
were confined to Africa.

THE SECOND PUNIC WAR
218-202 BCE

Carthaginian Empire 281BceE
Carthaginian territory 2008ce
Roman territory 2188cE
Roman gains by 200scE
Massalian territory 2188CcE
Carthaginian victory

% Roman victory
Hannibal (219-202)
Hasdrubal (208-207

~* Scipio Africanus (210-206
and 204-202)

ALARMED AT CARTHAGINIAN
EXPANSION IN SPAIN, in 226 BCE
the Romans sent an embassy to
Hasdrubal—son of Hamilcar and
the new Barcid commander
there—and secured an
agreement that the Carthaginians
would not move north of the Ebro
River. In return, the Romans
pledged not to move south—
although they did forge alliances
with cities in the south, such as
Saguntum. In 221 Bce, Hasdrubal
was assassinated; two years
later, Hannibal, his brother and
successor, attacked Saguntum,
rapidly leading to the Second
Punic War (219-201 sce).

With the prospect of the
Romans sending one army to
Spain and another via Sicily to
invade North Africa, Hannibal

gly, all 37 elephants survived the mountain passage.

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AFRICA

decided to strike first. He
marched with 50,000 infantry,
9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants
into northern Spain, across the
Pyrenees, through southern
Gaul and—to the Romans’

astonishment—crossed the Alps. :

Although he now had only around

half the force he had started with,

his presence encouraged the

: north Italian Celts to revolt and,

at Trebia in late 2188cE, he
routed a Roman army. The
following year he smashed
another large Roman force at
Lake Trasimene, killing 15,000

: Battle of Canae

Some 35,000 Romans survived the
battle of Cannae, but half of those
were captured by the Carthaginians,
and many were sold into slavery.

2E@%Rhegium
*
Zama 202 & rthage ‘SyractiSe

Hadrumetumit=203._.
S Melita
°

*Leptis Magna

Charaxe,

: Romans—including one of the

: consuls. Faced with many

: defections among the allied

: cities, the Romans turned to

: delaying tactics to hold Hannibal
© at bay. But this was a temporary
measure, and the Romans

: suffered one of their worst ever

| defeats at Cannae in 2168ce, when

» 100
a 50,000 casualties
2 80
:<
3 6,000
2 60 casualties
be
iz
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ira

Roman Carthaginian
TROOPS

HANNIBAL (247-182 BCE)

A brilliant tactician, Hannibal's
string of victories against the
Romans from 2188CE was.
not matched by the strategic
judgment to convert them
into final victory. Following
the surrender of Carthage in
201 BCE, Hannibal served

as the city’s suffete (chief
magistrate] until the Romans
had him exiled in 1958ce.

He then offered his service

to a succession of Rome's
enemies before poisoning
himself in Bithynia.

Hannibal's army massacred up to
50,000 of them. But Hannibal

did not march immediately on
Rome, and his campaign lost
momentum. Although Hannibal
captured much of southern Italy,
including the key city of Capua in
211 BCE, by 212BcE the Romans
had raised 25 fresh legions and
stood ready to carry the war back
to the Carthaginians.

WHEN THE FIRST QIN EMPEROR
DIED IN 210BCE, resentment
against his autocratic rule erupted
in a series of peasant revolts. A
number of new kingdoms broke
away from the center, while the
anti-Qin forces found a talented
military leader in Xiang Yu. In
208 BcE, Li Ssu was executed and
anew army, led by Liu Bang, a
man of peasant origins, emerged
to challenge the Qin. By 206 &cE,
the Qin Empire was fragmented
and Xiang Yu and Liu Bang were at
war with one another. In 202BCE,
Xiang Yu committed suicide after
being defeated at Gaixia. With no
one left to oppose him, Liu Bang
had himself declared emperor as
Gaozu, the first ruler of the Han
dynasty (see 200-171 8ce).

With Hannibal making Little
headway in southern Italy, the
Romans embarked on a policy of
picking off the allies of Carthage.
Their first target was Philip V of
Macedonia, whose attacks on
Illyria in 215 BCE had provoked the
First Macedonian War (215-205
BCE) with Rome. In 211BCceE, the
Romans allied with the Aetolians,
who fought the Macedonians on
land while the Romans launched
naval attacks. Philip's invasion
of Aetolia in 207 BceE forced the
Aetolians to sue for peace the next
year, and though the Romans sent
fresh forces in 205Bce, the war
ended with a recognition of the
status quo between the two sides.

In Spain, the Romans had
retaken Saguntum in 212BCE, but
a disastrous defeat the following
year in which both consuls died
looked set to destroy the Roman

o
a
se On
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eS AP 9% 0?
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After his death, the First Qin Emperor was buried in a vast mausoleum, in which
an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors, each around 6ft 6in (2m) tall, were placed.

position there. The Roman senate
sent the young general Publius
Cornelius Scipio {c. 236-183 BcE)
to Spain, where he captured the
Carthaginian capital of Carthage
Nova. In 2068Cce, he crushed a
large Carthaginian force at Illipa.
In 207 BCE, Hannibal's brother
Hasdrubal was defeated and
killed at the Metaurus River in
northern Italy, denying Hannibal
crucial reinforcements. By 2048CE,
many of Hannibal's south-lItalian
allies had deserted him, and when
Scipio landed with a Roman army

at Utica in North Africa, the
Carthaginians recalled Hannibal
to head off a threat to Carthage
itself. The Romans offered
relatively lenient peace terms, but
the Carthaginians rejected them,
and Scipio captured their towns
one by one. Aided by the Numidian
prince, Massinissa, Scipio

: fleet was reduced to a mere 10

: ships; they were not allowed to
make war outside Africa at all,

» and inside it they needed Roman

: permission to do so. An annual

: tribute of 10,000 talents payable

: to the Romans completed the
humiliation of what had once
been Rome's greatest enemy.

defeated Hannibal's last army at |

Zama in 202 BCE. The peace terms
the Carthaginians now had to
accept were much harsher. All of
their territory was forfeit save a
band around Carthage itself; their

| The Continence of Scipio
Scipio was noted for his mercy. In

: this 19th-century painting, he is
seen handing back a captured

: Carthaginian woman to her fiancé.

a?
R re?
0 Roms
Ok sor" og?
ea PO)
I Xe 9? oe
CE ROO Hc
Sree SEN
s XK ae
a xo

700 sce-599 ce | THE CLASSICAL AGE

owl, the sacred
bird of Athena

crescent symbol in
post-490 BCE coins __

Athenian coin
The Athenian
silver tetradrachm
has an image of an
owl on one side and
a helmeted head on
the other. It was also
stamped with the Greek
letters for “ATHE” to identify
the city of its origin.

1200 BCE
Shells as money
Beginning from the
Maldives, the use
of cowrie shells

as money spreads
throughout the Pacific,
and, by the 19th century,

465-454 BCE

Greek coins

Almost every Greek city-state
issues its own coinage, often with
the name of the state inscribed on
it. Silver replaces electrum as the

into Africa. Cowrie shells main metal used.
Prehistory 1000-500 BCE c. 640-630 BCE Lydian coins 27 BCE-14 CE
Cattle as capital Tool money First true coins Augustan aureus

Prehistoric people
use cattle as money,
with animals such as
sheep or chickens
sometimes acting
as small change.

In China, common
tools are cast in
metal, punched
with holes (for
stringing several
together], and
used as money.

The state of Lydia
produces the first true
coins, made of electrum
{an alloy of gold and

Emperor Augustus
reforms the Roman
coinage system and
issues a new version of
silver) and stamped with the standard gold coin,
Knife an image of a lion or stag. Gold the aureus, worth
money aureus 25 silver denarii

THe StORY.OE

As societies became more complex, a need arose for a uniform medium of
exchange to acquire goods. Money was created to fulfill this role, and it evolved
from cattle to precious metals, and finally, to coins and bank notes. Today, money
is exchanged more abstractly, through credit cards or electronic transfers.

The earliest forms of money—used in ritual
exchanges (for example, as a dowry) and in paying
fines—included physical items such as cattle.

In the 4th millennium sce, the growth of trade in
Egypt and Mesopotamia led to more compact and
portable forms of money. For thousands of years,
precious metals were used, often in the forms of
bars and ingots. Babylonian king Hammurabi's law

100
90
80
70
60

PERCENTAGE OF SILVER

0
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260
YEAR

The debasement of Roman coins

Due to inflation, excessive expenditure, and weak control
of minting, the purity of the Roman denarius fell from
around 90 percent silver under Marcus Aurelius

(r. 161-180) to 4 percent during Gallienus’s rule (r. 260-268).

code mentions loans paid in silver. In 6408ce,

in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, the
development of money went a stage further with
the invention of coinage, which later spread to

the Greek world. By the Roman era, a tri-metallic
system had been adopted, with coins of gold,
silver, and bronze (of least value} circulating across
the empire. All had the head of the ruler stamped
on them, for propaganda as well as fiscal use.

EXCHANGE NOTES

In 1189, paper money came into use in China during
Jin rule. Notes could express larger denominations
and, therefore, were more convenient than coins.
Gradually, government-backed banks began to issue
notes, which were, in theory, exchangeable for an
equivalent amount in bullion (a system known as
the Gold Standard). However, the economic crisis
following World War | forced countries to abandon
the Gold Standard. Subsequently, the “real” value of
notes and coins became nominal, relying instead on
a sense of trust that they could be exchanged for
goods. The growth of credit cards from 1950 took
this a stage further, as the purchaser passed on
nothing save the promise of payment at a later date.

THE STORY OF MONEY

The growth in paper money in Europe after

the Middle Ages was fueled by the needs of
merchants. Traders would deposit funds ina
bank in one city and receive a promissory note,
which allowed them to withdraw the amount

in any other city where the bank hada branch.
Great Italian banking houses, such as the Medici,
were rich enough to fund the military campaigns
of European kings through their loans.

806-821

Paper money

In China, Emperor
Xianzong issues the
earliest bank notes during
a period of copper
shortage. The Jin dynasty
issues the first true bank
notes around 1189.

Song
dynasty
note

1158

Making change
Henry Il of England
creates high-quality
coinage, based ona
silver penny, with
across design that
will last over the next
100 years.

Henricus penny

1519

Thalers

Coin minted from
silver found in the
Joachimsthal mine,
Bohemia, becomes
standard in the
Spanish and Austrian
Habsburg empires.

1694
First bank note

Joachimsthal
thaler

17th century

Modern check gio
By the 17th century, the use of oa oe”
of checks, often backed thin ee” a)
by goldsmiths, becomes J $
widespread in sty -
Europe. < io” ; Lae!
* whe _ British check
Qe” 2 from 1659

The Bank of England
is founded to fund
England's growing
national debt. It issues
its first bank notes,
backed by the bank’s
own gold reserves.

1949

Credit and debit cards
The first credit cards
appear in the US in
1949, By the 1980s,
debit cards, which
operate as electronic
cash (without deferred
payment) appear.

Credit cards

1862

First dollar bill
The US Treasury
issues the first
dollar bills for
national circulation.
These are known
as “greenbacks”
for their vivid green color.

First one dollar bill

~ ho ul

The royal entourage of Gaozu, the first emperor of tl

Gaozu was one of the few Chinese rulers to come from a peasant background.

THE FIRST HAN EMPEROR OF
CHINA, GAOZU, died in 1958CE,
when his successor, Hui Ti, was
just 15. Hui Ti fell under the sway
of his mother, the empress Lu,
who took power for herself on
his premature death in 188 BCE.
Under her rule China was
invaded by the Hsiung-nu from
the north and the kingdom of
Nan-yueh to the south, and it
was only under Gaozu’s grandson

THE NUMBER

OF REGIONS
THAT MADE UP |
HAN CHINA i

Wen Ti (r. 180-157 Bce) that
stability was restored.

By 1438ce, the number of
commanderies (regions)
under central Han control had
risen from 13 to a total of 40.

In Japan, the Middle Yayoi
period (c. 200-1008ce) saw an
increase in population—possibly
to as high as 600,000 people—and

Yayoi vase
The Yayoi period in Japanese history
(c. 300 BCE to 250CE) is named for
the site near Tokyo where its pottery
was first found.

: the beginnings of political

In India, the Sunga dynasty

: took power in Magadha in 1856ceE,
: when its founder Pusyamitra
Sunga [r. 185-151 Bce), a former

geometrical
patterns
and shapes

he Han, depicted in the mountains of China.

: Mauryan general, assassinated

» the last Mauryan ruler (see

: 2658cE). He is said to have
persecuted Buddhists, marking
: the beginning of the religion's

: decline in its Indian homeland.

: He also fought a long series of

: wars with Magadha’s neighbors,

including the Satavahanas, the
Kalingas, and the Indo-Greek

: kingdoms of Bactria.

Bactria (in modern Afghanistan)

: had broken away from Seleucid

control around 275BCcE, but a
series of Greek kings continued
to rule there, starting with
Diodotus around 250 sce. Another
Indo-Greek dynasty emerged in
India, and became powerful
under Menander I [c. 165-
130BcE}, an important patron of
Buddhism. Under the Indo-Greek
kings, a new school of art
emerged around Gandhara, which
fused Buddhist iconography and
Greek naturalism. Gradually,
these easternmost Greeks came

: under pressure from Scythian

and Yuezhi nomads and in 125BCE
Bactria collapsed. The last
Indo-Greek kingdom of the
Punjab survived until 10ce.

The Roman victory against

_ Philip V of Macedon (see

210 Bce) in the Second
Macedonian War (200-197 sce)
did not lead to permanent
acquisitions in Greece,

and the Romans withdrew

their army in 194 BCE.

After the death of Philip V

in 179 BCE, his son Perseus

presided over worsening
relations with Rome, and
in 171BCE a Third Macedonian
War broke out. Initial Roman

| campaigning achieved little

except the alienation of their
Greek allies, but a more
disciplined approach under
the consul Aemilius Paullus
(see 1708ce] yielded better
results.

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Pier Wr” wl om iy a e™ OAS gto wel
e .
swat wi He os a KS RS 4

This wall painting shows Judah
Maccabee’s revolt in Jerusalem.

THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR
ended In 1688CcE, when Paullus
defeated Perseus at the Battle of
Pydna. A purge of anti-Roman
elements swept through the
Greek cities, and Macedonia was
broken up into four republics to
prevent it recovering its strength.
In 150 Bce, Spartan attempts
to get the Romans to intervene
ina quarrel with the Achaean
League [a group of Greek
city-states) coincided with an
anti-Roman revolt in Macedonia.
By 148 sce, the Macedonians had
been defeated and the Romans
turned their attention to the
Achaeans. The Roman consul
L. Mummius quickly routed the
Archaeans and took Corinth,
which he razed to the ground. The
various leagues of Greek cities
were dissolved and Greece lost
its independence, becoming the
Roman province of Achaea.

Captured
30

NUMBER OF SOLIDERS [IN 1,000s)

0
Romans Macedonians
COMBATANTS
Battle of Pydna

Philip V of Macedon’s army was
completely destroyed at the Battle
of Pydna. The Romans killed 20,000
Macedonians and captured 11,000.

After the end of the Second Punic
War, in 202 BCE, the Romans had
allowed their ally King Massinissa
of Numidia to encroach on
Carthaginian territory. The peace
conditions that ended the war
forbade the Carthaginians to wage

44 CARTHAGE
MUST BE
DESTROYED. 99

Cato the Elder, Roman statesman

war without Roman approval.
Unable to act, the Carthaginians
were reduced to sending
embassies to Rome to protest
Massinissa’s behavior. However,
Rome sided with its ally, and one
Carthaginian embassy in 162BCE
even resulted in Carthage being

: Carthaginean tophet

A memorial stone from the tophet

: (cemetery) at Carthage, showing

Tanit, the goddess of the heavens.

made to pay an annual fine
of 500 talents. In 151 BCE, the
Carthaginian government sent a

: military force to relieve a town that

had been besieged by Massinissa,
and the Romans reacted by

: declaring war. This was the Third
© Punic War (149-146 Bce). Rome's

war was encouraged by the
anti-Carthaginian senator Cato

the Elder, who made a series of
speeches to the Senate calling for
the destruction of Carthage.

The first two years of the Third
Punic war saw ineffective Roman
attacks on towns around Carthage.
In 147BCE, a new commander was
appointed, Scipio Aemilianus,
who transformed Rome's fortunes
in the war within a year.

In 167 BCE, the Seleucid ruler
Antiochus IV outlawed Jewish
religious practices in Judaea,
leading to the revolt of Judah
Maccabee and his brothers in
1648ce. Judah Maccabee entered
Jerusalem, reconsecrated the
temple, and reestablished
Judaism. The Seleucid kingdom
then continued to decline [see
also 2808ce), with the overthrow
of its ruler Demetrius | in 150 BceE
by Alexander Balas rapidly leading
to the loss of the key satrapies
(provinces) of Media and Susiana.

After the overthrow of the last king in 507BCE,
Rome became a republic, ruled by two annually
elected consuls. Over time the consuls came

to be supported by other magistrates (praetors
and quaestors], and tribunes of the plebs who had
a special role in protecting the rights of the lower

orders. Later elections for the consulate became
bitterly contested as the office provided great
potential for enrichment and personal and family
glory. After Augustus became emperor in 27 8cE
the office of consul lost any real power, being
increasingly awarded to imperial favourites.

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Sore? Cae 3 f oF <3 G os es
sos PO Boe COs oe 2 o as oe abe Ko o® we or ec Ss
S a se? oo : S a aot
s Rs FS go Wr oF Ie ee! so" 48 IT coh ®
eae a wed
¥ es
oi

The ruins of Carthage, which was burned and ritually cursed after its capture

—_

in 146 BCE. A new Roman town was founded near the city around 48BCE.

44 | SHUDDER TO THINK
THAT ONE DAY SOMEONE
MAY GIVE THE SAME ORDER
FOR ROME. 99

Scipio Aemilianus, Roman general and consul, on giving the order
to burn Carthage, from Plutarch’s Apothegmata

IN CHINA, RAIDS BY NOMADIC
HSIUNG-NU TRIBES from 1778CE
gravely threatened the Han
dynasty’s northern borders. In
139.BCE the imperial envoy, Zhang
Qian, set out to Central Asia to
seek out possible allies against
the Hsiung-nu. His epic journey
helped scout the way for Chinese
expansion as far as Dunhuang, and
the foundation of a number of new
Central Asian commanderies by
1048ce. Zhang Qian was held
captive by the Hsiung-nu for some
years during his journey before he
was able to make an escape.
Under emperor Wu (141-87 8ce)
the Chinese launched several
offensives against the Hsiung-nu,
particularly in 121BcE and 119BcE,
after which the frontier was quiet
for almost 20 years.

In the Near East, the shrunken
and near-helpless Seleucid
realm (see 1708CcE) was riven by
civil wars and prey to interference
from the Parthians, the
Hasmonaeans, and, increasingly,
the Romans. In 142Bce, the
Maccabees succeeded in wresting
Jerusalem from Seleucid control
and established a Hasmonaean
kingdom, with Jerusalem as its

capital, under which a Jewish
dynasty ruled until Jerusalem was
captured by the Romans in 63 BCE.

On the Iberian Peninsula, the
Romans had conquered most of

» southern Spain and parts of

» Portugal {where the Lusitanians

© vigorously resisted them] by
1748ce. A revolt by the Lusitanian
leader Viriathus from 147BCE was
joined by several Celtiberian

: petered out after Viriathus was
murdered in 140BCE. In 133 BCE,

+ Numantia, the main center of the
revolt, finally fell to the Romans
after a bitter siege. Its population
© was sold into slavery and Rome

was left in control of all of Iberia,
except the far north of Spain.

The Third Punic War came to
an end when Scipio Aemilianus
blocked Carthage’s harbor then
launched a successful attack on
the city itself in spring 146 BCE.

: The last Carthaginian defenders
died in an inferno in the city's
main temple. The defeat of

| Carthage brought its 118-year
struggle against Rome to an end.

: The Romans burned the whole

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44 HOWEVER MUCH YOU MAY

TRY TO DELAY, YOU ARE FATED TO
MEET THE SAME DEATH AS 1 DID. 99

Tiberius Gracchus, Roman official, speaking in a dream to his
brother Gaius; from an account by Cicero

SAKA (SCYTHIAN) TRIBESMEN
invaded Punjab, northern India,
in about 125BcE. They gradually
occupied more territory, ending
a brief period of Indo-Greek unity
(see 200-171 Bce] under the reign
of Antialcidas around 110 BCE. Led
by King Maues, the Sakas took
the kingdom of Gandhara and its
capital Taxila in about 80 BCE.
After Maues died (c. 608cE], the
Saka kingdom collapsed, but it
was revived under his son Azes |
(r. 58-c, 30 BCE}, who conquered
much of northwest India. The
Sakas held this region until the
rise of the Kushan Empire during
the 1st century CE.

: In southern and central India,

| the Satavahanas began their

| rise to power after the breakup of
the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd

: century BCE (see 200-171 Bee).

| From his capital in the Deccan, the
third Satavahana king, Satakarni,

: extended his sway considerably

» around 50BCE, although he and

: later Satavahana rulers struggled

: to contain the Saka and Kushan

: threats from the northwest.

In Rome, social turmoil had

: erupted over the distribution of

_ public land held by the Senate.

! Tiberius Gracchus, who was

: tribune of the plebs in 133.Bce,

: sought to ensure that plots of this

: obstructed his plans, he tried to
extend his tribunate so that he

= could pursue his aim. Amob

| organized by senators opposed

: to the plans beat him to death in

: the Forum. Tiberius’s brother

. Gaius became tribune in 123 BcE
and tried to carry on his brother's

* work. He also reduced the

: Senate's role in dispensing justice,

: poor. In 122BCE, the Senate

in Italy. He killed himself, and

: thousands of his political

: supporters were executed.

Amravati relief carving

This carving depicts the life of the
Buddha. It comes from Amravati in
Andra Pradesh, southeast India, one
of the capitals of the Satavahanas.

ot .
é 2
CORY o soe ae
ro a’ cS avr ee &
a 3 2
FF ol rs ak os
A Oi 3 Res WO
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Seeks 9%" O55" ee ood
3 eo 3 so
os x we

This 17th-century silk painting from a history of Chinese emperors
shows the Emperor Wudi greeting a scholar.

IN PALESTINE, THE HASMONEAN
KINGDOM (see 146-131 BCE) had
continued its expansion until the
fall of Jerusalem to the Seleucid
Antiochus VII in 131 BCE. However,
during the reign of John Hyrcanus
(r. 134-104 Bce) it recovered much
of the ground that had been lost.
Alexander Jannaeus (r. 103-76
sce] enlarged the kingdom until it
occupied most of modern Israel
and the West Bank. After defeats
by the Nabataean king Aretas III in
84 BCE and internal strife following
Alexander's death, the
iy

Hasmoneans were
increasingly vulnerable
to Roman interference.

In North Africa, the Romans
faced a serious challenge when
Micipsa, the son of their former
ally Massinissa of Numidia (see

» 170-1478cel, died in 118Bce. The

: Romans ordered the kingdom be

: divided between Micipsa’s nephew
Jugurtha and his sons. Jugurtha
rejected this, killing one cousin

: division of Numidia between

: Jugurtha and Adherbal, Jugurtha
renewed his attack on his cousin

‘44 YOUDO
WELL TO
CONSIDER
THE OFFICE
YOUR OWN,
FOR YOU
BOUGHT IT. 99

: Julius Caesar's father chastising

: the future dictator Sulla for having
: corruptly bought office in 94 BCE;

: from Lives by Plutarch

- and the Romans became involved. q

By the late 2nd century Bce, the Roman army was experiencing
difficulty recruiting from the traditional propertied classes. Gaius
Marius changed this by opening the army to those who fell below
the normal property qualification. The eagle became the universal
legionary standard for the first time, and the legions themselves
were reformed as a heavy infantry force. From this point onward
Roman light infantry and cavalry were organized into “auxiliary”
units, which were recruited from noncitizens.

Following several disastrous
: years of campaigning from
: 1118ce, the Romans sent Quintus
Caecilius Metellus, who captured
Jugurtha’s strongholds one by
_ one. In 1088ce, Gaius Marius
: replaced Metellus. Finally,
: trapped in the far west of his
© territory, Jugurtha was handed to
© the Romans by his father-in-law

4 _ Bocchus of Mauretania.

: In Gaul, two Germanic tribes,
the Cimbri and Teutones, had

: been defeating the Romans since
: 107BCE, notably at Arausio in

» 105Bce, where Roman losses

: reached 80,000. Marius took

| command of the defense against

: the Germans on his return from

| North Africa, and in 102ace

: vanquished the Teutones at Aquae
: Sextiae in Gaul. He next crushed

_ the Cimbri at the Battle of

: Vercellae in 101 8ce, He was

: rewarded with an unprecedented

: sixth consulship in 100 Bce.

: In China, Emperor Wudi (r.

: 141-878CcE) strengthened the Han
: Empire’s administrative system

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RNIN oe io? Ny a oe oe
9% 5® e Ss oo gH yor eo od ' es a
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© ee WE? go oo? ys oa ass ee
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i eon o Err gG” sacks gd aoe Wr os Coens
xe? RT AW? ew? se* aS Fe
si ae a &

Captured in stone

The Danzante carvings at Monte
Alban, Mexico, were once thought
to be of dancers, but they are now
believed to represent the mutilated
bodies of enemies captured in war.

by beginning civil service
examinations. Official positions
for academics had been

: established in 136BcE,
consolidating the ruling house's
stranglehold on the intellectual
life of China. In 1068ce, Wudi
appointed 13 regional
inspectors to monitor the
behavior of government officials,
raised taxes, and forbade private
coin-minting. His armies pushed
deep into Central Asia. By 108BcE,
the Han Empire had reached its
largest extent.

In Mexico, the population of
Monte Alban had reached about
17,000 by around 1008ce. Monte
Alban’s control began to reach
beyond the immediate vicinity of
the Valley of Oaxaca, and many
large stone platforms and public
monuments were built in the city.

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ae
ios ye
OPP? gh we
aoe mea ge
WOE ow ee P oe
OP et a cad
SO 99®ge? o®
Ca oe
ws &
S o
es oo
oe a eee
PAM, ah DO?
6 G0 hh co Wa
w cS ence

Maiden Castle hill-fort in Britain underwent several phases of rebuilding after
it was begun around 6006CE, reaching its final form about 500 years later.

AFTER HIS VICTORY AT VERCELLAE,
(see 110-91 BCE) Marius became
Rome's dominant politician, but
the brutal behavior of his ally
Saturninus, tribune of the plebs,
provoked the Senate. Political
violence flared, and in 1008cE
Marius had to march an army into
Rome. Saturninus was killed in the
ensuing riot. As Marius’s power
waned, discontent rose among
Italians without Roman citizenship.
In 91 BCE, this erupted into the
Social War. A protégé of Marius,
Lucius Sulla (c. 138-78 Bce), took a
key role in suppressing the revolt,
which was largely over by 88BcE,
albeit with some concessions
offered by Rome to the rebels.
Sulla was elected consul in 88
BCE. That same year, while waiting
to sail with his army to Greece to
counter the threat posed by the
king of Pontus, Mithridates VI
(134-63Bce], Sulla heard that the

70,000

SPARTACAN
REBELS

6,000

spartican rebels
crucified

The rebellion by Spartacus
Crassus crucified slaves along the
Appian Way, which led to Rome, as
a warning to any others who might
plana similar insurrection.

Senate had voted to put Marius in
charge of the campaign. Enraged,
Sulla entered Rome with his troops
and seized power. He moved
against Mithridates in 89BcE, and
had driven him out of Greece by
848ce. Sulla returned to Rome,
defeated his remaining opponents
{including the aged Marius], and
was appointed dictator in 82.8CcE.
Sulla took savage revenge on the
Marians, packed the Senate with
his supporters, and curtailed the
powers of the tribunes. Anti-Sullan
forces regrouped around Quintus
Sertorius, who had fled to Spain.
After Sulla died in 788Cce, the
Senate sent Pompey to deal with
Sertorius. His military efforts were
ineffective; only the assassination
of Sertorius allowed Pompey to
return victorious to Italy in 71 cE.
In 73BcE, a slave revolt led by
the gladiator Spartacus broke
out near Naples and grew into the
most serious revolt Rome had ever
faced. Eventually, the rebel slaves
were trapped in southern Italy and
defeated by the Roman general
Marcus Licinius Crassus in 718CE.
By the 1st century BCE, the Celtic
peoples of southern Britain had
started to expand their existing
hill-forts into oppida (“towns”)
that were defended by extensive
fortifications. The greatest oppida
were formidable obstacles to
attackers and some were royal
capitals, complete with palaces.

Sacred offering

This Ist-century BCE British Celtic
shield was discovered in the Thames
River, where it had probably been
thrown as an offering to a river god.

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@

Mound City, Ohio contains a cluster of more than

20 Hopewell earthwork burial mounds.

AFTER POMPEY’S RETURN TOITALY :

{see 90-71 BCE), he was elected
consul for the year, despite still
being below the legal minimum
age. When war broke out with
Mithridates of Pontus again, the
Romans, under general Lucullus,
forced Mithridates to retreat to
Armenia, which was ruled by his
son-in-law Tigranes. However,
Lucullus's troops mutinied in
68BCE, and Pompey was sent to
replace him. Tigranes surrendered
and Mithridates retired north of the
Black Sea. Having achieved his

aim, Pompey entered Syria, where ©

he deposed the last Seleucid king,

and then captured Jerusalem.
In China, the Han Dynasty

retreated from modernizing

and Xuandi(r. 74-49 ce). The
Huo family, which had dominated
the government for decades, was
removed from power, and its
leading members executed.
Government expenditure was
cut, and aggressive expeditions

Hopewell bird

Clay pipes, often in

the shape of birds,

are one of the most
characteristic products
of the Hopewell culture.

-THE NUMBER
_OF MILITARY
-TRIUMPHS
AWARDED
TO POMPEY

_ in Central Asia were replaced by

the establishment of small,
permanent colonies.
In Mexico, the city of Cuiculco in

: the south of the Valley of Mexico

| was destroyed by a volcano some
policies under Zhaodi (r. 87-748ceE) ©
: disappearance opened the way for

time in the 1st century BCE. Its

Teotihuacan, to assert its control

: over the whole valley and become
: Mexico's dominant power for
: more than 500 years.

By the end of the 1st century

: BCE, the Adena peoples of Ohio,

in eastern North America, were

but they also built large,
elaborate burial mounds
for their chieftains.

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Areconstruction of the Roman ramparts at Alesia,
where Caesar forced Vercingetorix to surrender.

GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR BECAME
CONSUL OF ROME for the first time
in 59Bce. Having served a term as
governor of Spain, he was popular
among the equestrians (wealthy
nonsenators], but resistance to
him from the Senate [and the
obstructiveness of his coconsul

: area of southern Gaul. He took

» advantage of the migration of the

» Germanic Helvetii across Gaul

: toward Italy to cross over the Alps
: and defeat Ariovistus, the

: Helvetian king. Caesar returned to
: Rome, but his deputy, Labienus,

| year he pressed on to conquer the
© Belgae of northwestern Gaul. By

Bibulus) led him to join with
Pompey and Crassus,

and the three : 55ece, Caesar had subdued most
dominated Rome © of Gaul and had acquired a vast
until 53BcE : new province for Rome, without

as the “First
Triumvirate.”

: ever receiving any approval
: from the Senate.

In 586ce, In 568ce, an anti-Roman revolt
Caesar was broke out among the Veneti of
appointed northern Gaul, apparently

supported by the Celtic tribes of
Britain. Caesar responded by

crossing over to Britain in 55 BCE
with two legions. A storm

governor of
Narbonensis,
the Roman-
occupied

Caesar at
the Louvre
Wearing the laurel
wreath of a victorious
iy general, this statue is
part of Caesar's cult
of personality.

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co

prevented the arrival of
reinforcements, causing him to
retreat, but he returned the next
year with five legions (around
30,000 men). The Britons did not
resist at first, but later, led by
Cassivelaunus, chief of the
Catuvellauni, they vigorously
opposed the Romans all the
way to the Thames River. When
Cassivelaunus’s stronghold at
Wheathampstead fell, he sued
for peace, and Caesar returned
to Rome with hostages and the
promise of tribute.

At the end of 54Bce, shortly after
Caesar's second expedition to
Britain, another revolt in Gaul, this
time led by the Senones, wiped out
much of the Roman force there.
After putting down the revolt,
Caesar's attentions were diverted
to Rome, where political violence
had resulted in the murder of his
former ally Clodius, and where
Pompey had been elected sole
consulin 528CE, rupturing the
Triumvirate. Emboldened by the
turmoil in Rome, the Carnutes
revolted in Gaul. They were
joined by the Averni, led by
Vercingetorix, who won several
skirmishes against Labienus.
Vercingetorix also defeated Caesar
himself at Gergovia, but was then
trapped at Alesia in September
52BCE. The Romans constructed
an encircling rampart around the
Gauls’ position and managed to
beat off a Gaulish relief force. With
no hope left, Vercingetorix
surrendered and was taken back
to Rome, where he was strangled
in 46BCE after appearing in
Caesar's triumphal parade.

44 ...[.CAESAR] DREAMED THAT HE WAS FLYING
ABOVE THE CLOUDS, AND NOW THAT HE WAS
CLASPING THE HAND OF JUPITER. 99

Suetonius, recounting Julius Caesar's

murder in the Senate House in 44BCE;

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Kussce
AFRICA

CAESAR ENDED THE GALLIC REVOLT
by the end of 51BCcE, but by this
point the Triumvirate had ended:
Pompey’s supporters had turned
against Caesar, and Crassus had
been killed in battle in 53BcE. The
Senate ordered Caesar to disband
his army or be declared an enemy
of the state. Instead, he crossed
the Rubicon River into Italy with
his troops in 498CcE. This was
illegal, constituting a declaration
of war against the Senate.

As Caesar marched toward
Rome, town after town submitted
to him. Fearing Caesar, Pompey
left Rome and fled to Greece.
Caesar turned first to Spain,
where seven legions had
declared for Pompey. In August

46 THE DIE
IS CAST. 99

Julius Caesar to his troops on
crossing the Rubicon in 49BCE;
from Plutarch's Parallel Lives

dream the night before his
from Lives of the Caesars

ROPE

Black Sea

47BCE

Zela
PARTHIAN
EMPIRE

Miter
"anean Sea
Cyrene

cyrenaica Alexandria

PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM
OF EGYPT

498ce, he forced the Pompeians
there to surrender. In December,
Caesar set off for Greece in
pursuit of Pompey. A military
engagement at Dyrrachium in
July went against Caesar, but he
fought back before Pompey’s
support could grow, and won a
resounding victory at Pharsalus.
Pompey took refuge in Egypt,
where he was murdered on the
orders of Ptolemy XIII, who
hoped [in vain) to ingratiate
himself with Caesar.

After a short time in Egypt,
Caesar returned to Rome,
where he raised money by
confiscating property from the
supporters of Pompey. In late
47 8c, Caesar set sail for Africa,
where he defeated a new
Pompeian army at Thapsus
(in modern Tunisia]. Pompey's
sons Gnaeus and Sextus escaped
to Spain to continue the
resistance from there, and
Caesar annexed the kingdom of
King Juba of Mauretania, who
had supported them. Caesar then
proceeded to Spain, where in

KEY

~* Caesar's movements
® Siege

X Caesar's victories

Roman Civil Wars

Caesar won Italy easily, but he had
to fight hard to overcome Pompey
in his Greek stronghold, and then
Pompey's sons and remaining
Supporters in Africa and Spain.

March 45 sce he defeated Gnaeus
Pompey at Munda, effectively
ending the civil war.

Caesar was now all-powerful.
He was made dictator in 48BcE,
and in 448CE he was given the
office for life. Concerns over
Caesar's power—in particular,
fears that he planned to make
himself king—led a group of about
60 conspirators to form around
senators Cassius and Marcus
Brutus. They murdered Caesar
on the Ides of March (March 14]

i just before a session of the

: Senate. If they had hoped to seize

: disappointed: Mark Antony, one

: of Caesar’s leading supporters,

= came to the fore in Rame, while

Caesar's great-nephew and
adoptive son Octavian received

: widespread support in a bid to

» take up the mantle of his father.

: In India, Kalinga (modern

: Orissa), which had been a client

» kingdom of the Mauryas (see
200-171 BCE), rose to prominence

: under Kharavela in the mid-1st

centuryBce. Kharavela expanded

: Kalinga far to the north and east,

} conquering the Sunga capital of

: Pataliputra in Magadha. A strong

| patron of the Indian religion of

» Jainism, Kharavela established

! as Southeast Asia

: Murder of Caesar

? Conspirators struck Caesar down

: with daggers. As he fell, Caesar saw
Marcus Brutus, a former protégé,

= and cried out “you too, child?”

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This 18th-century painting shows Mark Antony fleeing from the battle scene at Actium

in 31 BCE. Many of his supporters defected to Octavian's side as a result.

IN ROME, THE PERIOD AFTER THE
ASSASSINATION of Julius Caesar
saw rising tensions between Mark
Antony and Octavian, whom many
viewed as Caesar's rightful heir.
The two almost came to blows
early in 43BcE, when Octavian
marched to raise the siege of
Mutina (Modena, Italy), where Mark
Antony was besieging Decimus
Brutus, one of Caesar's assassins.
Mark Antony was forced to retreat
to Gaul. When the Senate voted
to transfer Octavian's legions to
Decimus Brutus, Octavian realized
he was being sidelined and formed
a three-way alliance with Mark
Antony and Marcus Lepidus, the
governor of Transalpine Gaul. This
became the Second Triumvirate.
The Triumvirate conducted a war
against Cassius and Marcus
Brutus, two more of Caesar's
assassins, who had seized much
of the territory in the east.
In 42Bce, Mark Antony
and Octavian defeated

THE NUMBER
OF YEARS

THE SECOND
TRIUMVIRATE
RULED ROME

them at Philippi, in northern
Greece, after which Cassius
committed suicide. Three weeks

later, they destroyed the remnants =

of Marcus Brutus’s army. Mark
Antony stayed in the east until
408ce, when he returned to Italy to
try to undermine the
growing power of
Octavian. Their two
armies refused to fight,
and a de facto division
of the Roman world was

: agreed, with Mark Antony ruling

| the east and Octavian governing

' the west; Lepidus had to make do
: with Africa. The Triumvirate was
: renewed in 386CE for a further

: five years, but it was clear that

: conflict between Octavian and

: Mark Antony could not long

: be postponed.

However, Mark Antony was

: occupied with a war against

| the Parthians, who were allied

: with remnants of Cassius's army
: and attacked Syria in 398CcE, In

36BcE, Mark Antony invaded

_ Parthia itself—ostensibly to
: recover the legionary eagles

captured by the Parthians at the

» Battle of Carrhae (see 538cE)—
: and advanced to the capital
| Phraata, but he did not have

: Suicide of Cleopatra
| This 19th-century painting depicts
: the death of Cleopatra, who killed
: herself to avoid being captured by
: Octavian and taken to Rome.

NUMBER OF WARSHIPS

Octavian Anthony and
Cleopatra

Battle of Actium

: Octavian's fleet outnumbered that of
: Mark Antony and Cleopatra, with
smaller more manoeuvrable ships,

and fresher, better trained crews.

sufficient resources to besiege it.
In 33BCe, the Triumvirate
expired and Octavian had the
Senate declare Mark Antony a
public enemy. The latter had lost
popularity through his relationship
with Cleopatra, the Egyptian
queen, and Octavian quickly
rallied public opinion to himself.
A fleet was rapidly assembled,
and this destroyed Mark Antony's
naval force at Actium, off western
Greece, in September 31 BcE.
Mark Antony's land army then
defected to Octavian, and Antony
and Cleopatra fled to Greece,
where Octavian caught up with
them in the summer of 308CE.
The Roman warlord and the
Egyptian queen both committed

| suicide, and Egypt was annexed to

the Roman empire. Octavian was
now the unchallenged master of
the whole Roman world.

Augustus built a new Forum at Rome,
with an imposing new temple to Mars.

HAVING DEFEATED HIS ENEMIES,
Octavian did not take on the title
of dictator, as Julius Caesar had.
He instead ruled informally as the
princeps—the first man of the
state. Having acquired control of
Antony's legions, he now had an
army of about 500,000 men. He
disbanded more than half of these,
retaining 28 legions (about 150,000
soldiers), settling the remainder
in colonies in Italy and abroad. In
278CE, Octavian gave up all his
powers, ostensibly restoring the
Republic. The Senate responded
by granting him personal control
of Egypt, Gaul, Germany, Spain,
and Syria. He was also given the
title “Augustus” and, cementing
his position further, he was consul
each year from 27 to 23BcE. Over
time, the Senate voted Augustus
further powers, including that of
imperium maius in 23 BCE, which
gave him supreme authority in the
provinces he had not previously
governed, and the permanent
powers ofa tribune of the plebs
in 23BceE. Although the Senate was,
in theory, the supreme authority
in Rome, in practice no one could
match Augustus's power, and he is
seen as the first Roman emperor.
North Africa had been a center
of strong resistance to both Julius
Caesar and Augustus, who settled
many army veterans there. In
25sBce, Augustus gave Mauretania
(western North Africa) to Juba II
of Numidia. Juba, whose wife
was the daughter of Mark Antony
and Cleopatra, proved a reliable
Roman ally. Augustus still sent a
legion to garrison North Africa,
where it stayed for over 300 years.

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8

In western Asia, the ruler of
Galilee, Herod I, was allowed to
retain his position by Octavian,
even though he had supported
Mark Antony. He was even given
extra territories, including parts
of Syria and Gaza. Herod had been
appointed by Mark Antony in 428CE,
and by 37 BCE he had conquered
the remains of the Hasmonean
kingdom (see 146-131 BCE).
Herod remained a reliable ally
of Rome until his death in 48cE.

Emperor Augustus

Augustus, seen here dressed as a
priest, acquired the title of pontifex
maximus (chief priest] on the death
of Lepidus in 12BCE.

La Maison Carré, in Nimes, southern France, is one of the finest surviving
Roman temples. It was built around 16BCE by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

44 HE COULD JUSTLY
BOAST THAT HE HAD FOUND
IT BUILT OF BRICK AND

LEFT IT IN MARBLE. 99

Suetonius, on Augustus’s embellishment of the
city of Rome; from Lives of the Caesars

AUGUSTUS’S MILITARY AND
POLITICAL SUCCESSES had relied
largely on the abilities of Marcus
Vipsanius Agrippa, who rose from
a minor family to become consul in
37, 28, and 27Bce. After Agrippa
had married Augustus'ss daughter
Julia, he received numerous
promotions, including tribune of
the plebs in 18Bce. Augustus’s own
appointed heir had died in 25BCE,
so he adopted Agrippa’s children,
renaming them Gaius and Lucius
Caesar. Agrippa seemed likely to
succeed Augustus, but in 12BCE he
died unexpectedly, throwing open
the question of succession.

By threatening to invade Parthia
in 20BceE, Augustus had engineered
the return of legionary standards
captured by the Parthians at
Carrhae (see 538ce). In 16BCE, the
Roman governor of Macedonia
began pushing toward the River
Danube, and from 12 BCE Tiberius,
Augustus's stepson, the son of his
second wife Livia, moved north
from Illyria to create the Roman
province of Pannonia [modern
Austria and Hungary). Tiberius's
brother Drusus pushed Roman
control across the Rhine toward
the Elbe between 12 and 9BCE,

when he died. Around this time,
the Romans annexed the provinces
of Raetia [in modern Switzerland)
and Noricum (between the Alps
and the Danube), moving the
empire's frontiers almost to a line
along the Rhine and the Danube.
Supporters of Tiberius, now the
most high-profile general, tried
to have him displace Lucius and
Gaius Caesar as Augustus's heir.
Augustus himself did little to
resolve the question of succession,

The end of the Republic and
the reign of Augustus saw a
golden age in Latin literature.
The orator Cicero and the
historian Sallust marked the
height of late Republican
literature. After Augustus’s
rise to power, the poets Virgil
(right; 70-19 ece), author of
the Eclogues and the epic
poem The Aeneid, and Horace
(65-8 sce), author of the

Odes and Carmen Saeculare,
both flourished under the
patronage of Maecenas, a
close confidant of Augustus.

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44 THOSE WHO SLEW MY FATHER
I DROVE INTO EXILE... AND...
DEFEATED THEM IN BATTLE. 99

Augustus, from the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the testament
of Augustus, in Ankara, Turkey

BY 9BCE, DRUSUS HAD DEFEATED
THE MAIN GERMAN TRIBES and
had reached the Elbe River. After
his death, Augustus appointed
Tiberius to replace him. Tiberius
won a series of victories in 8BCE,
but then mysteriously resigned
his offices and wentinto exilein
Rhodes. This left Gaius and Lucius =
Caesar (both underage] asheirs
apparent to the Roman Empire.

In China, the reign of Yuandi
(49-33BcE] saw the economic i
retrenchment begun under Xuandi :
(see 70-61 BCE) continue. Some
semi-independent kingdoms that
the early Han had suppressed
began to reappear. Yuandi and his
successors Chengdi (r. 33-7 8ceE}
and Aidi (r. 7-1 BCE] also created
numerous marquisates, many of
which were granted to the sons of
the new kings, weakening the
state's central control. Chengdi
lacked a male heir, resulting in

: Khazneh at Petra
: The Khazneh is one of Petra's finest

£ monuments. Carved out of a sheer

| cliff-face, it was probably a royal tomb,
: perhaps of Aretas IV (c.9B8CE-40 CE).

: the succession of his half-nephew

: Aidiin 7BcE. This caused dissent

» among nobles whose candidates

: for the throne had been overlooked.

| The Nabataean kingdom of

i northern Arabia grew rich on its

: southern Arabia, reaching its

: height in the mid-1st centuryBcE
under Malichos I (c. 59—c. 308CcE).

: its northern borders from Herod I.

: Adisputed succession in 9/8 BCE

: between Aretas IV and his chief

minister Syllaeus led the Romans

_ to take an interest in the area. An

: expedition led by Gaius, grandson

: of Augustus, may even have

: briefly annexed Nabataea in

: 3-1BCcE, but the Romans pulled

» back, allowing Nabataea another

: century of independence.

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700 sce-599 ce | THE CLASSICAL AGE

Wale tes iOle m=

ROMAN EMPIRE

Soon after its foundation in 753 BcE, the city of Rome began fighting its
neighbors to gain new territory. Gradually, the Romans became entangled
in campaigns in the Italian Peninsula and beyond. By the 1st century CE,
the Roman Empire had become the largest Europe had ever seen.

The early growth of Roman territories was slow, with wars
against neighbors often threatening the survival of Rome itself.
By 270 BCE the Romans dominated central Italy and began
expanding into the Italian Peninsula. Rivalry with Carthage led
to the three Punic Wars between 264 and 146BCE, but victories
brought the acquisition of territory in Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and
then North Africa itself.

In the early 2nd century BCE the Romans fought campaigns in
the Balkans, leading to the annexation of most of Greece in
146 BCE. The pace of acquisition quickened in the later years of
the Republic, as generals competed for political power and used

44 TO THE ROMANS [SET NO
BOUNDARIES IN TIME OR SPACE. 99

Virgil, Roman poet (70-19BCE), the god Jupiter, prophesying the future

greatness of Rome, from the Aeneid

Roman population
7. 1% Around 1CE, the Roman

Empire contained about
one-seventh of the world’s population—

45 million out of 300 million people.

117 CE

Expanding empire

and western Asia.

An empire of noncitizens
In 1CE, only a tenth of the

Between the accession of Augustus and
the death of Trajan, the Roman Empire
almost doubled in size, acquiring vast
new territories in northwestern Europe

their military successes to bolster their position in Rome.
It was in this period that Pompey annexed Syria and Julius
Caesar conquered much of Gaul, between 58 and 51BCE.

The collapse of the Roman Republic and the accession of
the first emperor, Augustus, in 27BCE did not end the empire's
expansion. The quest for security along the existing frontiers
resulted in the frontiers being pushed even farther forward.
Rome's final large-scale acquisitions were made in the reigns
of Claudius, who oversaw the invasion of Britain in 43CE, and
Trajan, who conquered new provinces in Dacia (modern
Romania] and Mesopotamia between 106 and 117CE.

100cE

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

a7)
"coy

LUSITANIA

* Toletum «
Emerita

Augusta

MAURETANIA
TINGITANA

By around 100CE, the Mediterranean had

become a Roman ‘lake," and the acquisition

of territories in northwest and Central Europe
KEY had brought the northern Roman frontier as

Roman territory

A GROWING EMPIRE
It took the Romans nearly 500

Roman population were full years to complete the conquest
“2 citizens. The rest were slaves x
1 ,900,000 mi or had limited civic rights. of Italy, but only half that time to

enlarge their territories to include
Spain, Gaul, parts of Germany,
most of the Balkans, much of North
Africa, and large parts of western
Asia. Over the following 100 years
they acquired Morocco, Britain, and
Dacia, and made small advances
into western Asia, but the empire
began to contract after 250CE.

far as the Rhine and the Danube.

territory in Sicily,

240BCE The Romans dominated most of
the Italian Peninsula. Victory in the First
Punic War (264-241 BcE) brought new

but the Romans still faced
resistance to their rule in northern Italy.

North
Sea

Eburacum

THE APPROXIMATE LENGTH
\ me OF THE ROMAN FRONTIERS
kates, ee AT THEIR MAXIMUM EXTENT

GERMANIA) = Augusta. ° 5
Dyas -lreverorum “¢

Durocortorum | PA sontiacum Sarmatians
oe s
SS GERMANIA Marcomanni Quadi
% SUPERIOR y Vindobona_Carnuntum MOSIA Aaa
Lugdunum, ¥ < ic“. Brigetio INFERIOR i ‘KINGDOM
| ev OP Virunun 25 Aquineum Apulum :
AQUITANIA Aquileia Se PANNONIA yam

Pr 0)
eS” — INFERIOR oh
DACIA Durostorum

‘ALPS GRAIAE 7 ¢ ALPS COTTIAE

ET POENINAE

vy Viminacium
ENSIs cous ; SUPERIOR =
Massilia Pes Philippopolis

Corsica THRACIA Ng
Aleria ITALIA SS Samosata

Sardinia

Zeugma
“re : Antioch
MAURETANIA Kk % en
CAESARIENSIS Carthage Ms f Cyprus é
jamascus

Jerusalem

: Ptolemais
Leptis Magna Alexandria

CYRENE
ET CRETA Memphis

77) AEGYPTUS

200BCE The Roman defeat of Carthage 120BCE Most of Spain had fallen 60BCE New North African territories 14CE The Roman borders had expanded
in the Second Punic War brought new into Roman possession, as well as were gained in 96BCE, and in 63BCE Syria _ to include Gaul beyond the Alps, as well
possessions in Spain and Sardinia. By Carthaginian territory in North Africa. and parts of Palestine were annexed. as new provinces in Raetia and Noricum
200 BCE, a toehold had also been gained Greece and parts of western Anatolia The frontiers in Anatolia were also (Switzerland, south Germany, and
in northwestern Greece. were also acquired. pushed forward. Austria], and Pannonia (Hungary).

1/3)

44 QUINCTILIUS VARUS, GIVE
ME BACK MY LEGIONS. 99

Emperor Augustus, on hearing of the Roman defeat in the Teutoberg Forest, 9CE

WANG MANG WAS IN CHARGE OF
BOTH THE CHINESE ARMY and the
government under Emperor Ping
Di (r. 1 8ce-6 ce). He strengthened
his influence by marrying his
daughter to the young emperor.
On Ping Di's death, many of the

THE NUMBER
OF DIFFERENT

: (China's administrative regions},
: and reimposed several state

monopolies. Serious floods on the
Yellow River in 4-11 led to famine
and revolts in rural areas. In 23,

: loyalists and overwhelmed Wang
: Mang's armies. When the capital

* Han dynasty. One of his first acts
: was to make Luoyang his capital.

: Bce) returned to Germany in 4 to

TYPES OF COIN

ISSUED BY
WANG MANG

nobility rejected Wang Mang’s
choice of successor and rose up
in revolt. Wang Mang easily put
them down, and in 9 he took the
title of first Xin emperor. He
reissued the currency, forbade
the selling of private slaves,
reorganized the commanderies

: planned attack on them in 6 was
: postponed because of a revolt in
: Pannonia, which took three years

Chang'an fell, Gengshi became
the first emperor of the restored
In Europe, Tiberius (see 20-2

subdue the tribes there. The
Marcomanni resisted, but a

: to quell. Anew Roman commander, :

: Varus was ambushed in the
: Teutoberg Forest, and his three

remained for the next 400 years.

Quinctilius Varus, was sent to
Germany, but his corrupt rule
angered the German tribes. In 9,

legions were annihilated. Augustus
then ordered a withdrawal to the
Rhine, where the Roman frontier

: Consolidating ruler

: Rather than extending
= Roman territory through foreign

: conquests, Tiberius concentrated on
: strengthening the existing empire.

When Emperor Augustus [see

| 20-2ecé) died in 14, Tiberius was
_ his obvious heir (Lucius and Gaius :

Caesar having died). Tiberius

: already possessed most of

: Augustus’s powers and had the

i loyalty of the Praetorian

| Guard—the elite army unit based
: in Rome, which Augustus had

: established. Although there were
: moves in the senate to restore

_ the Republic, Tiberius rapidly

: squashed them. His reign (to 37)
| was quiet at home. Germanicus,

Tiberius's nephew, campaigned

: extensively in Germany up to 16,
: but his efforts led to no permanent :
» reacquisition of territory beyond i
© the Rhine and he died of poisoning |
» in 19. After Drusus, Tiberius’s son, :
: died in 23, the emperor tired of

: public life and retired to the
island of Capri, off Naples.

: Sejanus, head of the Praetorian

' Guard, took day-to-day power, but
: his rule was tyrannical and in 31
Tiberius suddenly reasserted

: himself and had Sejanus executed.

: Completed in the reign of Tiberius,

| this bridge carried the Via Aemilia

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GENGSHI’S REIGN AS CHINESE
EMPEROR WAS SHORT. He
alienated the Red Eyebrows and
angered many of China’s nobility
and bureaucrats by moving the
capital from Luoyang back to
Chang’an. Much of China had
already slipped from Gengshi’s
grasp by 25, when Chang'an was
sacked by the Red Eyebrows. The
emperor was deposed and
replaced by Guang Wudi (25-57),
who is regarded as the first
Eastern Han emperor. The new
ruler had first to face a civil war;
by 27, he had defeated the Red
Eyebrows, but it took him until
36 to overcome the last of the
warlords who opposed him. In 37,
he abolished all except three of
the kingdoms that had sprung up

MONGOLIA

KOREA JAPAN

Taiwan

KEY

Qin China in 206ece
Territory added by Former
Han Dynasty 2068cE-9ce

— Great Wall under the Han

Chinese Han Empire

When Guang Wudi began the
Eastern Han Dynasty in 25, Chinese
control extended deep into Central
Asia. Much of this territory had been
won under the Western Han Dynasty.

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This ornamental brick from China's Eastern Han period shows
a procession that includes horse-drawn carriages.

JESUS CHRIST (c. 48CE-33 cE)

Jesus, a carpenter fram
Nazareth, began his ministry in
his early 30s. He taught in the
Jewish tradition, calling for
the reform of the Temple and
for the love of one’s neighbour
to take precedence over the
strict observance of religious
law. Jesus gathered a group of
twelve disciples around him,
but was targeted by Jewish
conservatives afraid of his
growing influence. In 33, the
Roman authorities in Judaea
executed Jesus by crucifixion,
but the disciples, convinced
that Jesus had risen from the
dead, continued his teaching.

under his predecessors, and
reinstated Luoyang as the capital.
He faced renewed tension with
the Hsiung-nu on China's
northern frontier, but failed to take |
advantage of their split into two
rival chiefdoms in 49.

The Roman Empire once again
faced an unclear succession at
the death of Tiberius in 37. He had
named two heirs, but Gemellus
was soon pushed aside because
Gaius, nicknamed Caligula (“little
boots”), was popular with the
senate and the army. Caligula’s
behavior as emperor became
increasingly erratic—he had
Gemellus executed, and had many
of Tiberius’s supporters killed.

He also had his sister’s husband— =
his heir apparent—condemned to
death. After visiting the Rhineland

legions in 39, Caligula marched

: them to the coast opposite Britain
© to launch an invasion; when they
© got there, he merely had them

collect seashells along the beach.
Independent Jewish kingdoms

: in Palestine collapsed as Roman

power grew, creating a powerful

: ferment of religious change.

» John the Baptist preached in

| the 20s, followed in around 30

: by anew preacher, Jesus. After

Jesus's death in 33, his disciples
began to spread his message

: more widely. By around 50,
= communities of Christians,
: as Jesus's followers were known,

would be established throughout
Western Asia, with particularly
large groups in Antioch and

the first appearance of
Christians in Rome.

IN INDIA, GROUPS OF YUEZHI
NOMADS occupying land in Bactria
united under Kujula Kadphises
(30-80), who founded the Kushan
Empire and conquered parts of
Gandhara. Although few details
of Kujula’s reign are known, he
minted coins in imitation of both
Greek and Roman models,
demonstrating that Bactria and
northwestern India remained very
much a cultural crossroads.

In northwestern Europe, a group
of disgruntled officers of Rome's
Praetorian Guard assassinated
Caligula in January 41, tired of
his cruel and irrational behavior
(see 24-40). In 43, the new
emperor, Claudius [r. 41-54), sent
an invasion force of four legions
led by Aulus Plautius, governor
of Pannonia, to conquer Britain.
The Romans landed unopposed
at Richborough, pushed on to
London, and then captured

=" \
Christian catacomb, Rome
At first, Roman Christians did not
have their own cemeteries. Later,
they buried their dead in underground
complexes called catacombs.

Colchester, the capital of the

principal British resistance leader, i

Caractacus. Claudius himself
made a brief appearance at the

fall of Colchester, before returning :

to Rome to bask in the glory of
having acquired a new province.
In 47, the Romans paused briefly

in their conquest of Britain, having :

reached a line roughly between
the Humber River in the east and
the Severn River in the west. They
began establishing legionary
fortresses in their new province,
including at Exeter and Lincoln.
Aulus Plautius’s replacement,
Ostorius Scapula invaded Wales,
where Caractacus was continuing
the resistance. In 50, he defeated

an army of Silurian and Ordovician:

tribesmen, and Caractacus fled
to the imagined safety of the
Brigantes tribe in northern
England. However, the Brigantian
queen, Cartimandua, handed
Caractacus over to the Romans,
and Roman Britain remained
relatively trouble free during the
following decade.

The 40s saw a struggle in the
early Christian community
between those who wanted to

remain within the Jewish tradition =

and those, led by Paul, who
favored the inclusion of gentiles

Paul began a series of missionary
journeys in 46 which led him
through Anatolia and Greece to
Rome, where he was martyred
around 62. A charismatic preacher,
Paul also wrote a powerful series
of epistles (letters) to various
fledgling Christian groups. In
appealing to a wider group than

EMPEROR CLAUDIUS
(10BcE-54 ce)

Caligula’s uncle, Claudius,
was an unlikely candidate for
Roman emperor. However, he
turned out to be intelligent
and forceful, putting down
two revolts in 42, after which
he executed more than 300
senators. He was unfortunate
in his choice of wives: he had
his wife Messalina executed
after she had an affair, and
her successor Agrippina
(Caligula’s sister] is reputed
to have poisoned him.

: the Jews within the Roman
{non-Jews} in the Christian church. |
: Christianity spread sufficiently

: to help it weather the storms of

: persecution that began under the
_ Emperor Nero in 64. By the late

| 4th century, Christianity would be
: the majority religion within the

: Roman Empire.

empire, Paul ensured that

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THOUSAND

THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED
BY BOUDICCA'S ARMY DURING
THE ICENI REVOLT

WHEN CLAUDIUS DIED IN 54,

the Roman imperial throne fell to
Nero (37-68], his adopted son and
son-in-law. The young emperor's
reign began well when he
promised the senate he would
avoid making any arbitrary
measures. However, the first sign
of Nero’s tyranny surfaced in 59,
when he had his mother
Agrippina (15-59) murdered. In
62, anew praetorian prefect
(commander of the imperial
bodyguard), Tigellinus (c. 10-69),
took office. Tigellinus pandered to
the less desirable side of

Nero's personality,
whose rule became
increasingly
despotic. Following a
fire that destroyed
much of Rome in 64,
Nero is said to have
taken terrible
retribution on Rome's
small Christian
population, who proved
convenient scapegoats.
Later, during the
reconstruction of Rome,
Nero alienated senators
by seizing their land to
build himself a new
palace. He also ordered
additional taxes in
Palestine, which sparked
a Jewish revolt in 66.

In Britain, the Romans
faced a serious Iceni
revolt in 60. When the
king of the Iceni died,
he left his lands to his
queen, Boudicca.
The revolt was
triggered when

the Roman procurator (chief
financial official) ruled that
Boudicca could not inherit her
lands, and that they would be
annexed by Rome.
Boudicca raised an

Camulodunum
(Colchester).

the governor of

army and marched on

Suetonius Paullinus,

: Britain, was away on campaign in
: Wales, and by the time he
returned, Camulodunum had
' been sacked by the Iceni. The
: rebels then burned Londinium
: (London) and Verulamium (St.
» Albans) before they were finally
» trapped and defeated by
: Paullinus. It is said the Iceni lost
80,000 warriors and
Boudicca herself was
captured, though she
died, possibly poisoned,
soon after.

Boudicca
This statue of Boudicca
stands outside the
Houses of
Parliament in
London, a city
that the Iceni
queen razed to
the ground.

IN THE EAST, Rome faced further
troubles with Parthia over the
border region of Armenia, where
the Parthian king had installed
his own candidate, Tiridates,

as king in 53. A Roman force
invaded Armenia in 59, took its
capital cities of Artaxata and
Tigranocerta and put in placea

pro-Roman king, Tigranes VI. His =

ill-advised invasion of a Parthian
ally in 61 led to his removal, and
Tiridates was restored. A new
Roman army was then roundly
beaten by the Parthians in 62, and
only a Roman push into Armenia
the following year ended the war.
Tiridates was allowed to keep
the throne, as long as he
travelled to Rome to seek
Nero's approval, which he
eventually did in 66.

Nero’s position as emperor
became increasingly precarious
when Calpurnius Piso led a
conspiracy in 64, which prompted
Nero to order further
executions, including those of

many senators. In early 68,
a revolt broke out, led by
Gaius Julius Vindex,
governor of Gallia
Lugdunensis.
Shortly after the

legion based in Spain
proclaimed the
governor, Sulpicius
Galba, as emperor. Vindex's
revolt was put down by Verginius
Rufus, the governor of Germany,
but Nero panicked and
committed suicide, believing
Rufus would be the next to try to
claim his throne.

revolt of Vindex, the :

ge aes
Hyer z
The ruins at Masada, the last outpost of the Jewish revolt against the Romans,
which began in 66.

After Nero’s suicide, four men

: became emperor in rapid

succession, making 69 the “Year

the praetorian guard recognized
Galba (3 BcE-69 cE) as emperor,

i but he made himself unpopular
by refusing to give the praetorians

the donative, a customary bonus
payable on the accession of a

: new emperor. In January 69, the

: governor of Upper Germany,

: Aulus Vitellius, revolted, and
one of Galba’s former supporters,
» Salvius Otho (32-69), angered

when Galba recognized another

"senator as his heir, had the
' emperor murdered and took the

throne. In April 69, the armies of
Otho and Vitellius clashed at

: Bedriacum near Cremona in
northern Italy, and the Vitellian
© army won. Otho committed

: suicide, but Vitellius soon faced
» a further conspiracy when

: T. Flavius Vespasianus

960

COMMITED
SUICIDE

a
|

Survivors |

» Roman invasion

When the Romans finally breached
the walls of Masaaa, all except seven

: defenders committed suicide rather

than fall into Roman hands.

Jewish revolts between
66 and 74

Although the Jewish
rebels of 66 initially
managed to gain control
of a large part of
Palestine, by 69 they had
lost control of all but the
area around Jerusalem.

KEY

©) Area of major revolt 66
~~ Area of revolt in 69

® Siege

X Jewish victory

(Vespasian) (9-79]—the
general in charge of
suppressing the Jewish
revolt—set himself up as yet
another rival emperor. The whole
of the East and the Balkans
defected immediately to
Vespasian. At a second battle
near Cremona in October,
Vitellius’s forces were crushed.
By December Vespasian’s army
had taken Rome and Vitellius
was executed shortly afterward.
Rome had an unchallenged
ruler once again.

Vespasian moved quickly to

dismissing Vitellius’s praetorian
guard and recruiting another. He
also had to face a serious revolt
along the Rhine, where Julius
Civilis, a noble of the Batavian
people, joined forces with
dissident legionaries and almost
established an independent
Gallic empire.

Judaea had been under direct
Roman rule since the death of
King Agrippa in 44. Foreign rule
and Roman insensitivity toward

Ptolemais #
Sea of
Galilee

sioavoa0

: Jewish laws caused great

: discontent. In 60, the rebuilding

: ordered built decades before was
: finished, and 20,000 unemployed
» workmen added to the rising

| of Judaea aggravated these

: feelings with his heavy-handed
: rule, and in 66 an uprising broke

out. Although the commanders of

= the uprising were competent, it
» lacked political leadership and

reestablish the loyalty of the army, ©
: gradually reduced, first by

: Vespasian and then by his son

) Titus (39-81). In 70, Jerusalem
: came under siege, and in late

: Temple was destroyed. Perhaps

the Jewish strongholds were

as many as 200,000 people died,

: many sacred Jewish treasures
= were taken to Rome, and

: thousands of Jews were

A fresco from Pompei—many of Pompei’s elaborate frescoes survived for
nearly 2,000 years buried under the ash.

BY THE MID-70S, CIVILIS’S REVOLT
had fizzled out and the rest of
Vespasian’s reign was largely
peaceful. With a reputation for
frugality, he restored the empire's
finances, imposing levies ona
number of provinces, including
Egypt. By the time he died in 79,
stability had been restored to
such an extent that the succession
of his eldest son, Titus [r. 79-81],
was unopposed.

Two months after the accession

of Titus as Roman emperor, on
August 25, 79 the city of Pompeii,
near modern Naples, was

Figure from Pompeii

The bodies of those who died in the
Pompeii eruption were coated in
volcanic ash, which then solidified,
leaving their outlines behind.

destroyed by a volcanic eruption.
Showers of ash came raining

down from Vesuvius, and those
who did not escape in time were
overwhelmed by the pyroclastic

gases, ash, and debris) from the
volcano. Perhaps a tenth of the
population of 20,000 died,
including the naturalist Pliny the
Elder, who was commanding a
naval unit nearby and perished in
a failed rescue attempt.

In Britain, the Roman-
controlled area continued to
expand, with governor Petillius
Cerialis (71-74) occupying the
northern English kingdom of
Brigantia. Julius Frontinus
(74-77) completed the subjugation
of Wales, defeating the Silures,
but it was left to Julius Agricola
(77-83/4) to send Roman armies

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‘eLindum

far into Scotland, untila final

_ defeat of the Caledonii at Mons
» Graupius (possibly near
: Aberdeen) made it likely that all of

Scotland would be annexed. But

: northern Scotland, which was

evacuated.
Domitian had managed to fend

off the threat from the
i Sarmatians, Marcomanni, and
© Quadi along the Danube by 84,

but war then erupted with the

who crossed the Danube and
killed the governor of Roman

: Moesia. By 86, Domitian had

Decebalus in place to cause the

~ Romans further trouble.

KEY

® Atrebates, absorbed 70s

) Iceni, conquered 60-61

“© Roman expansion 43-47

“® Roman expansion 47-50
Roman expansion 69-74

* Roman expansion 79-84.

Romans in Britain
By 74, Roman legions
had reached the north
of England. They then
pushed north into
Scotland until 83.

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44 [AN EMPEROR] UNDER
WHOM EVERYBODY WAS
PERMITTED TO DO
EVERYTHING. 99

Fronto, Roman orator, on Emperor Nerva, from Cassius Dio’s
History of Rome

Trajan’s Column, in Rome, gives a visual account of Trajan’s campaigns
against Decebalus in the Dacian Wars.

DOMITIAN (51-96) BECAME ROMAN
EMPEROR after the unexpected
death of his brother, Titus (39-81).
Domitian had never commanded
armies and was unprepared for
the exercise of supreme
power. He had some success
in his early campaigns, but
he over-extended himself
against the Dacians, and in
putting down a legionary
revolt led by Saturninus,
the governor of Germania
Superior. This distraction
allowed Decebalus, King of
the Dacians (r. 87-106), to renew
his war against Rome, and
Domitian was forced to pay off the
Dacians with an annual subsidy.
The conspiracy of Saturninus
led Domitian to become
paranoid and he had many
senators executed for treason.
In September 96, he was
murdered in a palace conspiracy
and the Senate chose the aged
M. Cocceius Nerva (30-98) to
replace him. The Senate then
voted to destroy all statues of
Domitian and to recall those he
had exiled. However, in 97 Nerva
faced a mutiny of the praetorian
guard, who demanded the
punishment of Domitian’s
murderers. Nerva was forced
to give in, weakening his
authority. His position was
further diminished by his lack
of an heir. To rectify this he
adopted M. Ulpius Traianus
(Trajan), the governor of Upper
Germany, a man with a strong
military backing. Nerva died
soon afterwards and Trajan
became emperor.

- Emperor Domitian

Domitian’s reign began well, but

: his descent into tyranny proved too
: much for his opponents, who had
: him assassinated.

In Central Asia, the northern

) Hsiung-nu confederation {see

146-131 BCE) collapsed in 89,

: gains in the region, led by general
» Ban Chao (32-102). Ban Chao

» became protector-general of the

| Western Regions in 92, and

: reestablished control over the key

oases along the Silk Route. By

: the time he retired in 102 the

| Han controlled most of the

: Tarim Basin. Chinese state

: complicated under the Han. Three

supreme officials supervised
large, complex departments. Each

: of these was subdivided into nine
| ministries. Governors oversaw

» each region, with regions divided
: into over 1,000 counties, each

: supervised by a magistrate.

Eunuchs became increasingly
influential at the Han court.

EMPEROR TRAJAN (98-117) WAS
FROM A ROMAN FAMILY who had
settled in Spain—he was the first
emperor to come from a Roman
province rather than Italy. Having
returned to Rome from Germany
in 100 to claim his throne, he
started a new Dacian War against
Decebalus in 101. From a base at
Viminacium (in modern Serbia),
he pushed into central Dacia, and
fought a major engagement at
Tapae, in which both sides
suffered serious losses. When
Trajan’s legions neared the Dacian
royal capital at Sarmizegetusa
Regia, Decebalus sued for peace,
agreeing to give up his army's
weapons and siege equipment,
and to demolish his remaining
forts. The Roman army did not
withdraw totally, establishing a
legionary base near the mountains

Sacred city

This ruined temple is in the Dacian
capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia [in
modern-day Romania]. It contained
the kingdom's most sacred shrines.

and building a bridge across the
Danube at Drobeta to allow easier
access across the river. Three
years later, in 105, the Senate
declared that Decebalus had
violated the treaty, and Trajan
embarked on his Second Dacian
War. This time the legions

reached, and took, Sarmizegetusa =

in 106. Decebalus fled and then
committed suicide to avoid
capture. The Romans acquired
an enormous amount of treasure
in Dacia, which allowed Trajan to
embark on a building spree,
including the construction of a
new Forum in Rome. Dacia was
annexed as Rome's first province
across the Danube. It remained in
imperial hands for over 160 years.
Some time around 106 the
Roman governor of Syria annexed
the Nabataean kingdom, which
became the Roman province of
Arabia. It was not Trajan’s last
acquisition in the east—in 113 he
set off on a campaign against
Parthia. He began by attacking
Armenia in 113-114, but it was his

165,500 kg
GOLD

: The Dacian Fortune
: The large amount of treasure Trajan
£ acquired in Dacia allowed him to

build impressive monuments to
commemorate his Dacian victory.

campaign against Parthia itself

| that gave him greater success
_ in the east than any previous

Roman emperor. By late 114 the
Armenians had submitted to him,

: and he pushed into Mesopotamia,
: capturing the Parthian capital of
: Ctesiphon. By the end of 115,

Trajan had reached the Persian

Gulf near modern Basra, Iraq,
where he is said to have remarked
that, had he been younger, he
might have pressed on to India.
The newly conquered territories
were organized as the provinces
of Mesopotamia and Assyria, but
they were already in revolt when
Trajan returned home in 117. The
Parthians rejected Trajan’s puppet
king Parthamaspates, and by the
time Trajan died in August 117
almost all of his gains in the east
had been lost. On his death-bed
Trajan adopted Publius Aelius
Hadrianus (Hadrian), the governor
of Syria, effectively appointing
Hadrian as his successor.

In 109, Trajan appointed the
historian Pliny the Younger
(61-c. 112] as his personal
representative to govern Bithynia-
Pontus on the Black Sea coast of
Anatolia. This was a controversial
move, as Bithynia~Pontus was
theoretically a senatorial province.
The provinces of the empire had
been divided between the emperor
and the senate at the accession
of Augustus in 278CE, with the
emperor receiving only the
provinces that held Legionary
garrisons. This division of the
provinces persisted into the time
of Trajan. Pliny stayed in Bithynia-
Pontus for at least two years,
trying to sort out the finances of
the main cities, which had fallen
into confusion. His letters to Trajan
are an invaluable insight into the
imperial government of the time.

The remains of Hadrian's Wall in northern England. The central portion of the
wall occupies a high position that vastly enhances its defensive value.

TRAJAN’S SUCCESSOR HADRIAN
(r. 117-135] rejected his
predecessor's policy of expansion
and concentrated on better
defense of the imperial
frontiers. In 122, Hadrian visited
Britain, where there had been
frontier troubles. He ordered the
building of a huge barrier from
the Solway Firth in the west to
the Tyne River in the east. It took
governor Aulus Platorius Nepos
two years to complete Hadrian’s
Wall (part in stone, and part in
turf), which ran 76 Roman miles
(113km], and was equipped with
a series of forts and milecastles
for its garrison. Hadrian’s Wall
acted as the northern frontier
line of Roman Britain for the
next 40 years.

The Parthian kingdom was left
in some confusion by the
campaigns of Trajan. His puppet
king, Parthamaspates, was
expelled in 117, but the Parthian
kingdom then seems to have
been divided between Vologeses

THE NUMBER
OF VILLAGES
RAZED
DURING THE
BAR-KOCHBA
REVOLT

II (r. 105-147) who ruled the
eastern portion, and Osroes
(r. 117-129) then Mithridates
IV [r. 129-140] in the west.
There was no further conflict
between Parthia and Rome for

the time being.

In India, the Kushan empire
expanded enormously under
Kanishka (127-140), who
conquered Magadha and
campaigned against the Chinese
in Central Asia; his inscriptions

HADRIAN (76-138)

Hadrian came from a Spanish
background and was the
adopted son of his predecessor,
Trajan. He was mocked by
some for his grecophile
tendencies, and was the first
emperor to sport a beard—a
Greek fashion. Hadrian was the
first emperor to travel widely
throughout the Roman empire,
giving him first-hand
knowledge of the provinces,
from Britain to North Africa.

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are found from the Oxus river in
Afghanistan to as far south as
Varanasi and Sanchi. He was a
strong patron of Buddhism and
presided over the fourth
Buddhist Council, as well as

re :

slaughter, after which the revolt
petered out. Hadrian proceeded
: with his plan to outlaw Judaism
in Palestine, and many of the
: Jews who had survived the
» rebellion fled abroad.
building a great stupa
at his capital
Purushapura
(Peshawar).
Hadrian's ban
on circumcision,
his plan to turn
Jerusalem into the
Roman town of Aelia
Capitolina, and his
intent to ban Jewish
religious practices in
Jerusalem caused a
furious revolt in
Jerusalem in 132, as
religious Jews rose up
against religious
reforms. Led by Shimon
Bar Kochba, the rebels
had early successes
against Rome. They set
up the beginnings of an
independent government
and minted their own coins.
In response, Hadrian
summoned Julius Severus,
the governor of Britain, to
conduct a war against the
rebels. Severus commanded
an army formed of
detachments from 12
legions. The rebels had no
large towns under their
control, and so adopted
guerrilla warfare while still
attempting to defend the smaller
forts they held. In 135, the rebel’s
last main stronghold at Bethar
was captured amid great

: Treasured goblet

: This beautiful vase was found in

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THE CITY OF TEOTIHUACAN
IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO
experienced massive
growth during the ist and
2nd centuries, with its
population reaching over
80,000 before 200. The city
was planned ona grid,
with two huge
pyramids—of the

Moon and the Sun—at
either end of the main
street. The Teotihuacan

Il phase of the city
(0-350) saw the building
of the enormous
Temple of Quetzalcoatl
and the acquisition of an
empire, with Teotihuacan
dominating vast areas of
Mexico and overseeing
client kingdoms as far south
as Guatemala.

Hadrian had adopted Antoninus ~
Pius (86-161) as his son and
successor, a stop-gap until
Antoninus's relative, Marcus
Aurelius (121-80), was old enough
to rule, but Antoninus survived
Hadrian by 23 years, and became
Roman emperor in 138. He was

MILES

THE LENGTH OF
THE ANTONINE
WALL IN
SCOTLAND

: characteristic of work ‘

THOUSAND

THE TOTAL
POPULATION OF
TEOTIHUACAN
AT ITS PEAK

Teotihuacan in modern Mexico.

famed for his moderation
and rarely left Rome.
Disturbances in Dacia (in
present-day Romania)
around 140 and an uprising

in North Africa in 145 did

not unduly disturb the
empire's calm. Antoninus
extended the frontier in
both Scotland and Upper
Germany, ordering the
construction of a new
turf barrier around
100 miles (160km) to the
north of Hadrian’s Wall
(see 188-135 Bce) in
Britain. This Antonine

Wall was 39 miles (63km]

in length. The Hadrian's
4 Wall garrison was moved

north to a new set of forts, but
their stay was short—Marcus
Aurelius, Antoninus Pius’s
successor, ordered a pull-back
to Hadrian's Wall around 161,
where the Roman frontier
of Britain remained until the
Sth century.

As Christianity grew, so did the
problem of defining a single
doctrine. Among the alternative
doctrines that sprang up in the
2nd century was Marcionism,
which taught that the God of

\
\_ turquoise

Hea Say P Christians was distinct from the
> y Jewish God of the Old Testament
oe y and that Jesus Christ did not have
ww ahuman nature. Justin Martyr
e (c. 103-165) argued that
Mexican mask a Christianity was the fulfillment
This sumptuous .

of Jewish prophecy and that
~ ° necklace made ed
ts f Christians were the new chosen
rom coral beads
’ people. Justin also wrote to
Marcus Aurelius, seeking to

explain Christian doctrine.

mask from Teotihuacaén a
bears the smooth, flat
features that are

from the city.

The ruins of Hatra, which was
a Parthian-controlled city.

MARCUS AURELIUS SUCCEEDED
TO THE ROMAN THRONE jointly
with Lucius Verus in 161. Marcus
was the more capable of the two,
but it was Lucius who was sent,
in 162, to rescue the situation in
the east after the governor of
Cappadocia was defeated and
killed by the Persians following a
disastrous invasion of Armenia.
By 163-164 Lucius had brought
Armenia back under Roman
control, and renamed its capital
Kaine Polis (“New City”). Anew
pro-Roman king was installed
there before the legions moved
on, pushing deeper into Persian

44 IF ITISNOT
RIGHT, DO NOT
DOIT: IFITIS
NOT TRUE, DO
NOT SAY IT. 99

Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from
Meditations, 161-180

territory, taking Edessa in
Mesopotamia, and reaching the
Parthian capital of Ctesiphon in
165. The Roman general Avidius
Cassius (c. 130-175] burned the
Parthian palace and then turned
back westward. A swathe of
Parthian territory down the
Euphrates River was annexed as
far east as Dura Europos [in
southeastern Syria). However,
victory celebrations were
short-lived, for the troops
brought the plague back to
Rome and by 167 it had spread

: widely throughout the
. Mediterranean.
Barely had the Parthian War
= ended than the Marcomannic
: War began. In early 167, a group
: of Germanic warriors from the
: Langobardi and Obii tribes
© crossed the Danube to attack the
» Roman province of Pannonia.
| They were pushed back
: fairly easily, but in spring
: 168 Marcus Aurelius
» resolved to visit the region
_ to assess the situation.
| Two more Germanic tribes,
the Marcomanni and
: Quadi were threatening to
: force their way across the
| frontier unless they were
» admitted to settle in the
© empire, but Marcus's
: presence deterred them.
: However, the expedition
: was cut short by the death
| of Lucius Verus from
: plague in early 169. Marcus
: returned to Italy, but was back in
© Pannonia later in the year to
: launcha massive offensive
: across the Danube. It was a
| disaster, with the Romans
: suffering around 20,000 dead and
: the Marcomanni and Quadi
: pouring into Italy, where they laid
© siege to Aquileia. Far from
: providing an easy victory for
: Marcus, the war dragged on for
another 10 years.
In China, the eunuch faction at
: court had become increasingly
powerful and had even engineered
© the murder of the emperor Shaodi
: in 125. Under Emperor Huandi
© (146-68) a series of natural
: disasters weakened the authority

| Marcus Aurelius

This statue shows Marcus Aurelius

: adopting a pose of victory, something
he claimed but never quite achieved
: in his Marcomannic Wars.

: of the central government, and the

emperor relinquished active

control of government to the

: eunuchs. In 168, an attempt by

* Dou Xian, regent for the 12-year-
© old emperor Lingdi (r. 168-89),

failed—the plot was betrayed

: and Dou Xian was forced to

: commit suicide. Several hundred
- of Dou Xian’s supporters were

now dead, the eunuch faction

: was able to exercise power
: almost unopposed.

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A painted stucco of the Moche’s most important god, Al'Apaec, whois often

depicted with the fangs of a snake.

THE MOCHE CULTURE EMERGED
ON THE COAST OF NORTHERN
PERU between 100 and 200. From
their bases in the Peruvian
valleys of Moche, Chicama, and
Vird, these people spread to
dominate almost the whole
northern coastline. A warlike
people, they sacrificed those
whom they captured to their
deities, including AlApaec
(“the decapitator”]. They were
skilled workers in gold and their
pottery has an extraordinarily
realistic quality.

The Roman Empire was in
crisis in 170—the
Marcomanni and Quadi had

occupied parts of northern Italy,

and an invasion by the lazyges
and Costobocci had overun large

parts of the Balkans. The Romans |

trapped the Marcomannias they
returned across the Danube and
killed many of them. The Quadi
sued for peace later in 171, but
the Marcommani remained
recalcitrant, forcing a new
offensive in 172. The forces of
Marcus Aurelius could never
quite strike the killer blow,
and by 175 the war had
reached a
stalemate.

In May that
year, rumors that
Marcus Aurelius

Moche stirrup jar
This jar has a typical
Moche “stirrup” attached
to the back of it. The
realism of the paddling
figure is characteristic of
the culture's ceramics.

The Romans had faced Germanic tribes ever since they had
reached the Rhine at the time of Julius Caesar. German groups
across the Danube, such as the Quadi and Marcomanni, proved
troublesome in the 2nd century, but by the late 3rd century new
and more dangerous confederations of Germanic tribes arose,
such as the Franks, Alamanns, and Goths, who overran much of
the Roman Empire by the mid-5th century.

: had died while on campaign

: prompted a revolt by Avidius

: Cassius, the governor of Syria.

: Avidius was declared emperor in
Egypt, and received support in

: Arabia, as well as in his own

: province of Syria. Critically,
= however, he failed to

‘ secure the support of

Martius Verus, the

: governor of Cappadocia, whom he
: had fought alongside during
| the Parthian War.

As Martius’s army approached,

| Cassius was murdered by a

: disaffected centurion, putting an

end to his short-lived but
dangerous rebellion. There

were suggestions that Marcus's
wife Faustina encouraged
Avidius, as she feared for her
husband's health and worried

her own son Commodus was
unfit to rule.

Free from the distraction of
Avidius's revolt, Marcus
Aurelius returned to the
Danube in 177. In the winter
of 179-80, the Roman army
occupied positions deep across
the Danube, and it looked as

if Marcus might be able to
create two new Roman
provinces—Marcomannia
and Samartia. However,

Marcus was old and

tired—he died in March

180. His son Commodus
brought the war to a rapid
conclusion, allowing him to
: return to Rome.

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THE CLASSICAL AGE Om

4 A
decorative __“
a female head .

Gold dolphin earrings
Earrings adorned with
animal-head motifs were
especially popular in the

eastern Roman empire. :

This pair bears a symbol &
of the sea god Neptune. j Se ©
|

& : Precious necklace ™

. » * This necklace, made up
& of gold and red garnets,
4 * seems to form the shape

of a spectacular fruit tree.

garnet shaped like
/-—— 4 fruit or berry

Bone pin
” — " This flat, thin blade or pin is topped é
* a \___ gold in the form a by a female head, an ornamental
touch for an otherwise humdrum

of a leaf
household item.

ANCIENT ROME

THE ROMANS SPREAD A RICH MATERIAL CULTURE THROUGHOUT THEIR VAST EMPIRE

As Roman political control steadily expanded outside Italy, in its wake came
the Roman way of life. Roman surveyors laid out new cities, local elites took
up Roman practices, and the masses attended gladiatorial spectacles. On
a domestic level, Roman fashions in clothing and accessories also spread.

Although many of the territories that the Romans conquered initially resisted, the populations of
these provinces, particularly the former ruling classes, gradually adopted many Roman customs.
Influential men became Roman citizens, towns were given new public buildings such as baths and

central
pivot __

courthouses, Roman legionary garrisons were established in strategic places, and new trade routes
brought luxury goods from Rome. As aresult, similar Roman artifacts have been found across Europe,
the Middle East, and North Africa, dating from around the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE.

head of
Oceanus

cursive
letter forms

Wooden tablet

The most important Roman
baths were adorned with
lavish mosaics, such as
this one of Oceanus, the
ocean god, from Sabratha
in Libya.

This type of tablet, made from
very thin wood, was used by
the Roman military for
everyday letters and record-
keeping. This one was found
at Vindolanda in England.

Plumb line
This bronze weighted
plumb line was attached
to a groma, an instrument
used by the Romans to
survey straight lines.

bronze
— weight

cart carrying _/
worshipers

Bronze dividers and foot rule
Dividers allowed engineers to
copy scale plans or models at
twice or half their size—the
gap between the lower points
is always twice that between
the upper points. The rule,
which was one Roman foot
long (11% in/29.6 cm), folded
for easy carrying.

metal crest to
deflect blows

foot rule

Procession bowl
This lekane, a type of shallow

dish, is decorated with
a scene of half-man,
half-goat satyrs

in a procession in
honor of Bacchus,
the god of wine.

modern-
looking grater

Short sword

Ancient grater
Cheese played an important
part in the Roman diet. Graters
such as this one were invented
to allow cheese to be used as
a topping on other foodstuffs.

ANCIENT ROME

flask
containing oil

strigil for
scraping

short blade—ideal for attacks at close range.

Amphora Bathing tools
The Romans transported liquid At the baths, a Raman’s skin
goods such as oil and wine was oiled and then scraped to
in amphoras, a type of large, remove sweat and dirt. Aring
double-handled storage jar. was used to transport the tools.
The Roman military sword, or gladius, hada
short blade

It was used by soldiers and some gladiators. ivory grip
satyr carrying
cymbals
eS
Military javelin .
Each Roman legionary carried two of these pila (javelins). Itong iron handle shaped for —/
The javelin’s iron head was designed to break off on shank throwing

Imperial coins

Coins bearing the head of the
current emperor (here Augustus
and Claudius] acted as powerful
propaganda tools across the
empire, showing even the masses
an image of their ruler.

Proof of citizenship

Noncitizens who served 25 years
in the Roman army were awarded
citizenship and given bronze
diplomas such as this one to
record the grant.

gridded visor
to protect face

Gladiator helmet

Roman gladiators bore a variety of arms
and armor. This sort of helmet was
worn by a Thracian, a type of gladiator
‘whose equipment was modeled on
that of ancient Thracian warriors.

impact to prevent an opponent throwing it back.

Sling pellets
Roman legionaries normally
relied on their swords, but

auxiliary light infantry used

other weapons to devastating
effect, such as these metal
sling pellets.

small size would
have offered little
protection

Bronze gladiator shield
Thracian gladiators—a class of lightly
armed gladiator—carried lightweight,
round shields such as this one for
defense, anda scimitar, with a short,
curved blade, to attack their opponents.

In this engraving by Giovanni Stradano, Emperor Commodus shoots an arrow

IN CHINA, INCREASING DISSENT
caused by the corruption of the
eunuchs at the court of Han
Emperor Lindi (r. 168-89) anda
succession of natural disasters
led to the outbreak in 184 of a
major insurrection, named the
Yellow Turban revolt for the
color of its supporters’ headgear.
Up to 400,000 rebels swept
westward towards the capital.
Another uprising fueled by the
Five Pecks of Rice sect then
succeeded in taking over Sichuan
in the southwest. Although the
Yellow Turbans had been largely
crushed by early 185, the control
of the Han emperor was ever
weakening. After Lingdi died in
189, he was replaced by his
younger half-brother Xiandi

(r. 189-220) but he never exercised
real power. Instead, control of the
empire fell to Han general Cao
Cao, who contended for 30 years
with a series of rival warlords,
notably Liu Bei in the southwest
and Sun Quan in the south.

THE AGE

AT WHICH
COMMODUS
BECAME SOLE
EMPEROR

to subdue a leopard. Fighting in the arena as a gladiator was his great passion.

Commodus [r. 180-92), Marcus

Aurelius's son, was the first

= Roman emperor to succeed his

: father for 90 years, but he proved

_ to be adisastrous choice. In 182,

: after an assassination attempt on

: him, apparently organized by his
sister Lucilla, Commodus became

| increasingly despotic. Many

: senators who were implicated in

: the plot were executed and control

: of the government fell into the

| praetorian prefect (the
commander of the imperial

+ bodyguard). There were minor

| wars in Britain and in Dacia {much

: Perennis was suspected of a plot

= to make his own son emperor and
was executed by his troops.

: Commodus increasingly devoted
himself to fighting in the arena as

| a gladiator, while the imperial

| chamberlain Cleander dominated

: government and sold public offices
to the highest bidder. The man in

: charge of the grain supply,

: downfall. This did not result in a

: more stable government, as his
replacement only lasted a short
time before being murdered.

: Commodus increasingly identified

» himself with Hercules (the Greek

» hero] and renamed Rome after

: himself—colonia Commaodiana.
At the end of 192, the praetorian

: prefect Laetus was convinced that

: Commodus was planning to have

» him killed and on New Year's Day

| 193 took the initiative and had the

: emperor poisoned and, when that

: did not work, strangled.

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Leptis Magna [in modern Libya) commemorates a visit

by the North African emperor to his home town.

44 BE HARMONIOUS WITH

EACH OTHER

, ENRICH

THE SOLDIERS, IGNORE
ALL OTHERS... 99

Septimius Severus, dying words as quoted in Book 77 of Roman historian

Dio Cassius’s Roman History, 211

IN 193, AFTER THE MURDER OF
COMMODUS, Helvius Pertinax
{126-93}, the prefect of the city,
was declared emperor, but he was
murdered after three months. This
was followed by rival claimants to
the throne engaging in an auction
outside the praetorian camp to
decide who would be emperor.
Didius Julianus [133-93] won, but

Money offered to each
soldier by Didius Julianus

Money offered to each soldier
by Flavius Sulpicianus

Buying loyalty

The larger bribes offered to the
troops by Didius Julianus meant that
he won the auction to be emperor.

his reign was short, as almost
immediately the frontier armies
rebelled: the army on the Danube
proclaimed Septimius Severus
{c. 145-211] emperor, while the
Syrian legions raised their
commander Pescennius Niger
(c. 135-94] to the imperial throne.
Severus reached Rome first and,
after granting the title of Caesar
(junior emperor] to Clodius
Albinus, governor of Britain, he
turned east where, in spring 194,
his armies defeated Niger at the

: Battle of Issus in Syria. Severus
stayed in the east and in 195

attacked the Parthian Empire. But |

he was forced to return west to
deal with Albinus, who had
revolted, and who was killed near
Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France]
: in 197. Severus then returned to
Parthia, this time occupying the
capital Ctesiphon in 197. He
pushed the line of Roman control
: toward the Tigris and created the
new province of Mesopotamia.
Trouble in Britain brought the
aging emperor to the province in
208. A large-scale Roman
advance forced the Caledonians
and Maetae north of the provincial
frontier to come to terms in 209,

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JULIA DOM

NA (170-217)

The daughter of a Syrian high
priest, Julia Domna married
Septimius Severus in 187.A
prophecy had predicted that
she would wed an emperor,
and so it turned out. Forceful
and intelligent, she failed to
mediate between her sons
Caracalla and Geta after
their father’s death and to
prevent Geta’s murder. When
Caracalla was killed, she
deliberately starved herself
to death in protest, a move
that rallied support for the
remaining Severan family.

: but they soon broke the peace and
| a new campaign was launched in

: and his son Caracalla took over.

: In February 211 Severus died in

: Eboracum (modern York, England)
and handed succession jointly to

: sons Caracalla and Geta. After the
| Scottish war, both rushed back to
© Rome, but their joint rule was

. short-lived: Caracalla had Geta

+ murdered in December 211.

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A carving of the Buddha from Sarnath in North India, where a school of

Buddhist art flourished under the Kushans.

IN INDIA, THE AREA CONTROLLED
BY THE KUSHAN DYNASTY began
to shrink after the death of King
Kanishka in 140, and particularly
severe territorial losses were
suffered under Huvishka

(r. 160-90). Kushan rule finally
collapsed under Vasudeva

(r. 190-225) when Persian invaders
swept through northwestern
India. Although Kushan kings
continued to rule a much-reduced
realm for a further century, their
influence was purely local and
their heyday was at an end.

In Rome, Caracalla’s
government was unpopular.
Among his measures was the
Antonine Constitution of 212, by

DE REN
RNING FOUN HG

: which citizenship was granted to
almost all free males in the

| empire. After a successful
campaign on the Rhine [in 213),

: Caracalla ventured further afield,

: arriving in Egypt in 215. For some

: unknown reason, he became

: His praetorian prefect Opellius
: Macrinus came to suspect that

Caracalla wanted him dead, so he

i persuaded a disaffected soldier to

murder the emperor. After
Caracalla’s murder, the army

: declared Macrinus emperor.
: There was much residual loyalty

THE NUMBER
OF BATHERS
THAT COULD
USE THE BATHS
OF CARACALLA

to the Severan family, and a revolt
broke out in Syria, which aimed
to put Elagabalus (203-22),
grandson of Julia Domna’s sister
Julia Maesa, on the throne.
Macrinus lost support and in June
218 he fled to Cappadocia, where
he was killed. In 221, Elagabalus
adopted as his heir his cousin
Alexianus. When the two fell
out in 222, the army backed
Alexianus and Elagabalus
was murdered. Alexianus
became Emperor
Alexander Severus

at age 13.

In Persia, Parthian rule
had been weakened,
both by plague and by
the effects of successive
Roman invasions. In 207,
the kingdom had been

Bronze diploma
Diplomas were issued to
auxiliary soldiers in the
Roman army, granting
them citizenship. This
practice ceased after the
Antonine Constitution.

Arch of Caracalla
Originally the arch
was topped bya
figure of the
emperor riding ina
chariot, It stands in
Volubilis, the main
town of Roman
Mauretania Tingitana
lin modern Morocco).

divided into two
when Vologeses
VI's brother set
himself up asa
rival king,
Artabanus V; and a further
Roman invasion in 216 ravaged
much of the province of Media.
Taking advantage of this disorder,
the ruler of the southwestern
province of Pars, Ardashir,
expanded his territory and finally
defeated Artabanus V c. 224.
Ardashir | was then declared king
(r. 224-42) as the first ruler of
the Sasanian dynasty. Although

: adversaries to the Romans than

: the Parthians ever had been.

In China in 220, Cao Cao’s son
Cao Pi forced Xiandi to abdicate.
Within two years Cao Pi, Liu Bei,
and Sun Quan would each declare
himself emperor. The Han dynasty
and China's unity were at an end.

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The Sasanian Empire in Persia
After rapidly acquiring the former KEY

Parthian Empire, the Sasanians
fought a series of wars with the
Romans over control of Mesopotamia.

Sasanian Empire at greatest extent
East Roman Empire in 3rd century

THE NUMBER OF
ROMAN EMPERORS
THAT RULED
BETWEEN

235 AND 284

IN CHINA, THE FINAL COLLAPSE OF ©

THE HAN DYNASTY IN 220 was

followed by 350 years of instability. ©
© brutally put down. The Senate
(220-80) saw China divided into the
Wei kingdom of the north; (initially ©

The Three Kingdoms period

under Wei Wendi [r. 220-26); the
Shu Han kingdom in the west
whose first ruler was Shu Han
Xuande [r. 221-23); and the
southern Wu kingdom under Wu
Wudi [r. 222-52). Wei Wendi was a
capable ruler, but his successors
struggled to contain attacks by
northern tribesmen.
In 235, the Roman
emperor Alexander
Severus and his
mother Julia Mamaea
were murdered by
mutinous troops,
putting an end to the
Severan dynasty. The
uprising’s ringleader,
Maximinus Thrax
(r. 235-38), an officer from
a humble background, was
proclaimed emperor, but he
spent most of his reign raising
funds to reward his troops for
their support. This time marks
the start of a period of “military
anarchy” in which Rome had
dozens of emperors, most of them
short-lived rulers who were
raised up by the frontier armies
and just as quickly deposed and
killed. A rebellion in 238 in North

Art from the Three Kingdoms
High artistic achievements, such as

this fine statue, were a feature of the =

late Han dynasty. Its collapse in 220
did not result in an equivalent
decline in China's artistic output.

Roman emperor Gordian III
succeeded his father and grandfather.

Africa proclaimed the province's
elderly governor as Emperor
Gordian I, but he was quickly and

GOBI DESERT

WEI Yellow
Luoyang) Ses

Chang‘an

declared Maximinus deposed and: ae
proposed Pupienus and Balbinus {Chen
as candidates. Popular sentiment : uA)
: favored Gordian I's grandson Paine
South
a China
4 =< Naiian Ge
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& ~ £0) Wei, 220-225 Wu, 222-280
c ] | Shu Han, 221-263

: China under the Three Kingdoms

| Although the Wei kingdom faced the
: greatest challenges among the three
: kingdoms, it would eventually

: conquer the Wu and the Shu Han.

\
=

Gordian III (r. 238-44), so all
three briefly shared the
throne, Balbinus and
Pupienus were
killed soon after,
leaving Gordian III
to rule alone. His
six-year reign briefly
restored some semblance of
stability to the empire, but
he was killed while leading an
invasion of Persia in 243-44.
Compounding the Roman
Empire's difficulties was the
appearance of barbarian
confederacies among
the Germanic peoples
of the Rhine and
Danube frontiers.
Principal among these
were the Alemanni. In
213, Caracalla campaigned
against them; by 260 they
were able to invade Italy itself.

. yi

Amural of St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage at the height of the Decian

/R :

persecution. He was martyred in 257 during a campaign under Valerian.

PERSIA ATTAINED A POSITION OF
RENEWED STRENGTH under
Shapur I (r. 241-72). In 244, he
won a decisive battle against
Gordian Ill at Misiche near
Ctesiphon. Shortly after, Gordian
Ill was killed and replaced by his
army commander Philip (or Philip
“the Arab”). Philip made peace

ransom to escape Sasanian
territory. His successors broke
the terms of the agreement, so in
256 Shapur | invaded Syria and
captured the towns of Antioch and
Europos Dura. Valerian, who by
then was emperor [r. 253-60),

into a trap and was imprisoned
by Shapur. The Romans were left

Relief of Shapur |

In this relief, Shapur | triumphs over
the Roman emperors Gordian II and
Valerian. After Valerian’s capture,
Shapur is said to have used him as a
footstool for mounting his horse.

: in disarray and Shapur's armies
: advanced as far as Iconium
: (modern Konya, Turkey).

The western part of the Roman

: Empire also faced increasing
: pressure. The Romans suffered
© invasions of Dacia [much of

modern Romania) by the Carpi

© people from c. 214. The Carpi,
with Shapur but had to paya large
© Goths, took part in a raid across
: the Danube in 239-40. In 248,

» Emperor Philip withdrew an

» annual tribute he had been

together with a new group, the

paying the Carpi and the Goths,

» Moesia [modern Bulgaria). Philip
soon retook Antioch. In 260, he fell:
_ the invasion; he was so successful
: that his troops declared him

: emperor. Early in 249, Decius

: marched to Rome and defeated
and killed Philip. Hearing of the

: Roman civil war, the Goths

: Under their warleader Cniva, the

sent Quintus Decius to deal with

SHAPUR I (d.272]

Shapur’s early leadership
experience came in a role
assisting his father, Ardashir,
in mopping up support for
the Parthian Arsacid dynasty.
Shapur’s defeats of Gordian
Ill in 244 and of Valerian in
260 established a temporary
Persian dominance in Syria
and Mesopotamia. He used
the many Roman prisoners
captured in 256 at Antioch to
build the new town of Veh
Antiok Shapur (“Shapur’s
town, better than Antioch”).

Goths ravaged the province of
: Moesia, laying siege to the main
town of Nicopolis (modern
Nikopol, Bulgaria). The campaign
: went badly for the Romans, ending
© in defeat and Decius’s death at the
Battle of Abrittus in 251.

In Japan, the Yamato kingdom
emerged on the plain of Nara [in
central Japan] around 250. Its
rulers were interred in large burial
mounds, and its armies conquered
most of central Japan. Much of

: what is known comes from
Chinese sources, who name the
Queen of Yamato in 238 as Himiko.

The main colonnade at Palmyra, which grew rich on tariffs paid by merchants

4 \

who plied the desert route that passed through the Syrian city.

VALERIAN’S CAPTURE BY THE
PERSIANS in 260 proved
disastrous for the western part of
the Roman Empire as well as the
east. Valerian’s son Gallienus

(r. 260-68), struggling to contain
an invasion of Italy by the
Germanic luthungi had no
resources to reinforce the Rhine
frontier, which was being
breached by Alemmanic and
Frankish raiders. The Governor
of Germania Inferior, Marcus
Postumus, revolted and killed
Gallienus’s son Saloninus, who
had been left in charge of Gaul and

The Gallic Empire

Postumus began the Gallic Empire
in control of Gaul, Germany, Britain,
and Spain. By its collapse in 274, the
last ruler, Tetricus, had lost Spain.

Eburacum
.

Germany. Postumus declared
himself emperor, but unlike
previous usurpers did not march
on Rome, instead setting up a
separate Gallic Empire; this
initially controlled Britain, Spain,
parts of western Germany, and
Gaul. He established a form of
government that mirrored that of
the official empire, complete with
its own Senate. In 269, Postumus
was murdered by his own troops
and replaced by his praetorian
prefect Victorinus. Gallienus—
faced with Gothic invasions and
the revolt of Zenobia of Palmyra
in the east—was never strong
enough to put an end to the Gallic
Empire. In 268 he was murdered
by the army and replaced by
Claudius II Gothicus (r. 268-70),
who was too busy fighting in the

North

Balkans to deal with Gaul. Only
under Aurelian (r. 270-74) was
the Roman Empire strong enough,
and by then the Gallic Empire was
weakened, with its last ruler,

Tetricus (r. 270-74], facing splits in =

the army. In 274, Tetricus was
captured near Chalons, and the
Gallic Empire was reabsorbed.

In the east, a serious challenge
to Romanrule emerged after 240.
The city of Palmyra [in Syria}
proved Rome's only reliable ally
against the Sasanian advances of
Persia. Its ruler Septimius
Odaenathus (c. 220-67) received a
number of Roman titles, including
Corrector Totius Orientis ("Marshal
of the entire East”), and invaded
the Sasanian Empire in 262 and
266. Odaenathus died in 267; and
his wife Zenobia [(r. 267-73)
created an empire of her own. By
269, her armies had taken Syria
and Egypt, and in 271 she declared
her son Vaballathus emperor.
Aurelian marched east and soon
rolled back the Palmyrene gains,
besieging Palmyra in spring 272.
Zenobia was captured while trying
to escape, and Palmyra was
sacked in 273 when it tried to
throw off Roman rule again.

Sepulchral relief from Palmyra

The Palmyrenes buried their dead

with exquisite and realistic personal

portrayals; the dead were interred in
: tower tombs outside the city.

In China, Yuandi (r. 260-64)

restored Wei's fortunes by
conquering the Shu Han. But
soon after he was overthrown by
one of his own generals, Sima
Yuan, who founded the Western
Jin dynasty and took the title
Wudi (r. 265-89). His armies

» crushed and annexed the Wu
kingdom in 280, thus briefly
reuniting China.

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Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and official, in

De Caesaribus, c. 360

IN CHINA, THE FIRST EMPEROR OF
THE WESTERN JIN DYNASTY, Wudi

(r. 265-89), was a strong ruler who |
: years, Probus had defeated the

: Goths on the Danube and pushed
_ back the Franks from the Rhine.

: Aplanned campaign against

: Persia was frustrated in 281 by

: the revolt of two usurpers in the

: West: Bonosus and Proculus.

» Despite his military successes, in

_ 282 Probus was murdered by his

secured trade routes to the West
and built a bridge over the Yellow
River to improve communications.
However, the wars of the Three
Kingdoms period (see 231-244)
had impoverished the state and
as the tax burden rose, many
peasants fled to landowners for
protection, resulting in the rise of
private armies.

In the Roman Empire, Emperor
Aurelian—who was murdered in
275—was followed by two

Jin sitting bear sculpture
The first half of the Jin dynasty
under Wudi gave China a
period of comparative
peace and stability,
which allowed the A
arts to flourish.

: short-lived emperors—Tacitus
: and Florianus—before Probus

took power in 276. Within two

own troops, who were resentful

i at being forced to work on civil
| engineering projects near
: Sirmium [in modern Serbia).

The Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacan (near modern Mexico City) was built some time after 200 at one end of
the city’s Avenue of the Dead; the Pyramid of the Sun sits at the other end.

IN 284, THE ROMAN ARMY IN ASIA
MINOR PROCLAIMED DIOCLES, the
former commander of the
imperial bodyguard, Emperor
Diocletian (r. 284-305). In 285,

he defeated Carinus (the then
emperor of the Western Empire]
and started a radical
reorganization of the empire,
reforming the army, and
subdividing provinces. The
challenges on the frontier were
too great to be faced alone; in 285, :
he appointed Maximian (250-310)
to rule alongside him, first as
Caesar (junior emperor] then as
Augustus (senior emperor]. Other
problems with Britain’s break
from the empire under Carausius
in 286 convinced Diocletian that
more changes were necessary. In
293, he and Maximian appointed
two Caesars: Constantius
Chlorus [r. 293-306) to assist

Persian frieze

Diocletian in the Western Empire
and Galerius (r. 273-311] to be

tetrarchy (four emperor system)
enjoyed early successes in Britain
(296) and in Egypt (298). In 294,
Diocletian reformed the coinage,
reissuing new bronze and silver
coins, and in 301 he issued an
Edict on Maximum Prices to try
to curb rising inflation. Unlike his
other measures, this one failed.

Maximian’s junior in the East. This :

: The Paikuli frieze celebrates the

victories of Narseh in Armenia and
justifies his deposition of
predecessor Vahram III.

After the death of Shapur | in

| 272 Persia faced a period of
: political instability. In 293,

Narseh [r. 293-302] ascended to
the Persian throne. He resolved to
recover land in Armenia and

+ Mesopotamia that had been lost

SQUARE

MILES

THE AREA OF
TEOTIHUACAN CITY
AT ITS PEAK

: to the Romans. He launched a
major invasion in 296, defeating

: the Caesar Galerius in 297. The
next year, however, Galerius

| smashed Narseh’s army in

» Armenia and captured the Persian

: ruler’s family. Galerius marched

: captured in 298. Narseh was

: forced to make peace (Treaty of

isibis). Persia remained at peace

| In the Valley of Mexico, the city of

| Teotihuacan reached the peak of

: Dead—ran between the Pyramid

: of the Moon and the Ciudadela

: of the ruler] and was lined with the

: residences of the lords of the city.

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This early 16th-century fresco of the

Battle of Milvian Bridge is in the Apostolic

Palace in the Vatican. Before the battle,

the emperor Constantine is said to have seen a Christian monogram in adream predicting his victory.

SINCE PERSECUTIONS IN THE 250S
AND 260S, THE CHRISTIAN
COMMUNITY had experienced
some 40 years of tranquillity in
the Roman Empire. All this
changed in 303 when Diocletian
issued an edict ordering the
destruction of churches and the
handing over and burning of
Christian books. A sterner edict
followed, calling for the arrest of
Christian clergy, and one in 304
ordered that all Christians offer
a Sacrifice to the pagan gods.
Devout Christians could not
accede to these demands, and
many of them were martyred.

In 304, Diocletian fell seriously
ill, and in 305 he announced that
he and Maximian would abdicate.
Constantius Chlorus and
Galerius would take over as

Augusti, while the new Caesars
were to be Maximinus (Galerius’s
nephew) and Flavius Severus

Palace of Diocletian

Diocletian built the great palace at
Split, Croatia, for his retirement
after his abdication in 305. Here,
he tended his cabbages.

75,000

MAXENTIUS

50,000

CONSTANTINE

: Battle numbers at Milvian Bridge
Maxentius's forces outnumbered

: those of Constantine, but his
army became trapped between
Constantine's men and the river.

: (Galerius’s army colleague). The
new tetrarchy soon unraveled.
Constantius died in Eboracum
(modern York, England) in July
306 and the troops there

: proclaimed his son Constantine

: the new Augustus. By October,
Maxentius (r. 306-12), the son of
Maximian, was crowned emperor

: in Rome. Severus was killed trying
to retake Rome from Maxentius,

: and Maximian restored himself to
the position of Augustus. In 308,
the Conference of Carnuntum

= was called to settle the disputes,
presided over by Diocletian, who
came out of retirement.
Constantine accepted a demotion
to Caesar in the West, with

| Licinius as Augustus [r. 308-24),

: while Maximin Daia became
Galerius’s Caesar in the East
(r. 310-13). This new arrangement

| was no more succesful than
the old one.

In 311, Galerius died and
Maximin became Augustus in
the East. He ordered renewed
measures against Christians.
Constantine, meanwhile, invaded
Italy and in October 312 defeated
and killed Maxentius at the Battle
of Milvian Bridge. Before the
battle, Constantine is said to have
dreamed of the Chi-Rho symbol
and ordered his troops to mark it
on their shields.

Licinius and Constantine met at
Mediolanum (modern Milan) in
313, where they agreed to share
power and issued the Edict of
Milan, which granted toleration to
all forms of worship, in effect
legalizing Christianity. Licinius
then turned East and defeated
Maximin Daia, securing control

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over the Eastern provinces. The
alliance between Constantine and
Licinius broke down in 316; they
patched up a peace in 317, and for
six years the Roman Empire
relapsed into an uneasy calm.

In China, Wudi’s successor Huidi
(r. 290-306) was mentally disabled
and soa succession of regents
contended for imperial control.
Huidi’s brother Huaidi (r. 307-12]
invited the northern Xiongnu
tribesmen to help him against
the competing Chinese factions,
but they took him prisoner. The
last Western Jin emperor Mindi
(r. 313-16] saw the Xiongnu sack
the capital of Chang’an (modern
Xi‘an); the Jin moved south, where
Yuandi (r. 317-23] became the
first Eastern Jin emperor in 317.

EUROPE

» Chi-Rho symbol
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two letters of Christ's name in
Greek, became an important early
symbol of Christianity.

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Sicca Veneria

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Christianity spread in the 2nd and 3rd centuries until there

were strong Christian communities in Anatolia, southern
Gaul, Italy, Egypt, and the province of Africa [Tunisia].

KEY

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Areas strongly Christian by 325

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Itwas largely Eastern Church leaders who gathered at the Council of Nicaea
(depicted here) in 325; only eight Western bishops made the journey there.

CHANDRAGUPTA I ASCENDED TO
THE THRONE of a small kingdom
in the western Ganges Plain in
320. Through an advantageous
marriage to Princess Kumaradevi

of the powerful Liccachevi dynasty :
and by conquest, he expanded his =
| in western Asia Minor in 325 to

| establish (and impose) orthodoxy

realm to include most of the

central Ganges, from Magadha
(in southern Bihar) to Prayaga {in
Uttar Pradesh]. His descendants,
the Guptas, ruled northern India
for almost 150 years.

The Column of Constantine

The sole surviving monument from
the forum that Constantine built for
his new city is this column, which
sits in central Istanbul today.

Having taken up the cause of

found that Christians themselves
were far from united in doctrine
or organization. Constantine
called a church council at Nicaea

in the face of a division over

: Arianism (the theology of Arius,

: who held that Jesus Christ was

» subordinate to God the Father). As
: well as Constantine, about 300

: church leaders attended, and

Arius’s views were condemned.

_'THE NUMBER OF
_ DISTRICTS IN
_ CONSTANTINOPLE

| After defeating Licinius (r. 308-
: 24) in 324, Constantine founded

anew capital for the Eastern

* Roman Empire at the ancient city
© of Byzantium, strategically sited
' between Europe and Asia. He

: demolished pagan temples and

built new churches, such as Hagia

: Sophia, providing public buildings
: to rival those of Rome. The city of
» Constantinople (modern Istanbul)
- was publicly dedicated on April 2,
: 330. Itwas the seat of the Eastern
: Emperors for over 1,000 years.

THE NUMBER
OF TYPES OF
PURE-GOLD
COINS ISSUED
BY SAMUDRA-
GUPTA

IN 335, SAMUDRAGUPTA ([r. 335-
75) SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER
Chandragupta | as ruler of the
Gupta domains in northern India.
An inscription he set up in
Prayaga survives, recounting a
series of campaigns he fought in
Uttar Pradesh and Mathura,
both of which were annexed to the
Gupta kingdom. He also made
conquests down the east coast of
India, as far as Madras, and
subdued West Bengal as well as
parts of Rajasthan and the
Punjab. Various other regions
acknowledged his suzerainty,
making him the most powerful
Indian ruler since the Mauryas.
Constantine died in 337, having
accepted Christian baptism only
on his deathbed. He had made no
definite provision for succession,
leaving his sons to divide the
empire between them:
Constantine Il (r. 337-40] held
Spain, Gaul, and Britain;
Constans [r. 337-50) ruled Italy,
and Constantius Il (r. 337-61)

46 IN OTHER MEN... TASTE FOR SLAUGHTER
SOMETIMES LOSES IT'S FORCE... IN

governed the Eastern Empire.
Their reigns began with a
massacre at Constantinople in
which almost all of their father’s
other male relatives were killed in
order to remove any possible
rivals. Constantine II, who was the
eldest, tried to assert his seniority,
but died during an invasion of
Italy in 340. Constans then took
control of the entire Western
Empire, where he was faced with

against Frankish invaders in
Gaul, and problems in Britain,

which led him to visit the far-flung
| province (the last undisputed

Roman Emperor to do so) in 343.
Disputes between the two
surviving brothers, particularly

one over the status of Athanasius, :
Bishop of Alexandria [whom
Constantius Il had exiled, but
Constans wanted restored],
soured all relations between
them. In 350, a senior military
officer, Magnentius, revolted at

: Gold Gupta coin

Many Gupta coins contain images
of horses, a possible reference to
the ritual horse sacrifice performed
by some Gupta rulers.

RE VIOLENT. 99

: Augustodunum in southern Gaul
i (modern Autun, France) and

_ Constanswas killed. Distracted
bya war against Persia,

: Constantius || tolerated the

: upstart initially, but in 351 he

: moved against him. Since

: Constantius Il had no heir, he

: promoted his cousin Gallus—one
: of the few survivors of the

a series of hard-fought campaigns :
: Campaigned against Magnentius

: in the West. Magnentius's army

| was defeated at Mursa [in

: present-day Croatia); Italy and

i North Africa were rapidly

charge in the East, while he

For the next seven years

' Constantius II ruled the empire
© alone, mainly preoccupied with

| Frankish incursions into Gaul, the
i revolt of the usurper Silvanus in

: 355, and aseries of church

» councils that sought to resolve

| doctrinal disputes (Constantius II
: favored Arianism over the

In the end, Gallus proved too

» ambitious and in 354 he was

| deposed and executed.

: Constantius || turned instead to

: Gallus's brother Julian, a studious
© youth with a penchant for pagan

» philosophy. In 355, after Silvanus’s
i revolt, Julian was despatched to
» Gaul as Caesar, where he proved

i surprisingly effective at combating
: Frankish raiders.

The acropolis at Tikal, one of the greatest surviving series of

ruins in the Mayan world.

IN ETHIOPIA, THE KINGDOM OF
AKSUM became one of the
earliest states toembrace

Christianity outside the Roman

Empire. The Syrian Christian
missionary Frumentius
converted the king,
Ezana [r. 320-60) to
Monophysitism [a
doctrine emphasizing
a single nature of
Christ, the divine].

A letter from
Constantius Il to

Ezana in 357 has

Shapur II hunts a stag
Sasanian rulers commissioned lavish
silver items depicting themselves

hunting wild beasts as a display

of their royal power.

they set up to
commemorate

palace complexes set ina
central “acropolis.” The
Mayans developed a
hieroglyphic form of
writing that survives on
many of the stelae
(carved stone slabs)

survived, urging
Ezana to shift his
allegiance to
Arianism and to
replace Frumentius
with an Arian bishop—
evidence that the
Roman emperors took

important events; in
Tikal the first such
dated monument is
from 292. The first
named king of Tikal is
Siyaj Chan K’awiil |

Chak Tok Ich’aak | [r. 360-

: began to push across the Rhine,

i and in the early 350s they overran
| part of the Rhine frontier,

: fortresses. Caesar Julian

In the East, conflict broke

_ out again between the Romans

: and the Persians, under Shapur
© I(r. 309-79], who took advantage
: of the political turmoil in the

: Roman Empire in the 350s. In

» west and took the great Roman
» fortress of Amida (modern

: populations deported to Persia,
(c. 305), and by the reign of =

threatening the Roman position

: in the East.

seriously the religious
loyalties of their neighbors.
Ezana conducted military
campaigns beyond his borders;
an inscription speaks of

78), Tikal was by far the
largest and most powerful of
the Classic Maya cities. i
The Roman Empire faced i a
invasions on both its western and 4
its eastern borders in the 340s i
and 350s. In the West, the Franks |

ie
Ut of we
gu

KEY

SQUARE MIL
THE AREA
OF THE CITY
OF TIKAL,

c. 400

i expeditions against neighboring
. “Gaze, then the Agame, and the

« _ by such conquests and the control

of trade from sub-Saharan Africa

"and Arabia, Aksum would
: dominate the region until the
: 7th century.

The pre-Classic Maya

| kingdoms of Guatemala and

Mexico underwent a collapse

some time in 200-300, with
populations declining and

Maya civilization, the Classic
period (300-900), in which a
series of powerful kingdoms
emerged. Their great urban
centers, such as those at Tikal [in
Guatemala] and Palenque [in
Mexico), are characterized by
huge pyramidal temples and

Trade route

Maya kingdoms

Classic Maya culture
originated in lowland cities,
such as Uaxactun and Tikal,
but spread to the highlands
and the Yucatan peninsula.

CENTRAL

: Siguene,” and it seems his building activity ceasing. But the © Southern Maya MAYA’ . &
' armies may have occupied Meroé = region soon recovered, with the BA Mavenicne ‘ Ue im =
city [in northern Sudan). Enriched | emergence of anew phase in Peten fh ?

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Here Emperor Julian is seen in religious debate. He attempted to sow discord among
Christians by decreeing the return of those who had been exiled for religious reasons.

IN CHINA, THE EASTERN JIN
DYNASTY (317-420) brought
comparative stability to the south
of the country. Although many of
the emperors were short-lived,
the bureaucracy in the southern
capital of Nanjing functioned
efficiently and the period saw

a cultural flowering. Artists such
as Gu Kaizhi (c. 345-406) painted
masterpieces suchas the
Admonitions of the Instructress

to the Palace Ladies, as well as
producing works on the theory of
painting. Northern China, on the
other hand, was highly unstable,
divided between the Sixteen
Kingdoms, most of them ruled by
nomadic groups. The Eastern Jin
emperors alternated between a
defensive stance towards the
Sixteen Kingdoms and aggressive
campaigns, notably under Mudi

(r. 345-61] who retook Sichuan
and Luoyang. All these gains were
lost, however, under Emperor Aidi
(r. 362-65). In 383, the Eastern Jin

JULIAN THE APOSTATE (331-63)

The nephew of Constantine |,
Julian was educated asa
Christian but c. 351 became a
pagan under the influence of
Maximus of Ephesus. When
Julian unexpectedly became
emperor in 363, he tried to
restore paganism in the
empire, including banning
Christians from teaching
literature. He became known

THE NUMBER
_OF KINGDOMS
IN CHINA
FROM 304

TO 439

i (under Xiaouwudi) would be
: forced to repel a major invasion
: in the north of the country.

In the Roman Empire, Julian

: was proclaimed Augustus by his

: troops in 360, so he was a direct

: challenge to Constantius. The

» were advancing through Asia
Minor, was too great for

: Constantius to meet

| immediately, He

i died in November

: 361as he was

: west to deal with the

: revolt. Now sole

: immediately set about
| restoring the role of
: paganism in the Roman

» Empire, trying to

: establish a kind of pagan

i orthodoxy and an official

| pagan hierarchy of priests
: to counter Christianity’s

: strengths. He reopened

: pagan

| restored the
© right to sacrifice.

» out on a campaign
| against Persia,

: empire in 359-60. He
_ reached Ctesiphon,
: but was then forced

: Tigris River. Being

: short of supplies, the
: Roman army

: suffered constant

: harassment from

. the Persians and, in

: The pagan reaction

but he ceded key border
provinces to Persia, which
lost him popularity,
and he died (probably
murdered] within
months. An officer of the
imperial bodyguard,
Valentinian (r. 364-75), was
then raised to the throne, and
he selected his brother Valens
(r. 364-78) to be his co-ruler.
Valentinian spent much of his
reign along the Rhine dealing
with Frankish and Alemannic
invaders. He died in 375 after
\ suffering some type of seizure,
Weer brought on by his anger at

i barbarian Quadi
: temples, envoys thought to
» and have insulted him.

The Western
) Roman
Empire

was then
subdivided between
Valentinian's two sons
Gratian (r. 375-83) and
Valentinian Il (r. 375-92).
In the Eastern Empire,
Valens was forced to
spend most of the early
370s in Syria to contain
the Persian threat, but
growing trouble with
barbarians along the
Danube later forced him
to turn to the Balkans.

In 363, Julian set

for his attacks on the

to retreat up the

one such skirmish,

Julian was killed Sarmatian dagger

This dagger belonged to
the Sarmatians, a tribe

by Christian writers as “the "was Oe, of Iranian origin who
Apostate” for his perceived © On Julian's death the specialized in horseback
betrayal of Christianity. » army chose Jovian fighting, and were defeated
: (r. 363-64) as emperor, by Valentinian I.
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The church of Hagia Eirene in
Istanbul was built by Constantine |.

44... THE
BARBARIANS,
[ARE] LIKE BEASTS
... BROKEN
LOOSE... OVER
THE VAST
EXTENT...

OF COUNTRY. 99

Ammianus Marcellinus, on the
Gothic invasion of the Balkans c. 390

IN 376, LARGE GROUPS OF GOTHS
ARRIVED AT THE DANUBE
FRONTIER, pressing to be admitted
to the Roman Empire. The Huns, a
new nomadic group from Central
Asia, were at their rear, and the
Goths feared being squeezed
between them and the imperial
frontier. Emperor Valens did not
wait for reinforcements before
marching out to meet the Gothic
army. On August 9, 378, near
Adrianople, the Romans met the
Goths, under Fritigern. Misled by
the temporary absence of the
Gothic cavalry, Valens attacked but
his army was surrounded by the
returning barbarian horsemen.
Valens was killed and the Eastern
army destroyed, leaving the
Balkans open to the Goths.
Gratian reacted by turning to
Theodosius, a Spanish military
officer, who he appointed as his
imperial colleague. For the next
three years Theodosius patiently
negotiated, bought off some
groups, and struck militarily
where he could. In 382, the two

sides agreed a truce, whereby the
Goths were allowed to settle in
the empire in return for providing
troops for the Roman army.

The Gupta Empire continued to
expand under Chandragupta II
(r. 375-415) in northern India.
He fought against the Sakas,
annexing much of northwestern
India. He also made an astute
marriage alliance that extended
his realm to the southwest.

Iron pillar of Dethi
This iron pillar at Qutb complex on
the outskirts of Delhi is said ta have
been erected on the orders of
Chandragupta II.

IN CENTRAL AMERICA, THE MAYAN
CITY OF TIKAL had reached the
peak of its influence in the late 4th
century. In 378, a foreign lord
called Siyaj Kak arrived in the city,
possibly from Teotihuacan. His
arrival, which may represent a
military conquest, led to the death
of Tikal’s ruler Chak Tok Ich'aak
and the destruction of most of
Tikal's public monuments. Siyaj
Kak installed a new dynasty
on the throne of Tikal, possibly
drawn from the ruling house of
Teotihuacan, with Yax Nuun Ayiin
(“Curl Snout”; r. 379-404) as the
first ruler. Monuments depict him
in northern Mexican, rather than
Mayan, dress. Under his rule,
Tikal's direct influence extended
some 30 miles (50km] away.

In the Western Roman Empire,
Gratian had spent much of
his time since the Battle of
Adrianople (378) in northern
Italy, where he continued to
act against pagans in Rome,
ordering the removal of the Altar
of Victory from the Senate House
in 382. In 383, he led an army
north to face an invasion of Gaul
by the Alemanni, but was then
faced with a revolt in Britain,
where the legions declared their
commander Magnus Maximus
emperor. Many of Gratian’s
commanders defected and in
August 383 he was captured and
executed by Maximus, who had
crossed over to Gaul. Theodosius,
fearful of trouble with Persia or
a Gothic revolt in the Balkans if
he moved west, recognized
Maximus as his colleague. A
peace with Persia in 386, however,

St. Jerome (c. 347-420) completed the Vulgate, the first definitive
translation of the Bible into Latin, c. 405.

St. Ambrose

A Roman nobleman by birth,
Ambrose was Bishop of Milan from
374 to 397. He exercised a powerful
influence over Theodosius |.

freed Theodosius to react when
Maximus invaded Italy in 387. In
August 388, he marched swiftly
into northern Italy, capturing
Maximus near Aquileia and
having him executed.

As wellas campaigning against
the Goths and Maximus,
Theodosius was preoccupied with
the imposition of Orthodox
Christianity. He moved against
the Arians, deposing the Bishop of
Constantinople in 380 and calling
a councilin 381 in the capital,
which reaffirmed the anti-Arian
decisions of the Council of Nicaea
(see 325). He connived in the
destruction of many pagan
temples, including the great
temple of Serapis in Alexandria,
and in 391 he forbade all pagan
sacrifices throughout the empire.

GUC

44 THE THICKER
THE HAY, THE EASIER
IT IS MOWED. 99

Alaric the Goth, speaking of his enemies c. 400

IN 392, VALENTINIAN II, WHO HAD
CONTINUED TO RULE OVER ITALY,
was found hanged. His military

commander Arbogast—suspected :
by some of Valentinian’s murder— =
promptly made Flavius Eugenius, :
: Theodosius's side at the Battle of

: the Frigidus River and felt they

: had not been sufficiently rewarded
: for their losses. In 395, they rose

: Despite an attempt by Stilicho

» commander of the Western

: Roman army, to suppress them,

: the Goths escaped and marauded
: throughout Greece in 396. Stilicho
moved against Alaric again in 397,
: but once more failed to defeat

: him. A brief halt to the Gothic

: rampage came after Alaric’s

| appointment by the Eastern

: Roman government to magister

: militum (a senior general).

a middle-ranking official,
emperor. Theodosius refused to
recognize Eugenius, and in 393 he
invaded Italy. To gain support in
the Senate—where paganism
was still strong—the Christian
Eugenius revoked all of
Theodosius’s anti-pagan laws.
But, in August 394, he was
defeated by the Theodosian army
at the Frigidus River near
Aquileia. Theodosius did not enjoy
his rule as sole emperor long,
dying in January 395. The empire
was then divided between his two
sons: the older, Arcadius, taking
the eastern part and his younger
brother, Honorius, taking the

North
ca Sea
1A
ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Corsica
ares. Rome
"sardinia

S807,

‘gal!

Ss
a
Da

Divided in two

The split of the Roman Empire into Eastern and
Western divisions in 395 was permanent. By 476,
its Western part would be overrun by barbarians.

ANG Sicitia
os

: western one. Although there was
: no clear intention to do so, this
i split marked a permanent

division; after 395 no one emperor
ruled the whole empire again.
The Goths had taken part on

Scepidee <
§
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=
Su
==
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ga
= ont
Creta YPrUs:
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Desert

KEY
») Eastern Roman Empire
Western Roman Empire

700 sce-600ce | THE CLASSICAL AGE

FLOURISHING TRADE BETWEEN CONTINENTS A WORLD APART

The growth of Roman power in the Mediterranean, the unification of China
under the Qin and Han, and the establishment of the Parthian Empire in Iran
created three large political blocs that provided stable conditions under
which very long-distance trade routes could flourish.

The expansion of Han power westward in the that lay on them were able to exact heavy tolls
2nd century BCE brought the Chinese into contact from merchants, which they used to build

with new powers they called An-hsi (Persia) and spectacular public monuments.

Li-chien (Rome). A Chinese embassy reached the Farther west, in the Mediterranean, expensive
court of Mithridates II of Parthia around 115BCE.In goods such as fine wine were carried by sea;
the wake of diplomats came merchants, carrying in general land transportation was expensive,
the Chinese silk for which both Parthia and Rome and bulky, low-value products tended to be

had an insatiable appetite. The main Silk Route produced and consumed locally.

ran from China through Central Asia, down into
Persia and then across Roman-controlled Syria
toward the ports of the Mediterranean. 8 00 @]
A thriving trade also spanned the Indian Ocean, +]
transporting spices from the East Indies and MILES |

southern India to ports in Africa and southern THE LENGTH OF THE

Arabia; from here a land route led up through

Petra, in present-day Jordan, to Syria. Control of TRADE ROUTE FROM
CHANG'AN TO ROME

these trade routes was very lucrative, and towns

ROMAN TRADE

The expansion of the Roman Empire to cover much of Europe,
western Asia, and North Africa created largely peaceful conditions
in which both internal and external trade could flourish.

Amomum
Balsam of Judea
) cardamom
Cinnamon (uncultivated)
Cassia (Chinese cinnamon)
Daphnitis
(high-grade cinnamon)

Malabathrum
~ (finest cinnamon leaf)

Frankincense (first quality \~/

Ginger

Myrrh (Ethiopian) The price of spice

According to the Roman author Pliny, the finest

grade of spices such as cinnamon could fetch

Nutmeg 300 denarii a Roman pound [1202/340q), which

was nearly enough to purchase a male slave. Roman imports

Nard (Indian)

Pepper

The Romans imported huge quantities The Romans paid for their imports
1 9 or =e 1 - of raw materials, including luxury with precious metal and coins, and

200 250 250 300 goods such as gold and ivory and exported products such as wine

PRICE IN DENARII cheaper goods such as food.

peu, ROR E
“ug GERMANY
gusta
reverorum

Aquileia
DACIA

Byzantium=y
¢ Ay THRACE \
A

“Alexandria %

a I
EGyPT_/

Tibesti

Roman exports

and glassware.

Lake
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ay } o\ 4

Caucasus “sy
or 2

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i
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Mimeatasy 2 =

Moluccas

PARTHIA
Iranian

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Berenic “s
Sea Muziris Teprobane: yom

COUN EY OETA INE SO) GE GAy GN)

‘Socotra
Sule) World trade
Aromata Trade routes c.1CE criss-crossed the whole

HAN TRADE
The establishment of Chinese control in Central Asia
from the late 3rd century BCE opened upa series of
routes through Persia to the Mediterranean, which
became collectively known as the Silk Route. However, it
also invalved the Han emperors in continuous and costly
defense of their new territories.

Sennar of the classical world. The means of

transport used depended on location—
Bactrian camels were used in Central Asia,
while horses, bullocks, and yaks were used
elsewhere. Maritime trade was also
extensive—there was an active trading
network around the Indian Ocean.

Horn of
Africa

Ethiopian
Highlands
Bee

Maji

Sarapion
Kushites

Juba

®
>
=
z
KEY s
Roman Empire o
and client states
Han Empire
Trade routes Goods traded
Roman © gold ® olive oit Vea)
Trans-Saharan © silver @ amber
{rudimentary route) tin © precious Silk floss Silk fabric
= Indian Ocean © tortoiseshell stones (catties) (pieces) "
= Silk Route © ivory silk E Han imports Han exports
: qe a (etothing Buying safety The Han valued spices as much as_ Knowledge of silk in China
— China @ animals @nenee To guarantee security on their frontiers the Romans did, but they alsosent goes back to at least 2600 BCE,
— East Africa @ horses a aes and along trade routes, the Han were trade expeditions to Ferghanain _ but under the Han it became
_. Amber ® grain e forced to pay large bribes in silk to Central Asia in search of what a staple export item, alongside
cincenss @ spices barbarian groups such as the Hsiung-nu. they called “heavenly horses.” lacquerware.
— Other 5 A lalacr
{rudimentary route) ge wine

~~=

Around 200 stone heads decorated Tiwanaku’s Semi-Subterranean Temple. They may represent
the group that founded the city—their flat headdresses denote high status.

ALTHOUGH THE WESTERN ROMAN
EMPIRE SEEMED RELATIVELY
SECURE IN 400, within a decade it
had suffered a series of disasters.
Gothic raids in 401 and again in
405 ravaged northern Italy. Then
on the last day of 406, hordes of
Vandals, joined by two other
barbarian groups, the Alans and
Sueves, crossed the frozen Rhine
near Mainz, sacked Treveri
(modern Trier, Germany) and
Remi (modern Reims, France],
and forced their way southwest
until they reached the Pyrenees.

Meanwhile, the armies of
Britain had raised up aseries
of usurpers as emperor from 406.
The last of these, Constantine Ill
(r. 407-11], took most of the
remaining Roman troops in Britain
and crossed to Gaul in spring 407, —
aiming to seize the throne from the |
then head of the Western Roman
Empire, Honorius. Although he
was defeated and captured at Arles
in 412, native leaders in Britain had
already expelled the last Roman
officials there in 410—probably in
revenge for their abandonment by
Constantine's legion. Britain was
now independent from Rome.

In 408, Alaric (r. c. 395-410),
leader of the Visigoths, invaded
Italy once more. The Roman

Pepper

Gold

0 10,000

20,000
POUNDS

30,000

sy Hse"

Roe 5

OPIN de o9™ eh?
oe?

Silver

' commander Stilicho persuaded

the Senate to agree to pay Alaric
a huge bribe in exchange for

: leaving the city, but there seems

to have been a coup d’état and
Stilicho was overthrown and
killed. In 409, Alaric had Attalus,

i the prefect of Rome, declared

emperor in an attempt to seize
the initiative, but all negotiations

: failed. So, on August 24, 410, the

Visigoths entered Rome and

» subjected it to a three-day sack.
: The event shook the entire Roman =
: world, but Alaric was unable to
: secure domination over Italy, as
: he died later the same year.

In South America, the city of
Tiwanaku, 15 miles (25km) south

Ransom demands
Alaric initially asked
for a huge ransom in
return for leaving
Rome in 410. Even
when he moderated
his demands, the

40,000 Senate refused, and

Visigoths ride on Rome
: Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 was

: particularly shocking, as it was the
: first time the city had fallen since the
: Gauls took it in 3908ce.

| of Lake Titicaca (on the border

: between modern Peru and

: Bolivia), reached its greatest

: size in the 5th century, covering

: an area some 3sq miles [8sq km)
: in extent. Its central area

» contained a lavish series of

| ceremonial buildings and
temples. These included the

: Semi-Subterranean Temple,

: decorated with stone heads of

: humans and supernatural beings,
| and structures such as the

: massive and beautifully decorated
: Gateway of the Sun. These

: were erected by a major pre-

: Columbian culture that

| dominated the Altiplano (flat

| high plateau) of Peru and Bolivia,
» and whose influence extended

: into northern Bolivia.

so the city was sacked. :

% oot
AY ; ory : og
or ao Qe? Cae oe vw
Ree oh Ron Ra wr’ o®
@ R 3
os SA ae wo Sas Oe
RX: 2 ere

44 SO THE VANDALS, HAVING
WRESTED LIBYA FROM THE
ROMANS IN THIS WAY, MADE
IT THEIR OWN... 99

Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from
History of the Wars, III iv 1, c. 500-550

THE BARBARIANS WHO HAD
INITIALLY CROSSED THE RHINE IN

of cities before moving southwest
into Aquitania and then crossing
the Pyrenees into Spain, where
they occupied large swaths of
Roman territory. In 416-18,

the Roman army commander
Constantius persuaded the
Visigoths under Wallia [r. 415-
18] to invade Spain. There he
smashed the Alans and the Siling
Vandals, but allowed some of
them to settle in southern Spain
and left the Asing Vandals and
Sueves in possession of
northwestern Spain. Wallia was
rewarded with official possession
of much of southwestern Spain.

AFRICA

The barbarian
invasions
Barbarian groups
took more and more

KEY

Roman Empire

On the other side of the

i Mediterranean in 429, Boniface,
401 had gone on to sack a number

: Africa, revolted against his

: long-term adversary Aétius, and

the Roman Governor of North

called on the Siling Vandals for

» help. The Vandal king, Gaiseric

: (r. 428-77], crossed over the

: Straits of Gibraltar with—it was

» said—80,000 of his people and, far
: from helping Boniface, swiftly

: occupied most of North Africa. In

: 435, he made a treaty with the

: Romans, recognizing his

| occupation of Mauretania

» (modern Algeria and Morocco).

Gaiseric broke this and in 439 his

' warriors captured Carthage, the
: Roman capital there, and set up
: anindependent Vandal kingdom.

EUROPE

3
* Constantinople eA
ROMAN a
EMPIRE
Mediterranean Sea SASANIAN
EMPIRE

Burgundians

H Sasanian Empire ~ Franks
Roman territory in the i srr Ste a
first half of the 5th uns utes, Angles; Saxons
century, leaving the ~~» Goths ~~ Irish
Western emperors = Alans = Picts
virtually powerless. ~» Vandals, Alans, Sueves
ws AY se x
. so Ree
ae” eS 5 at SS GO oo
Roars GEN ae ge PM ye?
oY i of sre o <S ree &? cS
oP ok Cease Rs Xs
Ss

A colorful Buddhist mural from the Yungang caves, which were begun

under the Northern Wei c. 450.

THE EASTERN JIN DYNASTY IN
CHINA HAD ENDED IN 420, with
Gongi's abdication. His successor,
Song Wudi (r. 420-22), a former
fisherman, had risen to become a
general and founded the Liu Song ©
dynasty. He strengthened the
southern kingdom’s northern
borders against the barbarian
tribes, but under his son Wendi

(r. 424-53], the northerners
captured Luoyang in 424 before,
some 25 years later, besieging the
Liu Song capital of Nanking
Although Song Wudi had
strengthened the central
bureaucracy, the growing power
and wealth of the Buddhist and
Daoist monasteries weakened
the economic basis of the state.
Wendi's successors were weak
and by 479 the Liu Song
were overthrown by the
short-lived Qidynasty
(479-502).

Meanwhile, in
northern China,
the Sixteen
Kingdoms had
been united
under the Toba Wei [a group of
Turkic nomads), who founded
the Northern Wei dynasty
(386-534). The Northern Wei
ruled over northern China,
until its split into two in the
early 6th century following a
revolt against the imposition of
Chinese dress and language on
the Wei nomads.

In Europe, the Western Roman
Empire continued to lose ground,
as barbarians occupied more and:
more of its territory. In the 420s the |
Visigoths under Theodoric

» (r. 418-51) occupied sections of
: the Mediterranean shore of Gaul,

before they were pushed back

: southwest in 430. Around this time
anew group of barbarians, the

Huns, began to menace the
empire. This nomadic group from

: Central Asia, whose pressure from

the rear on the Goths had been

of 378 in the Balkans, had since

: moved farther west. In 424, the
Roman general Aétius recruited a
: force of Huns to help him bolster

the cause of John, a usurper
raised up at Rome after the death

: of Honorius in 423. Aétius

: continued to use the Huns into the
: late 420s to secure his power base
: and his appointment as patrician

H (the most senior post in the late

Roman Empire] in 429. In 435,
he was able to call on
them to aid an attack
on the Burgundians
who had raided
across the lower
Rhine; these
were soundly

44 THE WORLD IS PASSING
AWAY... LOSING ITS

GRIP, THE WORLD IS

SHORT OF BREATH. 99

St. Augustine of Hippo, theologian and philosopher, from Sermons 81, 8

defeated and thereafter confined to
a region to the northwest of Italy.
These were all just temporary
successes, however, as the area
controlled by the Western Roman
emperors was diminishing
steadily. The loss of almost all of
North Africa to the Vandals in
429-39 (and of Sicily in 440),
of northern Gaul to the Franks
by 450, of southwest Gaul to the
Visigoths after 418, and of all
save a few isolated outposts in
Spain by the 430s meant the
remaining strongholds in Italy
and southeastern Gaul could not
provide enough tax revenue to
support armies to reconquer the
lost provinces. The long reign of
Valentinian III (r. 425-55) in the
Western Roman Empire
did not provide any
stability as he
ascended to the
throne as a child
and never
asserted
himself until

Northern Wei horse

The art of the Northern Wei
often evoked their nomadic
origins, as in this beautiful
terra-cotia horse.

the very end, when he had Aétius,

the Western Empire's last effective ;

general, murdered.

The barbarians who settled on
the former Roman territories
began gradually to establish
kingdoms of their own, notably
the Franks in northern Gaul and
the Visigoths in southwest Gaul

and Spain. In Britain, the situation i

was rather different, since the
province had rebelled against
Rome rather than being subject to
barbarian conquest. In a bygone
era, the Roman army might have
been expected to reassert its
control there, but with the empire
increasingly dependent on
barbarian troops fighting under
their own commanders, there was
virtually no army left to retake it.
The Britons were left to their

own devices. It seems that some
Roman institutions survived for a
while; in 429 Bishop Germanus

of Auxerre visited the island and
found men bearing Roman titles.
But barbarian raiders—attracted
by the weak British defenses and
the lack of a central political
authority to counter them—came
in increasing numbers. Around
446, the leading men of Britain
addressed a desperate letter to

FLAVIUS AETIUS
(c, 395-454]

Born of nobility in Moesia
(modern Bulgaria], Aétius
spent time from 408 in the
royal court of the Huns. He
used these contacts to gain
influence and rose to further
prominence in the late 420s.
The deaths of patricians Felix
(in 430) and Boniface [in 433)
left him with unrivaled
dominance. He shored up the
empire's position, and in 451
he scored a notable victory
against Attila the Hun. In 454
he was murdered by
Valentinian III himself.

Aétius, appealing for
aid. No reply was sent to these

within a few years the Angle,

to occupy parts of the former

: Roman province.

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In this undated painting Attila the Hun is shown with his army—he is said to have

been turned aside from sacking Rome only by the pleas of Pope Leo I.

44 [HUNS] TOOK CAPTIVE
THE CHURCHES AND
SLEW THE MONKS

AND MAIDENS. 99

Callinicus, disciple of Hypatius, from Life of Saint Hypatius, c. 450

IN JAPAN, THE 5TH CENTURY SAW
THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT and
expansion of the Yamato state.

to appear, and rulers built ever
larger burial mounds, such as the
1,600 ft- (486 m-) long Nintoku
mound. Ojin founded a new line
of kings, who exercised firmer
control over Japan’s main islands
from a royal center in the
Kawachi-Izumi area. Yamato

Innere vufenr luves &

honing exercle vorvarm
‘vi vohe ft mabye

Pr tar:

Pope Leo!

The illustration on this manuscript
shows Pope Leo, an Italian
aristocrat, persuading Attila the Hun
not to attack Rome.

ot s rs
ye? SS gri®
Sori io™ ome"
See oe “ < cos
we aS BRS
AS

2 eo
Ry a
= oo vo ey?
Ber a2 RNs
Sue Ee
PP wen whore
seer FW
eS sO"
aw of are oad”

i missions visiting China between
Complex irrigation systems began =
: Yamato interference in civil wars
: between the Korean states of

: Paekche, Silla, and Koguryo.

overseas contacts became more
extensive, with ten diplomatic

421 and 478, and increasing

The Sasanian Persian Empire
came under pressure from

: eastern nomadic groups in the

: later Sth century. The Hephthalite
» Huns moved into Bactria early in

famine during the reign of Peroz
(457-84) caused them to move
west again. In 46? Peroz suffered

: a terrible defeat at the hands of

: captured, and only released after
© leaving his son as a hostage. In

484, Peroz sought revenge in

| a mew campaign against the
© Hephthalites, but was defeated

and killed.
Having demanded, and been

: refused, the hand in marriage of

Honoria, the sister of Roman

: Emperor Valentinian III in 450, the
* Hunnish king Attila [see 401-450)
+ marched into Gaul. He was

defeated near Chalons by an army

: of Romans under Aétius and
: Goths under Theodoric.

) Clay bear figurine

: Clay haniwa figurines have been

1 a feature of rich Japanese burials
: since the earliest times. The large
: burial mounds of Yamato rulers

: contain huge quantities of them.

: Undaunted, Attila invaded Italy in
: 452, but turned back short of

: Rome. Attila died after his

» wedding feast in 453, and his sons
_ began a civil war that led to the

| Following the death of the

» Roman general Aétius in 454,

: real power in the western

* Roman Empire was exercised by
: a series of barbarian kingmakers,
i such as Ricimer, the leader of the
: Roman army in Italy. In 457,

: Ricimer placed Majorian on the

: imperial throne. When Majorian

i became too independent-minded,
| Ricimer replaced him with

| Libius Severus (r. 461-65), who

: Roman Empire lost more of its

: Gallic territories to the Visigoths

: and Franks.

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ne wo so
ow e

The baptism of Clovis the first: Clovis’s baptism made him an easier diplomatic

rhe

Aa fel Ly

partner for the eastern Roman Empire than his Arian neighbors.

IN 456, THE VISIGOTHS,
encouraged by the western
Roman emperor Avitus, had
invaded the Iberian Peninsula.
The Visigothic king Theoderic
II (r. 453-66] defeated the
Suevic ruler Rechiarius, who
was threatening the Roman
province of Tarraconensis,
and the remaining Sueves
retreated. Theoderic took
most of Spain for himself, but
left the Romans parts of the
east coast. This policy was
reversed by his successor
Euric (r. 466-84), who overran
the remaining Roman territories
in the late 470s. By the time of
Alaric Il |r. 484-507] the Visigothic
kingdom encompassed almost all
of Spain, as well as Aquitaine and
Provence in southern Gaul.
The situation in Spain was

: repeated elsewhere in the Roman

» Empire, and the area of imperial

: control shrank to little more than

» Italy. Anthemius [r. 467-472) tried
to recover some ground, but an

: expeditionary force against

: Vandal-controlled North Africa in

: 468 ended in disaster. In Gaul,
Euric conquered almost all

: was overthrown by Gundobad, a

: Burgundian. Gundobad placed

) (r. 473-74) on the throne in quick

! succession, but, despairing of the

empire's frailty, he then left for

* Burgundy. The last embers of the

: empire were contested in 475-76,

: between Julius Nepos and

: Romulus Augustulus, the son of

: Orestes, commander of the

= Roman army. Feeling that the

& Sg KINGDOM OF THE
KINGDOM OF S'S BURGUNDIANS
THE FRANKS ca Slavs KINGDOM OF
rr 9 THE OSTROGOTHS
KINGDOM OF & ae
THE SUEVES

é VA
Alemanni ‘Lombards KINGDOM OF THE GEPIDS
s ‘a

5 Caucasus
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lo
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EMPIRE
Ferbe, 539 _—
Atlas Mountain? <A) c -
KINGDOM dite ry es
OF THE poceun ed Lakhmids
VANDALS. >
AFRICA v2,
B
>

Barbarian kingdoms in Europe c. 500

By 500, most of the former western Roman
Empire was divided among several principal
barbarian successor states: the Vandals in
North Africa, the Visigoths in Spain and
southern Gaul, and the Ostrogoths in Italy.

KEY

~» Byzantine reconquests
Frankish expansion
Ostrogothic expanision
Sasanian expansion

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s

interests of the Germanic
barbarians in the army were being
ignored, Orestes's deputy,
Odoacer, revolted and deposed
Romulus in September 476. He
did not appoint a new emperor,
claiming that he ruled Italy on
behalf of the eastern emperor
Zeno (r. 474-91]. This marked
the end of the Roman Empire
in the west after 500 years.
However, in the east the Roman
Empire survived. The long reign
of Theodosius Ill (408-50) had
strengthened its position, and
after 400 the eastern empire had
not had to face such direct threats =
from Huns, Goths, Vandals,
Alamanns, Burgundians,
and Franks as the west.
Marcian (r. 450-57)
had consolidated the
eastern empire's
finances, leaving a
surplus of 100,000
pounds of gold at

: Italy, led by Odoacer. He resolved

: this by commissioning the king of
the Ostrogoths, Theodoric, to
topple Odoacer in 489. By 500, the

= eastern Roman Empire under

: counterpart just 25 years earlier.

The western Roman Empire

: was replaced by a series of

| Germanic successor
states.

Odoacer ruled as king of Italy, but
the legitimacy of his rule was
always questionable. In 489, an
invasion by Theadoric’s
Ostrogoths led to a four-year
standoff, with Odoacer blockading
himself inside the old imperial
capital of Ravenna. After the
murder of Odoacer in 493,
Theodoric established a regime
in which the continuation of
Roman administrative
practices won

the loyalty of the old Roman
aristocracy. In 497, the eastern
emperor Anastasius I recognized
Theodoric's right to govern Italy,
providing him with a secure base

it into Gaul.

had emerged as a threat
in the late 4th century, and by the
460s they were carving out a
kingdom under Childeric. His
successor Clovis [r. 481-511)
transformed that kingdom,
defeating Syagrius, ruler of a
Roman enclave around Soissons,
and expanding along the Rhine at
the expense of the Alamans in
the 490s. In 507, he defeated
the Visigoths at the Battle
of Vouillé and drove
them out of most of
southwestern Gaul. In
the late 490s or early
500s, Clovis
converted to

his death. Leo! Catholic

(r. 457-74) fended Christianity,

off residual setting him apart
Gothic threats to from other

the Balkans, and
even made an

barbarian rulers
who were mostly

attempt to Arians (members
recover North of an alternative
Africa in 468. Christian church).

Zeno (474-91]
faced the challenge
of the new
Germanic rulers of

In Britain, the
expulsion of Roman
officials had been
followed by a period in
which petty kingdoms
vied for power. These
kingdoms were vulnerable
to coastal raiders, and, late in
the 5th century, groups of
Germanic barbarians (Angles,

Saxon brooch
Anglo-Saxon art in the

5th century valued abstract
geometric patterns, as seen
on this brooch.

to consolidate his rule and extend

In northwestern Gaul the Franks -

THEODORIC THE GREAT
(454-526)

Son of Thiudmir, a king of the
Ostrogoths, Theodoric spent
11 years as a Roman hostage,
to guarantee the good
behavior of his father. He
returned home to become
king of the Ostrogoths in 471,
and for the next 17 years
alternately allied with and
attacked Roman territories

in the Balkans. In 493,
Theodoric became the first
Ostrogothic king of Italy. His
rule was generally pro-
Roman, and he was buried in
this Roman-style mausoleum.

Saxons, and Jutes) settled in

: Britain. The arrival of the Saxons

has been dated to 449, when they

Sussex around 477 and Cerdic, in

| Wessex (around modern

Hampshire], by 495. A British

: victory at Mons Badonicus around
| 500 stemmed the Saxon tide, but
: the respite was short-lived.

IN THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
(generally called the Byzantine
Empire from about this date],
Anastasius [r. 491-518) faced
difficulties in the Balkans, as new
groups, including the Bulgars,
pressed southward across the
Danube between 493 and 502.
More serious were problems on
the eastern frontier, where the
Persians insisted on Byzantine
financial subsidies to pay for the
defense of strategic passes in the
Caucasus against barbarian
incursions. In 502, the Persian
ruler Kavadh began a war over
the issue; the slow Byzantine
reaction allowed him to capture
Amida as well as several towns in
Armenia. Byzantine forces retook
Amida in 505, and Kavadh—
preoccupied with a Hepthalite
invasion in the east—agreed a
truce, which lasted until 527.
Anastasius was almost 60 when
he became emperor in 491, and
his place on the throne was only
secured by his marriage in 492 to
Ariadne, widow of his predecessor
Zeno. Almost immediately Zeno's
brother Longinus revolted, and it
took six years for Anastasius to
subdue Longinus's home area of
Isauria [in western Asia Minor).
Anastasius gained popularity by
abolishing the chrysargyron
tax for traders and craftsmen.
Prosperity continued and over his
reign his treasury amassed a
surplus of 320,000 pounds of gold.
He also implemented monetary
reforms in 498 and 512 aimed at

stabilizing the currency, which had |

suffered successive debasements
in the Sth century. In religious

Frankish fibula brooch

: Fibula brooches were practical as
: well as decorative, being used to

: fasten clothes.This brooch is

| decorated with the heads of birds.

terms Anastasius’s reign was less

: tranquil, as he was a follower of

: Monophysite Christianity, which
» held that Christ had only a single
: divine nature and did not combine
human and divine in his person.

» Zeno’s Henotikon—an “act of

: union” issued in 482 that tried to

+ broker a compromise between

» supporters of the orthodox creed
» (established at the Council of

Monophysites. However, later his
attitude became more pro-

+ Monophysite, which led to serious
: rioting in 512, and the revolt of an

These éth-century ivory panels show Emperor Anastasius. He amassed a vast financial
surplus, which his successors spent on expanding the Eastern Roman Empire.

: army officer, Vitalian, in Thrace in
_ 513. Anastasius left no clear heir,
_ andon his death Justin (r. 518-27),
: head of the palace guard, seized

: the throne. Justin was of humble
: origins and relied heavily on his
nephew Justinian. He restored

| Chalcedonian Christianity and

: developed good relations with the
| Ostrogoths of Italy and the

: Vandals of North Africa. Abroad,
: his reign was generally peaceful,
: apart froma minor campaign

: against Persia in early 527.

In Gaul, Clovis, king of the

: Franks, had defeated Syagrius,

: ruler of a Roman enclave near

: Soissons, in 486, followed by the
© Alamanns and the Thuringians in
i 491. The Visigothic kingdom in

} southwestern Gaul was his next

| target, and it collapsed after a

major Frankish victory at Vouillé

: in 507. Clovis's marriage to Clotilde,
: daughter of the Burgundian king

: Chilperic, led him to convert to

_ Catholic Christianity in the 490s,
© and he maintained cordial

: relations with the Byzantine

: emperor Anastasius, who gave

: him the title of consul c. 508. Near
: the end of his reign, Clovis added

| several previously independent

i Frankish domains to his kingdom,
| notably that of the Ripuarian

| Franks. On his death in 511,

: Clovis’s kingdom was divided

* among his four sons—Theuderic,
Childebert, Chlodomir, and

: Merovingian dynasty, as the

: descendants of Clovis were known.
The Merovingians ruled Francia

: [France] until the 8th century.

THE REIGN OF THE BYZANTINE
EMPEROR JUSTINIAN [r. 527-65}
began with important reforms. In
528, he commissioned a new law
code to replace the confusion he
had inherited. The new code, the
Codex Justinianus, came into
force in 529 (revised in 534). An
enthusiastic builder, Justinian
ordered the building of the great

Theodora, who Justinian
married in 525, had once been
a prostitute and the mistress
of Hecebolus, the governor of
Libya Pentapolis. After the
death of his adoptive mother,
Empress Lucipina (who had
opposed their relationship],
Justinian had the law changed
in 524 to allow him to marry
Theodora. Theodora became
a forceful empress, stiffening
Justinian’s resolve during the
Nika revolt and acting as the
protector of Monophysite
Christians—she was one
herself—during times of
persecution.

This 6th-century mosaic, from the curch of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, depicts
Emperor Justinian with his retinue of officials, guards, and clergy.

: church of Hagia Sophia in 534.

i The greatest challenge to his rule
= came in 532, when rioting among
© the Blue and Green chariot-racing
: factions got out of hand and

: turned into the Nika Revolt. The

: uprising almost caused Justinian
i to flee Constantinople, and its

: suppression killed 30,000 rebels.

With his throne secure, Justinian

: looked abroad. In 533 he sent an
: army under Belisarius to
: Vandal-controlled North Africa,
: where Gelimer had deposed King
» Hilderic, a Byzantine ally. On
| September 13, Belisarius defeated
: Gelimer’s army at Ad Decimum,
: just outside Carthage, and Vandal
| resistance collapsed. Carthage
6 © was occupied and Gelimer was
: sent as a captive to Constantinople.

The rapid conquest of the Vandal

i kingdom encouraged Justinian to
: intervene in Italy. An excuse was

provided by the murder in April

_ : 535 of his friend Amalasuintha,
: the Ostrogothic queen. Belisarius

launched a strike against Italy in

: 535, landing on Sicily with 7,000

: troops. Sicily was secured by the

| end of 535, and Belisarius moved

: into southern Italy early in 536. He
: took Naples after a three-week

: siege, causing the Ostrogothic

: provinces, the Byzantine army

: occupied Rome. Rome was soon

: besieged by Goths. Belisarius

: finally took the Ostrogothic capital
© of Ravenna in 540. Suspicions that
: he planned to become emperor

: led to his recall, encouraging more
: Ostrogothic resistance.

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KEY

Justinian’s reconquests

Vandal Italy fell to Justinian's armies in 533, but it
was devastated by the 20-year war needed to take
it. An attempted Byzantine reconquest of Spain
foundered, capturing only a few coastal areas.

Byzantine Empire, 527

Justinian’s reconquests
* Byzantine campaigns
X Battle

Persia entered a new period of
greatness under Khusrau |

(r. 531-79), who came to the
throne at a time when the
Mazdakites—a populist religious
movement—had caused serious
social tensions. Khusrau
reformed the tax system and
established anew army,
encouraging poorer nobles

and their followers to serve by
paying salaries. Khusrau
captured Antioch in 540, forcing

: Justinian to pay 5,000 pounds of
gold to regain it. He attacked

: again, in 544, but a siege of
Edessa failed and so he made a
truce. A further Byzantine-

46 TO ME, AND TO MANY
OTHERS, THESE TWO
SEEMED NOT TO BE
HUMAN BEINGS, BUT
VERITABLE DEMONS...
VAMPIRES. 99

Procopius, Byzantine scholar, on Justinian and Empress Theodora,
from Secret History, c. 550

46 THE PLAGUE FELL UPON THE

WHOLE WORLD... NOT A SINGLE
MAN IN THE WHOLE ROMAN
EMPIRE COULD ESCAPE... 99

Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from Secret History, c. 550

THE LATTER PART OF JUSTINIAN’S
REIGN lacked the achievements of
its first half. A serious outbreak of
plague, probably bubonic plague,
began in Egypt in 540 and caused
widespread mortalities, robbing
the empire of desperately needed
manpower. Tax revenues fell,
further weakening the
administration, and

544 to reduce inflation.
Further outbreaks of
plague occurred in the
6th and 7th centuries,
sapping the vitality of
the Byzantine Empire.
In Italy, the Ostrogoths
made rapid advances
after the departure of
Belisarius. Their new
king, Totila, secured the
area north of the Po
River, and in 542 took
control of much of
central Italy. Belisarius
was recalled to retrieve
the situation in 544, but
Justinian starved him of
resources and Rome
fell in 546. Although the
Byzantines retook Rome
in 547, it fell once more
to Totila in 550. Justinian
sent two huge armies under
Artabanes and Narses to finish
off the Goths. Artabanes entered
Ravenna in June 552, and in July
Narses defeated Totila at the
Battle of Busta Gallorum in the
Apennines. Totila later died of his
wounds. There was still some
Ostrogoth resistance, but the
war in Italy was effectively over.

ee,

prices rose, leading to K~<S
the passing of laws in

Ostrogothic brooch
This gold and enamel
brooch demonstrates
the high level of
workmanship in the
Ostragothic kingdom
of Italy. Its eagle
imagery may indicate
Roman influence.

The 13th-century lona Abbey (pictured) was built on the site of the original
monastery founded by St. Columba when he arrived on Iona in 563.

MEROVINGIAN FRANCIA (FRANCE)
HAD BEEN DIVIDED into separate
kingdoms on the death of Clovis in
511 (see 501-526). Despite this,
Frankish power continued to grow.
By 558, Chlothar I (511-61), who
ruled the area of Francia around
Soissons, had absorbed the
Rheims kingdom and the region
around Paris after their rulers

died. This left Chlothar as the sole =
: monasticism, which extended into
: northern England, Scotland, and

| Francia with the foundation of the
© monastic center at Luxeuil in 590.

Merovingian ruler of Francia for
three years, until his death in 561.
Francia was once again divided,
with Charibert | receiving Paris,
Guntram getting Orléans, Sigibert
Rheims, and Chilperic Soissons.

It was not until 613 that the
Frankish kingdom was reunited
under Chlothar Il (r. 613-29).

Ajanta cave art

The Ajanta caves, a Buddhist holy
site in Maharashtra, India,
experienced a second major phase
of use during the 6th century.

Ireland had been converted to

: Christianity by Patrick (d. 461) in

the mid-5th century and a strong
monastic tradition took hold

monks began conducting missions

: abroad. In 563, Columba
_ {c. 520-97] set up the abbey of
: lona on an island off Scotland's

western coast. lona became a
center of Irish-influenced

The Gupta Empire fell apart
after the reign of Vishnugupta

» (r. 540-50); and northern India
: split into a number of regional

kingdoms. A minor branch of the

» Guptas ruled Magadha, but they

were swept aside by the Maukharis

Vardhana king Harsha, who

» established an empire in the

early 7th century.

44 WHEN JUSTIN HAD HEARD THESE EVENTS... HE HAD
NO HEALTHY OR SANE THOUGHTS... HE FELL INTO A
MENTAL DISORDER AND MADNESS AND AFTERWARD
HAD NO UNDERSTANDING OF EVENTS. 99

Evagrius Scholasticus, scholar and aide to Gregory of Antioch, on Justin II's
reaction on the fall of Dara to the Persians, from Ecclesiastical History c. 595

JAPAN’S SOGA FAMILY CAME TO
PROMINENCE IN 540, when Soga
no Iname was made chief
minister. Emperor Bidatsu’s
death in 585 led to a succession
dispute, from which Iname’s
grandson Yomei emerged
successful. The next emperor,
Sushun (r.586-93}, had

a Soga mother, reinforcing the
family’s dominance. When Sushun
was assassinated in 593, he was
succeeded by another Soga,
Bidatsu’s widow Suiko (r. 593-
628}, Suiko's reign saw the start of
the Asuka Enlightenment, and
was a time of great confidence in
foreign affairs, state support for
Buddhism, and flourishing arts.

In 572, the Byzantine emperor
Justin Il (r. 565-78) went to war
with Persia after he refused to pay
a tribute due under the terms of
Justinian’s 50-year peace deal (see
527-540). In 573, Persia struck
back, invading Syria and taking the

THE NUMBER OF YEARS
THE “ENDLESS PEACE”
OF 532 BETWEEN THE
BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND
PERSIA LASTED

| fortress of Dara. On hearing this,

Justin went insane. His wife took
power, and had to agree a
humiliating peace with Persia.

In 567, the Lombards, who had
settled in the former Roman
province of Pannonia (Hungary),
destroyed the Gepids and then,
under Alboin [reign c. 560-72),
moved southwest into Italy, where
the Byzantine authorities were too

weak to resist them. In 568-69 they ;
occupied the plain of the Po River —
© conquest of a number of Byzantine
© towns prompted Emperor Maurice
: (r. 582-602) into a successful

: campaign to dislodge them.

and set up dukes in major cities.
By 572, when Pavia fell to them,
they had founded duchies as far
south as Benevento. Attempted

: Byzantine counterattacks in 575
: were a disaster. Under Agilulf

» (r. 590-616) the Lombard kingdom
: consolidated; the Byzantines were
: limited to small territories around
: Rome, Naples, and Ravenna.

Under Khan Bayan [r.c. 562-82),

: the Avars—nomadic horsemen
: from the northern Caucasus—
» exploited the vacuum left by the

departure of the Lombards to
carve outa vast territory
around modern Austria. Their

Painted c, 581-618, this fresco is from China's Dunhuang caves, in a strategic
Silk Road oasis. The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art.

IN 581, YIANG JIAN, A GENERAL OF
THE ZHOU RULERS of northern
China, rebelled and took the
throne for himself as the emperor
Wendi (r. 581-604). In 589, he
invaded southern China. His
forces rapidly overcame those of
the last Chen emperor, Hou Zhu.
Wendi was now the country’s
sole ruler and the first emperor
of the Sui dynasty; after three
centuries of division, China was
finally united. Wendi disarmed
private armies and established
agricultural colonies along
China's frontiers to strengthen
central control in remote areas.
He implemented a major land
reform that increased the
number of households liable to
the land tax from 4 million in 589,
to almost 9 million in 606. Wendi
also extended the country’s canal
system to form a “Grand Canal”

44 NOT ANGLES,
BUT ANGELS. 99

Pope Gregory I, on seeing Anglo-Saxon slaves

at a market in Rome

that allowed vessels to travel
1,240 miles (2,000 km] from
: Hangzhuo in the southeast to the
: northeastern provinces around
Beijing, via Luoyang in eastern
central China. Austere, strict, and

occasionally violent, Wendi seemed

to have set the Sui dynasty on firm
foundations; in the end, it lasted
only 14 years after his death,
when it was replaced by the Tang.
In 582, Emperor Maurice
' succeeded Tiberius Il (r. 578-82)
as the Byzantine emperor. He had
: been commander of the palace

POPE GREGORY I (590-604)

From 572 to 574 Gregory | was
prefect of Rome, and only
became a monk on his father’s
death. A man of great ability
and energy, he was involved in
resistance to the Lombards

in Italy in the early part of his
papacy, but he maintained good
relations with the Merovingians
in Francia and the Visigothic
rulers of Spain. Relations with
the Byzantine emperor Maurice
broke down over the use of the
title “ecumenical patriarch” by
the Bishop of Constantinople,
which Gregory viewed as a
challenge to his authority.

guard and then of the war against
the Persians from 578. Tiberius’s
overspending and ineffective
campaigns against the Persians,
Lombards, and Avars had emptied
the imperial treasury, leaving
Maurice facing an immediate
financial crisis. His subsequent
economizing led to mutinies by
the eastern army in 588 and by
that of the Balkans in 593. Maurice
made his father Paul head of the
Senate and his brother-in-law
Philippicus head of the palace
guard; such nepotism further
increased his unpopularity.

In 584, Maurice renewed the
war with Persia, appointing
Philippicus to oversee it. The new
commander attacked Arzanene,
but his campaign was disrupted
by the defection of the Ghassanid
Arabs—former allies alienated by
the arrest of their king, al-Mundhir.
The mutiny of the eastern troops
in 588 caused Byzantine efforts to
stall further, and in 589 they lost
the city of Martyropolis [in
present-day Turkey] to the
Persians. The Byzantines were
saved by the outbreak of a civil
war in Persia; the involvement of a
Byzantine army in the restoration
of one Persian claimant,
Chosroes Il, led to the recovery
of Martyropolis and Dara in 592.

In the Balkans, the Slavs—a
non-Germanic people referred to
as “Sclaveni” in contemporary
sources—seem to have arrived
north of the Danube in the early to
mid-6th century. When the Avars
moved into the region inc. 559 the
Slavs were pushed farther south.
By the end of the 6th century,
Slavic groups had settled as far
south as northern Greece, the
Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic,
and Macedonia, as well as in
those areas of Bulgaria, Bohemia,
Moravia, Serbia, and Croatia
where the great Slav
kingdoms of the Middle
Ages would later arise.

In 596, Pope

dependent on Kent—also
converted, but the infant English
Church would suffer a series of
setbacks before the last Anglo-
Saxon kingdoms became Christian
in the late 7th century.

Gregory !senta
mission to Britain

to revive
Christianity,
following the
invasions by pagan
Anglo-Saxons in the
5th and early

6th centuries. The
missionaries set out
under Augustine, a
former prior of a
monastery in Rome,
and arrived in Kent
the following year.
Their reception was
reasonably warm as
Bertha, the wife of
the Kentish king
Aethelberht, was
already Christian.
After Aethelberht was baptized

a Christian, Augustine was able to
establish a church in Canterbury.
King Saebert of Essex and King
Sigebert of East Anglia—both

: Sui dynasty figurine
This figure depicting a trader ona
camel emphasizes China's continuing
} concern with commerce along the
© Silk Road through Central Asia.

>
och c
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ee aye oe ee ag
eta © How NEGF 8 ow
8? 66 59D ae? ety e* Po” ae ok af oF
oF og? aM ariiod Oo Se ehro™ SQ phere
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oe <5 PY OVE x © ue sf Po Pas
2° ee go ge of xe Pen? eo ot ao
FO ek iS oy wee
eee Weg ieee Oe
ve é x 0

105

TRADE AND

INVENTION
600-1449

In the Medieval period, trade and travel unified the Old World
in a single network, with new ideas and inventions emerging
even as the political landscape was transformed. Meanwhile,
in the New World, great civilizations reached their peak.

Acoin depicting the Eastern Roman,
emperor Heraclius.

UPHEAVAL IN THE
EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
began when the emperor
Maurice [r. 582-602)
dispatched his armies to
the northern Balkans to
regain imperial control of
the Danube frontier from
the Avars (see 568-88). In
602, the army rebelled under
officer Phocas and Maurice was
killed. Phocas became emperor
but Chosroes Il of Sasanian
Persia took advantage of the
eastern empire's weakness, while
the Avars invaded from the north.
In 610 the son of the military
governor of Roman Africa,
Heraclius, executed Phocas and
declared himself emperor.

In 606, in northern India, Harsha
(c. 590-647) acceded to the
thrones of Thanesar and Kannauj,
establishing the last native
Indian empire of ancient times.

44 THE EMPERO
HARSHA, NOBLE
IN BIRTH AND OF
WELL-CHOSEN
NAME, THE
SURPASSER OF
ALL THE
VICTORIES WON
BY ALL THE KINGS
OF ANCIENT
TIMES... 99

Banabhatta, Indian poet, from The
Deeds of Harsha, c. 640

A Tang dynasty Mendicant friar, with
an unusual traveling companion.

Tang dynasty horse sculpture
Horses were symbols of military
prowess, especially warhorses from
the western fringes of the empire.

SASANIAN CONQUESTS RESTORED
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE at the
expense of the Byzantines with
the falls of Jerusalem in

614 and Egypt in 619. By 618,
Constantinople was besieged by
the Avars, and their Slavic
subjects. In 620, Heraclius bought
off the Avars in order to focus on
repelling the Persians.

In 613 Clothar II (584-629)
reunited the Frankish kingdom,
bringing an end to civil war. His
Edict of Paris, issued in 614,
introduced reforms to the
Merovingian church and state.

In 616-17, rebellions against the
despotic rule of Yangdi (r. 604-17)
caused the collapse of the Sui
dynasty in China. A year later
military governor Li Yuan founded
the Tang dynasty, which ruled
until 906.

This 1721 engraving by Austrian architect Johann Fischer von Erlach
shows Al-Haram Mosque and Ka’aba in Mecca.

MUHAMMAD FIRST RECEIVED A
DIVINE REVELATION IN 610 and
began to preach in Mecca from
613; but the start of the
|slamic era is traditionally
marked by the Hegira or
hijra, the flight to
Medina. Hostility from
the Meccan authorities
forced Muhammad to flee to
Medina with his family and
followers in 622. In Medina,
Muhammad established a
political and religious power
base. He fought a series of
attacks by Meccan forces, with
their ultimate surrender in 630
when he took possession of the
Ka‘aba, the holiest shrine in the

: Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad's

: rule was then unchallenged.

Heraclius began to claw back

: territory ceded to the Persians,
starting at the Battle of Issus in

: 622 and later, in 627, at the Battle
of Nineveh. In 628 the Sasanian

: and Byzantine Empires made

: peace, exhausted by decades of
war and unaware of the storm

brewing to the south.

In China the emperor's son,
Taizong, consolidated Tang
power by suppressing rebellions

"across the empire. In 626,

: Taizong forced his father to step
down and inaugurated a golden
age of trade, prosperity, and
cultural exchange.

Born in Mecca, Muhammad ibn Abdallah worked as a merchant
and shepherd before growing discontented and retiring to a life of
contemplation. In 610, he received the first of a series of divine
revelations—these became the Qu’ran. He preached a
monotheistic faith based on complete submission to God [Islam].
Before his death he unified Arabian tribes within his new religion.

The ruins of the 7th century Byzantine
fortresses at Sbeitla, Tunisia.

BY THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD'S:
DEATHIN 632, the young Muslim
community—united by Islam,
which transcended traditional
rivalries—was ready for expansion.
Although Muhammad had left no
guidance as to his successor
(caliph), four men tied to the
prophet by marriage emerged as

46 THOSE WHO
ARE PATIENT IN
ADVERSITY AND
FORGIVE WRONGS
ARE THE DOERS

OF EXCELLENCE. 99

Prophet Muhammad

the Rashidun, or “rightly guided,”
caliphs. The first caliph, Abu Bakr
(r. 632-34), suppressed an Arabian
rebellion, reestablished Islamic
dominion over Arabia, and began
the conquest of Syria. His
successor Umar [r. 634-44)
became caliph in 634 and oversaw
the conquest of Syria and the
defeat of the Byzantines at
Ajnadayn. By 637, Umar controlled
Jerusalem and Damascus, and, in
the same year, Arab forces
conquered Persia (modern Iran
and Iraq), occupying the Sasanian
capital at Ctesiphon. Umar
established several important
practices: the creation of garrison
towns in conquered territory to
separate the invading Arabic forces
from the locals; the recruitment of
soldiers through slavery and tribal

From the Old English epic poem, Beowulf

One of 20 burial mounds of this type at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, which conceal the
graves and funerary treasures of the royal line of East Anglia.

vet
MONGOLIA os
gob! w fog,
4 __Jutfan %,
Tashk
Samarkand
East China
Bactra ch
Hangzhou
Peshawar
Taiwan
Philippine
Islands
he
Nagarjunakonda Shina

Kanchipuram

: KEY
-* Xuanzang’s route

INDIAN
OCEAN

: The travels of Xuanzang

: The young monk left the Tang
capital, Chang an, in around 630.
He crossed Central Asia and
reached India in 645.

: affiliation—those recruited for

© tribal members; and a taxation
system that favored Muslims and
encouraged conversion but
allowed Christians and Jews to

: follow their religions.

Buddhism became increasingly

: Buddhist monk Xuanzang
journeyed far and wide in search
of wisdom. His travels became

: legendary and foresaw the

: increasing mobility of people and

: ideas along the Silk Road, made

: possible by the power of the Tang
and later the caliphate. Also
traveling the Silk Road, Nestorian
Christians reached China from

Borneo

Me,
3

ISLAMIC EXPANSION CONTINUED
as the Arabs defeated the Persian
counterattack at the Battle of
Nihavand in 642, dealing the final
blow to the Sasanian Empire;
the last emperor, Yazdgird III, died
in 651, and with him died
Zoroastrianism, the religion of
the empire. Conversion of the
population to IsLam proceeded
slowly but steadily over the
following centuries. The Arabs
met with similar success in Egypt
where the Byzantines offered only
token resistance. The fall of
Alexandria came in 642, the
same year that the Muslims
founded the military settlement of
Fustat, which later became Cairo.
The following year the marauding
Islamic armies conquered
Tripolitania in North Africa as

region. In 642, for instance, the
Christian king Oswald of

| Northumbria, hitherto one of the
most powerful kingdoms, was
slain by the pagan king Penda of
Mercia. The great Anglo-Saxon
ship burial at Sutton Hoo,
Suffolk—filled with marvelously
worked artifacts, weapons and

THE LENGTH
OF THE SUTTON
HOO SHIP

dragon's head
crest

unchecked even by the
assassination in 644 of Umar by
a Persian slave. His successor,
Uthman, promulgated the first
written version of the Qu’ran,
which had previously been
transmitted orally.

After launching successful
expeditions against the Tibetans
and Mongolians, but failing to
conquer Korea, the Tang
emperor Taizong [r. 626-49)
died in 649, and his weak-willed
son began to cede increasing
influence to the Empress Wu
(624-705). In Japan, the Fujiwara
clan enacted the Taika reforms in
646, bringing all land into imperial
ownership and centralizing power
following the Chinese model.

In England, Christian converts
battled pagan kings for control
over territory and the religious
and cultural direction of the

Sutton Hoo helmet
This reconstruction is made from
iron with highly decorated panels of

44 THEY BEQUEATHED THE
.GLEAMING GOLD, TREASURE
"OF MEN, TO EARTH. 99

: treasures—is believed to have

: once contained the body of an

: Anglo Saxon king. One of the last
: burials of this type in England, the
| artifacts comprise a fusion of

elements, suggesting transition

as Christianity gained in
© popularity and strength.

Persia in 635. their advance continued, tinned bronze.
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The weathered landscape of central Anatolia, a Byzantine territory that suffered
repeated raids from Arab forces in the 7th century.

THE SPLIT BETWEEN SUNNI AND
SHIITE MUSLIMS was the outcome
of fierce disagreement over how
succession to the caliphate ought
to be decided; either by selection
{as in the case of the first three
caliphs] or by hereditary descent.
Caliph Uthman [r. 644-56) had

ASIA

Transoxiana

KHAZAR
EMPIRE

Zabulistan

British
Isles

EUROPE

OO enn ¢;
“Constantinople « “Motos

promoted members of his own wo Syria 8
clan, the Umayyads. He was BTN erusaleril Nejad a

: ; : §
assassinated in 656 by Egyptian _ Mediterranean Sea oe Arabian &
soldiers, nursing grievances over Fane Ms Bove, “sa, Peninsula u
their lower status. Ali Ibn Abi A tains
Talib became the fourth caliph cee ee

Pr AFRICA

As Muhammad's cousin and
son-in-law—next in line by
descent—Ali enjoyed unique
status in the Islamic world, but he
faced many challenges. At the
Battle of the Camel in 656 Ali
overcame a revolt by the prophet’s
widow Aisha and her allies,
opposing his inclusive policies. In
657, the Umayyad emir of Syria,
Mu’awiya, asserted his claim on
the caliphate; Ali was also
challenged by the Kharijis, a
sect that objected to the
application of the
hereditary
principle. In 661,
Ali was murdered
by a Khariji, opening
the way for Mu’awiya
to declare himself
caliph, instituting the
Arab Umayyad dynasty.
Ali’s supporters formed
a party of their own,
which evolved into a
distinctive branch
of Islam, the Shiites,
in opposition to the Sunni.
Emperor Constans II
attempted to reestablish

KEY
Muslim lands by 656
Byzantine Empire c.610

— Sasanian Empire c.610

: Expansion under the caliphate

i The rapid Arab expansion continued throughout
: the latter half of the 7th century. Islamic armies
pushed into Central Asia and North Africa,
bringing them within striking distance of Spain. =» Frankish Kingdoms c.610
: Byzantine claims to Italy by

: relocating his court to Rome in
663, but raids deep into Anatolia
(modern-day Turkey] by Arab
forces led to a collapse in
his authority; in 668, he
was assassinated and
Constantine IV took
the throne. Arab
incursions into

: Anatolia continued and by 670 they
» had reached the Byzantine capital,
: Constantinople {modern-day
» Istanbul), launching the first
: siege on the city, which would
: last until 677.
The Unified Silla kingdom in
: Korea brought to an end the long
: Three Kingdoms period, with the
help of Tang China. In 660
the Tang destroyed the
kingdom of Paekche,
while in 668 Silla and
Tang forces combined
H to overcome Koguryo,
© thus bringing all of the Korean
: Peninsula under Silla control.

Stoneware bird

This gray stoneware incense burner
dates from the Silla kingdom, which
was on the verge of becoming the
dominant power during Korea's late
Three Kingdoms period.

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a. -¢ A

Amodern-day depiction of the Battle of Karbala; al-Husayn's death is

a NON das

commemorated in the annual Shiite ritual of the ashura.

THE MAYA CITY-STATE OF TIKAL
BEGAN ITS RESURGENCE ajter a
century-long period of political
and cultural domination by
neighboring city-states known

as the Tikal hiatus, which had
been marked by an absence of
inscriptions in the city’s
petroglyphic record. An inscription
dated to 672 records a military
campaign against the rival
city-state of Dos Pilas, and in the
following decades Tikal restored
its position among the Maya of the
Late Classic period (600-900).
The city's rulers engaged ina
construction programme to match
their political ambitions, building
many impressive structures
including massive pyramids, ball

courts, causeways, observatories,
and palaces.

The Arab forces besieging the
city of Constantinople (see 670)
were unable to breach its massive
walls and were eventually beaten
off with the use of a new
Byzantine secret weapon-
“Greek fire” [see 711-20). Its
deployment may also have helped
destroy the Arab fleet at the Battle
of Syllaeum in 677, forcing the
caliphate to agree a 30-year
truce. The truce bought breathing
space for the embattled Byzantine
Empire, struggling to hold back
the Bulgars, who established the
First Bulgarian Empire in 681 on
conquered Byzantine territory
north of the Balkan mountains.

Having consolidated their conquests of Persia and Byzantine
North Africa, Arab armies pressed on eastward and westward. In
Central Asia, Arab forces crossed the Oxus River in 667 and
continued to advance to within range of the Silk Road kingdom of
Bukhara. In Africa, they crushed the Berber kingdoms, reaching
Tangiers in 683.

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At the Battle of Karbala in 680
the Shiite leader al-Husayn ibn
Ali, grandson of Muhammad, was
surrounded by Umayyad troops,
deprived of water for several
days, and eventually killed. His
death was proclaimed a
martyrdom by the Shiites, who
commemorate it to this day.

In China in 690, the Empress
Wu finally took the throne in her
own name—the only woman in
Chinese history to do so—after
decades of controlling it through
her husband and sons. She even
created her own dynasty, Zhou,

which she headed until 705.

Temple at Tikal

Flanking Tikal’s Great Plaza, the
122ft (38m) high Temple I] was built
during the construction boom of the
Late Classic resurgence.

Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock—a shrine sacred to all three Abrahamic faiths—
has an octagonal floorplan and a massive gold dome.

THE NUMBER OF MAJOR STONE
BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED IN
TIKAL'S LATE CLASSIC PERIOD

ABD AL-MALIK HAD BECOME
CALIPH IN 485, instituting
important changes to the way the
caliphate was ruled, centralizing
government, insisting that all
state business was conducted in
Arabic, setting up the barid (a
postal/intelligence gathering
service], and issuing, around 697,
new coinage: the dinar and
dirham. He also commissioned a
great shrine to be built on the

46 I HAVE NOT
SEEN THE
EQUAL; NEITHI
HAVE I HEARD
TELL OF
ANYTHING...
THAT COULD
RIVAL IN GRACE
THIS DOME OF
THE ROCK... 99

Mukaddasi, Arab geographer,
c. 10th century

ea
Bo]

Temple Mount in Jerusalem,
the Dome of the Rock (or
Qubbat as-Sakhrah],
completed in 692.

The harsh 10-year rule of the
Byzantine emperor Justinian
Il had aroused widespread
opposition and in 695 he was
deposed and had his nose cut
off by Leontius, who became
emperor in his stead. However,
in 698, the loss of Carthage,
the last Byzantine stronghold
in North Africa, to the Arabs
led to another revolt and
Leontius suffered the same fate
as his predecessor.

The turn of the century was a
time of change and unrest in the
Americas. In North America, the
spear was superceded by
widespread adoption of the bow
and arrow. In the Valley of Mexico
around 700, the great city-state of

: Ancient

Teotihuacan, which once housed _; Teotihuacan
over 100,000 people, collapsed, mee ;

f i Facic is mask was
bringing six centuries of growth | probably tied to

and dominance to an end. Social,
economic, and environmental
factors were probably to blame.

= a figurine representing
a god. The mask would

: have been decorated with

: inlays and ear ornaments.

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s $
go oO 2 ‘ we st
BS S
3 PF po ws Se oot
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x? Oe BO 8 or CR Sea
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Pree OG? oS oot ee S Oe OE el af
OST er a A oF eat Oy Sa a a oe" 3 me hy
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a oS? oe cS & ore aa prewr wre cy ee a PSS
Md ™ ee? oa or 4* ga? of
@ ro) Zz ye ow

gig

manuscript of the Lindisfarne Gospels.

ANGLO-SAXON ART FUSED
GERMANIC AND CELTIC
ELEMENTS, and, through
travelers and Christian pilgrims,
it also reflected Roman and
Byzantine influences. A product
of this unique synthesis was

the Lindisfarne Gospels, an
illuminated manuscript produced
c. 701 at the priory of Lindisfarne,
on Holy Island, off the northeast
coast of England.

In 705, with the help of Bulgar
allies, the deposed emperor
Justinian Il returned from exile
(see 690-700), regained the
Byzantine throne, and exacted
brutal revenge on those who had
mutilated him.

By 705, Zoroastrian refugees
fleeing the Islamic conquest of
Persia established communities
in India and became known as the
Parsees. Persian Zoroastrian
emigration continued during the
following centuries.

His favorite concubine

IN 710, THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM
OF SPAIN had descended into civil
war, presenting a tempting
prospect to the Islamic armies
now established in North Africa,
just a short distance away across
the Straits of Gibraltar. In 711, a
Muslim army under general Tariq
ibn Ziyad, landed at Gibraltar.
Tariq was a Berber (native of
northwestern Africa], or, in the
parlance of the times, a Moor, and
it was a mixed army of Arabs and

of Spain, known to the Islamic
world as al-Andalus. According
to tradition, Tariq defeated the
Visigothic king, Roderick, at the
Battle of Guadalete, and by the

=
Ruins of Lindisfarne Priory
The Benedictine Priory, built in the
12th century, replaced an earlier

church founded by St. Aidan in 635.

peninsula was under Islamic
control. Only the northwest,
known as Asturias, managed to

d +4 Sage ~~
Greek fire being deployed, as illustrated in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript from the
12th century, which chronicles the history of the Byzantine Empire.

This Tang dynasty scroll shows Xuanzong watching his
concubine Yang Guifei mount a horse. The emperor's love
for her inspired much drama and poetry.

: resist the invaders, with defeat
: at the Battle of Covadonga in

: 718 checking the Arab advance.

: The year 718 is one of the dates

: traditionally given for the start

: of the process of Christian

H reconquest of Spain. Nonetheless,
» by the end of the decade further
: expeditions across the Pyrenees,
: and successful campaigns in

: Central Asia, had extended

Moors that achieved the conquest =

end of the year most of the Iberian :

caliphate control from Provence
to the borders of China.

The Arabs did experience some
setbacks, however. In 717, yet
another incursion into Byzantine
lands triggered a change at the
head of the empire, bringing Leo
Ill, founder of the Isaurian
Dynasty, to the throne. Although
unable to prevent the Arabs from
reaching the walls of the capital
and launching the second siege
of Constantinople (717-18), Leo's
energetic command of the
defense, and the deployment of
the secret weapon “Greek fire,”
halted Arab advances in the
Eastern Mediterranean. Byzantine
fleets, wielding Greek fire-

: spouting siphons, gained control
of the seas, and Leo was able to
begin restoring the empire.

In 713, the Tang emperor
Xuanzong came to the throne. His
43-year reign would see Tang
China reach its apogee,
economically and culturally, with
the establishment of many
schools, patronage of the arts,
and a great literary flowering.

The Arab expansion indirectly proved the savior of the Byzantine
Empire, when Kallinikos, a Syrian Greek forced into exile by the
Arab invasion, brought to Constantinople the recipe for a secret
weapon that came to be known as Greek fire. Now believed to
have been a concoction of naphtha, sulfur, quicklime, and nitre—
a sort of medieval napalm—this highly flammable mixture was
sprayed at enemies from a siphon device that could be fitted to
the prow of a Byzantine war galley.

seesinfurerteasy np top!

Ov Cenc ere eaame

An iconic image of Christ held by
Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople.

CASA GRANDE FLOURISHED
AROUND THE 720s. The success of
this settlement of the Hohokam,
an ancient people of the Sonoran
desert in modern-day Arizona, lay
in a watering system that allowed
a range of crops to be grown,
despite the arid environment. The
Hohokam lived here for more than
a millennium; they were known
as “canal builders” because of
their sophisticated irrigation
technology. Casa Grande was at
the center ofa trade network
that stretched from the Pacific
coast to Tucson and to the Gulf of
Mexico. The earliest structures
at Casa Grande were probably pit
houses; the “great house” that
gives the site its name came
much later.

In 725, the Khazars, a Turkic
people of Central Asian origin,
established their capital at
Atil, on the Volga delta at the
northwestern corner of the
Caspian Sea. From here they
controlled trade routes to all
corners of Asia and built an
empire that would control a huge
swathe of Eastern Europe and
Western Asia for centuries.
to come.

In Byzantium in 726, the
emperor Leo III (see 711-20)
instituted a policy of iconoclasm
(smashing images deemed
sacrilegious) in response to the
idea that God was punishing
Christian Byzantines by their loss
of land to the Arabs and Slavs.
The controversy encouraged the
Roman papacy to assert their
independence from Byzantine
imperial authority.

In 1837, artist Steuben depicted the Battle of Tours—Poitiers as a clash over the fate of
Christian Europe. In reality Islamic raiders were beaten back in a minor skirmish.

THE
POPULATION
DENSITY

OF TIKAL

SINCE CONQUERING SPAIN,
ISLAMIC FORCES had made
regular raids across the
Pyrenees, striking deep into
modern-day France before
retreating to al-Andalus. In 721,
an incursion into Aquitaine—a
dukedom nominally in vassalage
to the Frankish kingdom—had
been checked by Duke Eudo at
the Battle of Toulouse. But in
731, Eudo was unable to halt a
fresh invasion of Islamic forces
under Abd al-Rahman |, emir of
al-Andalus. After defeat at the
Battle of Arles, Eudo was forced
to appeal to Charles Martel, the
Frankish mayor of the palace,
for help. Martel raised an army
and met the Islamic forces on
the banks of the Loire, between
Tours and Poitiers, in 732. He
was victorious at the Battle of
Tours-Poitiers, and subsequent
Christian historians would depict
this as one of the defining
clashes of the age—the moment
at which Islamic expansion was

| power and

: sophistication

: in the mid-8th

: checked and Europe preserved

record it asa minor skirmish,

: significance was that it

: demonstrated the need for

: presenta unified defense.
The Maya city-states

_ period reached

the peak of their

swelled to at least

: spread out over

: 47 sq miles

ballcourts, and

: observatories, and
© controlled a trade

| network stretching
» from California to

» South America. Yet
: the height of the

: sowed the seeds of
: downfall, as the populations

| Statue of Chaak, Mayan god

: Mayans would have sought
help from god of rain and

: thunder, Chaak, for their

! in a region of poor soil and

» fragile ecology, so rain

was vital.

The Great Mosque at Samarra, Iraq,

THE FOUNDATION OF THE ABBASID
CALIPHATE IN 750 was the
culmination of growing tension in
the Islamic world. Under the
Umayyads (see 651-70) the Arab
elite stubbornly maintained their
special tax and political status,
failing to deal with the growing
grievances of the mawali(non-

overtaxed the surrounding
ecology and exceeded their ability
to cope with drought. Collapse
was just around the corner.

out in Persian Khorasan,
stronghold of the Abbasid clan,
who traced their descent back
to Muhammad through his
uncle, al-Abbas. In 749, Abu
al-Abbas al-Saffah was
proclaimed caliph at Kufa in
Iraq, and the following year
at the Battle of the Zab he
defeated Marwan ll, the last
Umayyad caliph. Marwan fled
to Egypt but his head was sent
back to Damascus, whereupon
al-Saffah instigated a genera
massacre of the Umayyad
clan to remove potential
opposition.

In 741 Charles Martel
(see 731-40] died and was
succeeded by his sons
Pepin the Short and

25
2 20
<
S
z 15
Tiwanaku yields cy
Raised fields and 2 10
irrigation canals a
enabled Tiwanaku to a
=

achieve yields of up to
10 tons/acre (21 tons/ 0
hectare], according

to experimental
reconstructions.

Arab Muslims). In 747, revolt broke :

: one
built by the Abbasid Caliphate. Once the
largest mosque in the world, the minaret stands at 171 ft (52m) tall.

: Carloman. In 748, Pepin hada
: son, Charles, who would go on to
i unite most of Western Europe
| under one banner (see 761-90).
: Tiwanaku, a pre-Columbian city
© on the altiplano (high plains) of
: Bolivia, reached its height in
: around 750. Tiwanaku was the
© center of a civilization that
flourished from the third to tenth
© centuries (see 951-60). The city
© itself was probably a ceremonial
: and trading center; its cultural
: and economic influence spread
© far through South America, and
| it would profoundly affect the
development of later civilizations
: in the Andean region. Tiwanaku
© thrived in the harsh environment
: of the Bolivian altiplan thanks to
| its sophisticated raised-field
: agriculture system and extensive
: use of terracing and irrigation,
l= which enabled it to achieve
: yields in excess of even
: modern petrochemical farming
(see below}, and supported the
| development of a sophisticated
: culture. The Tiwanaku people
: built pyramids, temples, and
: colossal statues.

Modern Tiwanaku
Petrochemical Intensive

FARMING YIELDS COMPARED

Traditional

: o- = ee a
Roland bids farewell to Charlemagne,
in this medieval illustration on vellum.

— -
The two-tier crop rotation system introduced in the 760s divided fields
between cultivated and fallow land, then alternated, promoting soil fertility.

The interior of the Mosque of Cordoba, Spain, shows architecture from the
earliest phase of construction during the reign of Abd al-Rahman |.

UNDER THE NEW ABBASID
CALIPHS (see 741-50) the Islamic
Empire continued to grow. Initial
success came in 751 against the

Chinese in the Silk Route kingdom =
: asserted their autonomy. In Spain
© in 756, one of the last surviving

: Umayyads, Abd al-Rahman |,

of Tashkent. The Islamic armies
were victorious at the Battle of
Talas River near Samarkand,

: which led to the loss of most of

: Tang China's Central Asian

: possessions and introduced the
© Islamic world to papermaking

Outlying regions of the caliphate

declared an independent
Emirate of Cordoba.

In Europe, the

Carolingian Pepin III

) lc. 714-68)

} deposed the last
Merovingian
king, Childeric III.

With the pope’s
support Pepin was
crowned and was
soon able to return
the papal favor. When
the Lombards
conquered Ravenna,
the last Byzantine
territory in Italy, the
Lombard king, Aistulf
then set his eyes on

Rome. Pope Stephen II

appealed to Pepin for

help, and in 755 and 756

Pepin invaded Italy,

seizing Ravenna. It was

later claimed by the
papacy in a document entitled
the Donation of Pepin, that
Pepin had conceded all former
conquered territories in northern

THE DEATH OF PEPIN III IN 758,
had seen the Frankish kingdom
customarily divided between his
sons Carloman and Charles (see
panel, below).

Meanwhile, the great monastic
retreat on the Scottish isle of lona
was developing a reputation for
piety and scholarship. It is
possible that one of the treasures
of Celtic Christianity—the Book of
Kells—was produced by monks
in the monastery at lona. Lavishly
decorated and illuminated, this
priceless artifact survived the
Viking raids (see 791-800), and
for safekeeping it was later
transferred to a monastery at
Kells in Ireland.

The founding of Baghdad in
762 signaled the arrival of the
first truly Islamic imperial city.
Sited near Ctesiphon [the old

CHARLEMAGNE [748-814]

.
Hamburg

Aachen®
Paris

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Avignon

Barcelona @
Rome

Mediterranean
Sea

Sasanian capital), the new city
was carefully laid out on a
circular plan and was connected
to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
by canals. Baghdad became a
trading hub that attracted
merchants from northern Europe,
India, and China.

EUROPE

Bologna

Charlemagne’s
European Conquests
Charlemagne inherited
land from his father then
embarked on war after
war, continuing the work
of his father and
grandfather.

KEY

Frankish Empire on
Charlemagne's accession

Charlemagne’s
conquests

Regions recognizing
Charlemagne as overlord

THE DEATH OF CARLOMAN IN 771
meant that Charlemagne became
sole ruler of the Franks. The
following year he launched a
series of bloody campaigns with
the aim of bringing the peoples
east of the Rhine back under
Frankish rule—they had been
subject to the authority of the
preceding Merovingian Dynasty.
At this time the various Saxon
tribes were still pagans, and
Charlemagne was determined to
convert them to Christianity and
thus bring them under the
hegemony of the Frankish state.
From 773-74 he conquered the
kingdom of the Lombards,
bringing northern Italy into his
empire and establishing his rule
over Venetia, Dalmatia, and
Corsica, thus extending his reach
down both sides of the Adriatic

Pepin III

Also known as Pepin the Short,
Pepin Ill was the first Carolingian
King of the Franks. This carving from
his tomb dates to the 13th century.

Athletic and physically impressive, Charlemagne spoke Latin and
understood Greek, but never learned to read. His intent was to
extend Frankish hegemony, foster a close relationship with the
papacy, and reform the Church to ensure divine support for the
Frankish Kingdom. This depiction from a 15th century tapestry is
testament his enduring legacy.

coast and into the Mediterranean.
In the late 770s, he attempted to
project his power into Spain by
taking advantage of infighting
among the Muslim rulers. Invited
to intervene in local politics by
disgruntled emirs, Charlemagne

sent his armies across the
Pyrenees but they failed to take
the city of Saragossa (modern-
day Zaragoza in Spain) and were
forced to retreat.

This botched expedition
inadvertently launched one of
the great romances of
medieval times, the
legend of Roland. In

Charlemagne’s generals,
was killed during an attack

{

778, Roland, one of a
{
\

on the rearguard of the \

Carolingian armies as they
retreated through the
Pyrenean valley of
Roncesvalles. The attack
was actually carried out by
Basques, but Roland's Breton
followers took up the tale and as
it spread through France in the
following centuries it morphed
into a legend with many
fictitious elements: Roland
became the nephew of an
elderly, white-bearded
Charlemagne; his attackers
the perfidious Saracens;
and Roland was Count of
the Marches of Brittany.
By the 11th century, the
“song of Roland”
appeared as an early
chanson de geste; a heroic
epic of the age of chivalry.
In Constantinople, the
death of Emperor Leo IV
brought to the throne his
infant son, Constantine VI.
During his minority the empire
was under the regency of the
Empress Irene, his mother.

co Ghia

Oe -
Offa’s Dyke, which roughly follows the line of the Welsh-English border, was
constructed during the reign of Offa of Mercia; stretches are still visible today.

CHARLEMAGNE’S CONQUEST OF
WEST SAXONY in 782 comprised
a bloody development with the
mass execution of 4,500 Saxon
prisoners at Werden. This event
was appropriated by Nazi

historians in the 1930s as a sort
of pre-Christian Germanic
martyrdom, while others have
called into question its details and
even occurrence. Meanwhile,
concerned about ignorance and
illiteracy among the clergy,
Charlemagne launched a
Carolingian cultural renaissance.
In 786, Haroun al-Rashid
(r. 786-809) acceded to the
caliphate in Baghdad. Under his
rule the Barmakid family gained
great power as his viziers
(high-ranking advisors) and
favorites, while the intellectual
and cultural flowering of the
Islamic world gathered pace.
Growing enthusiasm among
the rich and powerful for books
encouraged scholars to begin
translating ancient Greek and
Roman texts into Arabic.
In 785, Offa of Mercia
(r. 757-96], effective
overlord of Britain,
started constructing
the monumental
earthwork known as
Offa’s Dyke, on the
border between
Wales and Mercia.
Originally 89ft
(27m) wide and 26ft
(8m) high, the
purpose of the dyke
is unknown, and it
probably fell into disuse
soon after its completion.

Imperial gift

An exquisite water pitcher sent
to Charlemagne by Haroun
al-Rashid, probably c, 800.

*.
iY
oh

The giant Buddha at Leshan in China was begun

in 713 and finished 90 years later.

VIKING RAIDS on the shores of
the British Isles started in 789
and gathered pace in the
790s with the looting of

the rich monasteries of
Lindisfarne and lona. The
“Vikings” (possibly from the
Old Norse language)
originated in Scandanavia.

In Tang China, the influence
of Buddhism continued to
grow, signaled by monuments
such as the Leshan Buddha, a
giant statue of the seated Buddha
carved into a bluff next to the

confluence of several major rivers. :

In Constantinople [modern-day
Istanbul), the emperor invited his
mother Irene to become
co-ruler in 792; four years later
she had him blinded and declared
herself empress. This move
spurred the scholar Alcuin of York
to suggest that the imperial seat
was effectively vacant, and on
December 25, 800, Charlemagne
was crowned Emperor of the
Romans by his ally, Pope Leo Ill.
In the same year he received an
embassy from Haroun al-Rashid,
emblematic of how the focus of
power in Europe had shifted.

In 800, the Abbasid caliphs in
Baghdad were forced to recognize

_ Functional and stylish brooch

Viking brooch was not only beautiful

: but also practical, used to fasten
: cloaks or other clothing.

| more or less complete loss

| of authority in Africa west of
Egypt. They conceded to the emir
: of the province of Ifriqiya

: Aghlabid Dynasty. This paid

: tribute to Baghdad and nominally
recognized Abbasid authority, but
: ruled much of North Africa as an
» independent state.

44 [CHARLEMAGNE] WAS

LARGE AND STRONG AND OF
LOFTY STATURE, THOUGH NOT
DISPROPORTIONATELY TALL. 99

Einhard, Charlemagne'’s friend and Frankish historian, c. 830

THE NUMBER
OF STATUES AT
| BOROBUDUR

THE TIBETAN EMPIRE EXPANDED

in the early part of the 9th century, =

and extended its control to the
Bay of Bengal. Its influence in
Central Asia was indicative of
Tang China's weakness in the
region. Meanwhile, in northern
India, the Gurjara-Prathihara
dynasty, which had united the
region and held back the advance
of Islam, continued to grow in
strength with the conquest of
Kanauj in modern-day India by
Nagabhata II, around 801.

The Temple of Borobudur, a
Buddhist monument in central
Java, Southeast Asia, was
completed in the early 9th
century. The colossal structure,
which is the largest Buddhist
monument in the world, contains
over 2 million stone blocks and
is covered in almost 21,500 sq ft
(2,000 sq m) of carvings. The
monument is a three-dimensional
mandala, or cosmic wheel;

: Jayavarman Il

: This statue of Jayavarman Il, from
| the 12th-century Bayon temple at
| Angkor Thom, was constructed by

his namesake, Jayavarman Vil.

Louis the Pious in a copy of Raban
Maur's Book of the Cross.

CONFLICT BETWEEN THE
BYZANTINES AND BULGARS

{see 671-90) continued through
the early part of the 9th century.
Despite Byzantine emperor
Nicephorus I (r. 802-11) twice
sacking the Bulgar capital
Pliskas, in 809 and 811, the
Bulgar khan, Krum, fought back,
meeting his foe in battle later

in 811. Nicephorus was killed and
Krum had his foe's skull lined
with silver for use as a drinking
cup. Two years later, Krum
attempted to besiege the
Byzantine capital Constantinople,
but was unable to breach the walls
and so retreated, devastating
Thrace instead.

Charlemagne (see 760-800}
died in 814 and his last remaining
son, Louis the Pious (r. 814-40),
acceded to the throne. He had
been crowned co-emperor by his
father the year before.

THE HOUSE OF WISDOM, or Bait

al-Hikma, was an institute devoted :

to the translation of classical
scholarship and the pursuit of
learning in Abbasid Baghdad. It
was the epicenter of the Islamic
intellectual renaissance, the heart
of the Translation Movement, and
the home of great scholars such
as Al-Kharwizmi (c. 780-850);
algebra takes its name from his
great treatise on mathematics of
c. 830, the Kitab al-Jabir, or The
Compendious Book on Calculation
by Completion and Balancing.

The House of Wisdom was
consolidated c. 822 by al-Ma’mun.
After the death of his father
Haroun al-Rashid (see 791-800),
and after a brief struggle, he had
succeeded to the Caliphate in 813
and continued the tradition of
intellectual patronage, building
observatories and gathering the
best scholars from around the

This 14th-century manuscript depicts scholars seated in the House of Wisdom;
the Abbasid caliphs recruited scholars of all religions, from Europe to China.

THE NUMBER

_OF BOOKS IN
THE HOUSE
‘OF WISDOM

» world. Mimicking the practices

of the Abbasid’s Persian

: predecessors, the Sasanians,the
Translation Movement collected
: manuscripts from other cultures

and older traditions, and

: translated them into Arabic,

thus preserving much ancient
scholarship that would otherwise

: have been lost. Ptolemy's seminal
» work on cosmology, the Almagest,

i for instance, was translated from

| Greek into Arabic around 827,

: and it was only through this
translation that European
scholars would later be able to

: access this ancient text.

Civil strife in the Carolingian

j _ Empire (800-88) resulted from

4 : tension between Louis the

. ’ Pious and his sons over their

» inheritances. After the death in
819 of his first wife—mother of his

_ sons Lothair, Pepin, and Louis

» the German—Louis the Pious had

: married the ambitious Judith of

: Bald (823-77), lands that had

: previously been promised to

around 770, was powerful enough

_ Khmer Empire and have himself

: translates as “god-king”—the

» authority of Khmer kings rested
on their direct link to the gods,

which was reflected in the

= monuments they would construct

Around 801, Bulan, the Khan of

the Khazar Empire (see 861-70),
hosted a debate between the

: three Abrahamic faiths, and

: chose Judaism.

walking its path, which is a
journey of over 2 miles (3km],
reenacts the journey toward
nirvana (enlightenment). Its
construction was an epic
achievement, and a testament to
the power of the Srivijayan
Empire (c. 760-1402), which had
grown rich from the extensive
maritime trade of the region.
For much of this era, Srivijayan
influence extended over the
Southeast Asian mainland,
including the Mekong basin
kingdom formerly known to the
Chinese as Funan. But, in 802,
Jayavarman Il, a vassal ruler
whose family had been quietly
extending their territory since

aa
Thanks to the House of cs .
Wisdom and other similar =a
centers of scholarship across 2
the Caliphate, Islamic scholars ae
went far beyond the learning “ 4
of the ancient Greeks and i)
Romans, Islamic scientists r
made great advances in
fields such as alchemy
(proto-chemistry], medicine,
toxicology, metallurgy,
mathematics, and astronomy,
This illustration from The Book
of Knowledge of Ingenious
Mechanical Devices shows an
innovative handwashing device.

5
rN
Pe
oie

Louis’ co-emperor since 824,
rallied his brothers in revolt
against their father. In early 830,
Louis was deposed, and although
Lothair’s misrule saw his father
restored by the autumn, the older
man’s authority was compromised
and the scene set for worse
conflict to come.

Wessex, the Anglo-Saxon
kingdom in south and west
England, became the dominant
English power as a result of the
victory of King Egbert over King
Beornwulf of Mercia at the Battle
of Ellandun, Wiltshire, in 825.
Egbert was subsequently able to
conquer the southeastern
counties of England, and by
around 828 Wessex was the most
powerful state in the land, with
Egbert recognized as bretwalda,
or overlord, of England until his
death in 839.

The emergence of Great
Moravia began around 830,
with the establishment of the
Principality of Moimir, to the
west of the White Carpathians,
under the rule of Moimir I.
Moimir was one of two Slavic
polities to establish themselves
in the power vacuum left by the
collapse of the Avars in 805; the
other—to the east of the White
Carpathians, in what is now
Slovakia—was Nitra, under the
rule of Prince Pribina. In 833,
Moimir would conquer Nitra,
setting his principality on the
path to becoming the Great
Moravian Empire.

The area around Segesta in Sicily, with its Greek ruins, was occupied early in

the Aghlabid invasion of the island.

THE ISLAMIC CONQUEST OF SICILY
had begun in 827 with the arrival
of an invasion force from Aghlabid
in North Africa, sent by the Emir
Ziyadat Allah I (r. 817-38) to take
advantage of internal divisions
among the Byzantine rulers of
the island. Hindered by outbreaks
of plague, the Islamic forces made
little headway until 831, when
Palermo fell after a year-long
siege. The city then became the
capital of Islamic Sicily, although
total conquest of the island did
not happen until 902.

The Field of Lies, in
Alsace in 833, was a
meeting brokered by

the Pope to mediate between the
Frankish rulers, which resulted
in the desertion of Louis the Pious
and Charles the Bald by their
followers, and their subsequent
imprisonment. This was one
episode in a series of conflicts
that saw the collapse of central
authority and increasing Frankish
vulnerability to raids from the
Norsemen to the north and west,
Bulgars and Magyars to the east,
and Saracen pirates to the south.

Saracen warriors

“Saracens” was a European term for
Muslims, especially those occupying
Sicily and raiding Europe.

The ancient city of Pagan, in Burma, became the capital of a powerful
Buddhist state occupying roughly the same area as the current region.

THE TREATY OF VERDUN in
843 marked the definitive
division of Charlemagne's
empire. After the death of
Louis the Pious in 840, his
three surviving sons
(see 821-30)
embroiled
themselves in further
conflict over land. In
842, Charles the
Bald and Louis the
German teamed up
and swore oaths to
impose a settlement on Lothair
that saw the Frankish Empire
divided into regions. These
broadly equated to France in
the west, Germany in the east,
and a middle kingdom that
would later become known as
Lotharii regnum, or Lotharingia
{modern Lorraine).
The rise of the Cholas, a Tamil
dynasty of southern India, can
be dated to 846, when the Chola
king Vijayalaya captured the
city of Tanjore from the
Pandya kingdom.
The Capitulary of Meersen was
a proclamation by the West
Frankish king Charles the
Bald in 847, ordering every
free man to choose himself a
lord. Charles intended the
decree to facilitate the levy
of armies, but it was also
indicative of the increasing
inability of the Frankish
rulers to protect their subjects.
In place of central authority,
the peasants relied on local
lords; they gave up freedoms
and bound themselves to a
feudal aristocracy in return

Coffee plant

| The coffee bush is native to the
mountains of Ethiopia and Yemen,

: where it was first recorded in use in
the mid-15th century.

for protection from Vikings and
other raiders.

In around 848, the Burmese
city-state of Pagan was founded
in the Irrawaddy Valley. Indian
influence is readily perceptible in
the architecture of this part of
Southeast Asia due to cultural,
religious, and mercantile ties.

The legendary discovery of
coffee is dated to around 850,

: when itis said that an Ethiopian
goatherd named Kaldi noticed
that, after eating some red
berries, his goats became

» extremely lively. He brought a
sample to a local Islamic holy
man, who, disapproving of
intoxicants, threw them on the
fire, where they roasted and
released a delicious aroma.

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117

Monument in the courtyard of the
Maya city of Palenque.

THE DECLINE OF THE CLASSIC
MAYA civilization continued as the
wave of abandonments that began
with Palenque at the end of the
9th century spread south and east
into the Classic Maya heartland.
The last recorded inscriptions at
Mayan cities Quirigua and Copan
date to 810 and 822; at Caracol
to 859; and at Tikal to 889. A
combination of drought, famine,
disease, and social upheaval
were probably responsible, as
overpopulated cities and their
overstretched resources reached
a tipping point.

The first recorded use of a
crossbow was in France in 851.
Although slower to reload than
a longbow, the crossbow, or
arbalest, required little training
or strength to operate.

The Fujiwara regency,
assumed by Yoshifusa [c. 804-72]
on the accession of his grandson,
the child-emperor Seiwa in 858,
marked the Fujiwara clan's
domination of Japanese power.

NUMBER OF ARROWS PER
MINUTE
o

Crossbow Longbow

Crossbow versus longbow
Although the longbow could be
fired much faster, the crossbow
had a greater range and was easy
to operate.

The frontispiece of The Diamond Sutra, the earliest known printed work,
shows Buddha explaining the sutra (sermon) to an elderly disciple.

KHAZAR EMPIRE

The Caspian Sea is still known in the region as the Khazar Sea for
the empire that ruled the area between it and the Black Sea from
the 8th to 10th centuries. A contributing cause to the empire's
decline may have been arise of 23 ft [7m] in the sea level.

CYRILLIC SCRIPT WAS INVENTED
by the Byzantine missionary later
known as St. Cyril in around 863.
Originally named Constantine,
Cyril and his brother Methodius
were sent to convert the Slavs in
Moravia by Byzantine emperor,
Michael Ill in around 862. Cyril
devised a new “Glagolitic” script
to translate the Bible into Slavic;
this later became Cyrillic script.

In 867, Basil, a favorite of Michael
Ill, deposed his master and took
the throne as Basil I. His reign

marked the start of one of the most i

glorious periods of Byzantine
history. Intent on restoring the
empire internally and externally,

Basil rebuilt the army and navy and i

revised the legal system.

The Diamond Sutra of 868 is the |

world’s oldest surviving printed
book. An illustrated Buddhist text,
it was found in a cave in
Dunhuang, a Silk Road town in
northwest China.

Around the mid-9th century, the

| Khazars adopted Judaisim (see

: 801-10). According to tradition,

: they chose an Abrahamic faith

i Christianity in the Byzantine

: Empire and Islam in the Caliphate.

: Early Cyrillic script

: This wax tablet contains psalms of

: century. It is believed to be the oldest
: document written in Cyrillic.

The landscape of Iceland offered scant
welcome, yet Vikings settled here by 874.

ALFRED THE GREAT OF ENGLAND,
an educated man who had spent
time in Rome with the Pope,
acceded to the throne of the
Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex
in 871. During the reign of his
elder brother Aethelred |
(r. 865-71), Danish Vikings had
invaded Wessex, but Alfred had
helped defeat them at the Battle
of Ashdown in 870. On assuming
the kingship, Alfred averted
crisis by defeating the Danes at
Wilton in southwest England,
but another attack in 875
caught him unawares and he
was forced to retreat to the
Somerset marshes.
According to the popular
legend, Alfred was here given
shelter by a peasant woman
who, unaware of his identity,
left him to watch some
cakes that were cooking on
the fire. Preoccupied with the
problems of his kingdom, Alfred
let the cakes burn. Nonetheless
he was able to summon his
armies and defeated the Danish
king Guthrum at the Battle of
Edington in 878, forcing him to
conclude the Peace of Wedmore,
under the terms of which
Guthrum converted to
Christianity and agreed toa
division of the country (see 881-90).
The settlement of Iceland
demonstrated how the Vikings
were advancing on other fronts.
Irish monks had probably already
reached the North Atlantic island,
and Viking navigators had other
clues to its existence, such as
the passage of migrating birds.
Vikings had already visited the

: A statue of King Alfred was erected
: at his capital, Winchester, in 1901.
: His sword doubles as a crucifix,

: emblematic of his militant faith.

: island and even overwintered

: settlement, according to the

: medieval Icelandic Landémabok
| (Book of Settlement), was by

: 874. According to legend, he

: selected the spot for his

: homestead by throwing his

44 WE DISCERN
ACROSS THE
CENTURIES A
COMMANDING
AND VERSATILE
INTELLIGENCE,
WIELDING WITH
EQUAL FORCE
THE SWORD O
WAR AND OF
JUSTICE. 99

Winston Churchill, British
Politician, on King Alfred, 1956-58

throne pillars overboard and
following their drift.

The Twelfth Imam, al-Mahdi—
believed by some Shi'ites to
be the ultimate savior of
humankind—miraculously
disappeared in 874. According to
some Shi'ites, when the Eleventh
Imam, Hasan al-Askari, died in
874, his successor, a seven-year-
old boy, went into literal and
spiritual hiding, and ever since
has been said to be “occulted,”
or hidden until the day of his
messianic return.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
a unique written record of events
from wars and politics to the
weather, was kept from around 880
until the mid-12th century. It was
indicative of the scholarship that
King Alfred fostered, inviting
scholars to England and translating
major classical works himself.

The facade of a building known as the Nunnery annex, at Chichen Itza,
the leading Maya city-state of the Late or Terminal Classic Period.

Symeon of Bulgaria, depicted in the center, had been educated as a monk in
Constantinople before returning to take control of the Bulgars in 893.

SWEDISH VIKINGS, known as the
Varangians or Rus, used rivers
such as the Volga and Dnieper to
push ever farther inland from the
Baltic, establishing dominion over
the eastern Slavs of the region.
Having founded the settlement
of Novgorod in 862 and launched
audacious raids on Constantinople
by navigating rivers all the way to
the Black Sea, they now colonized
ever farther south. In 882, the Rus
prince Oleg (r. 882-912) defeated
his rivals Askold and Dir, seized
their settlement at Kiev, and
transferred his capital there from
Novgorod. The city would become
the capital of Kievan Rus, a loose
federation of territories, until 1169.

The Danelaw—the part of
England in which Viking law was
upheld—was formalized by the
Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum in
886, following renewed attacks by
Guthrum. Alfred would keep the
south, including London, while the
area to the north of a line between
the Thames and Lea rivers went
to the Danish, who would live
under their own laws.

In 887, Charles the Fat
(c. 839-88}, the last Carolingian
king to rule both the primary
Frankish territories, West and
East Francia (modern-day France
and Germany), was deposed
Charles, already king of the East
Franks since 879, had been
elected king of the West Franks in
884. However, he was a victim of
the declining power and authority
of the Carolingian monarchs [see
841-50). Unable or unwilling to
meet the Vikings in battle—
specifically during their Siege of

Slavonic-Viking Jewelry

Viking invaders conquered
territories along Russia’s waterways,
establishing a hybrid culture that
mixed Slavonic and Viking styles.

Paris in 885-86—he was proven
incapable of protecting his people
Odo, Count of Paris (c. 860-98),
who had led a heroic defense
against the Vikings in 885, was
elected king of West Francia in
887. From now on, East and
West Francia would develop as
separate regions.

The catastrophic decline of the
Classic Maya city-states of the
southern lowlands continued
throughout the 9th century, and
Tikal was abandoned by around
889. Maya city-states of the north
{the area of Mexico's Yucatan
Peninsula] now took precedence
in what is known as the Late or
Terminal Classic Period.
Foremost among these
civilizations was Chichen Itza,
which commanded the advantage
of cenotes, or water holes; of
vital importance in this drought-
vulnerable region.

THE GROWING POWER OF THE
BULGAR KHANATE (see 811-20)
worried the Byzantine emperor
Leo VI, who in 895 prompted the
Magyars to attack the Bulgars.
However, this merely provoked the
new khan, Symeon [r. 893-927],
to mobilize the Pechenegs—a
tribe that had recently arrived on
the Dnieper—to invade Magyar
lands. The Magyars were forced to
migrate west, settling in present-
day Hungary, from where they
launched extensive raids on
Frankish territories for years to
come. In the summer of 896,
Symeon defeated a Byzantine
army at Bulgarophygon, in

Toltec coyote

Toltec art, such as this depiction
of a coyote-god, influenced other
pre-Columbian American
civilizations, including the Aztecs.

modern-day Turkey, forcing the

: Byzantine emperor to pay tribute.

Symeon would rule for another
30 years, vying for the Byzantine

the impenetrable walls of its
capital, Constantinople, on

: numerous occasions.

The Toltecs (c. 800-1000) were
probably refugees from the
collapsed Teotihuacan culture
(see 690-700), who settled in the
Valley of Mexico, founding a

their descendants, the Aztecs.

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119

This stone relief is from the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
Breakdown of central authority in the period led to economic contraction.

TANG CHINA HAD BEEN IN
MILITARY DECLINE since defeat by
the Arabs at the Battle of Talas
River in 751-760, and the Huang
Zhao rebellion of the 880s
signaled the end of the dynasty.
Zhuwen (c. 852-912] was a
warlord who had originally been
part of the Huang Zhao uprising

and then instrumentalin the rebel =

defeat. Richly rewarded for his

role, he steadily built up his power =
: 951-960), and was a time of great
» hardship. Authority broke down,

base until in 904 he was ready to
seize control, executing the Tang
emperor Zhaozong and most of
his sons, and installing the
emperor's 13-year-old son on the
throne as a puppet ruler. In 907,
he took the throne for himself,
founding the Later Liang
Dynasty, but although he
controlled the northern heartland
of China—the Yellow River Valley
region of Huang He—he was
unable to prevent the south from

Srwivaily +b

>» e Sx «

: 3 HIN 5b} rst sche

Fatimid era text

Named for Muhammad's daughter,
Fatima, the Fatimids proved patrons
of learning through their sponsorship
of Cairo’s al-Azhar school.

i fragmenting into ten independent
: kingdoms. The Later Liang

Dynasty was short-lived (907—
923), with a succession of groups

© seizing control of the Huang He
: region and founding dynasties of
» their own, but proving unable to
» hold on to power. This period of

anarchy, known as the Five
Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms,
lasted until the establishment of
the Northern Song Dynasty (see

the economy collapsed, and

: barter replaced money in many

areas. There was extensive flood
and famine as flood defenses and

» irrigation works fell into disrepair.

To the west and north of the Five

: Dynasties region, Shatuo Turks
» and Khitan Mongols consolidated :
= kingdoms of their own. The

» Khitans of southern Manchuria

established their empire in 905
under the leadership of Yelii

| Abaoji (872-926). He went on to
mules Paes sibecistenlgh : declare himself emperor in 916,

% © founding the Liao Dynasty,

: which lasted until 1125, including
: a brief period as one of the

: Five Dynasties controlling

northern China.
In 909, Sa'id ibn-Husayn, an

= Ismaili Shi'ite, overthrew the

» Kairouan (modern-day Tunisia),
» declared himself al-Mahdi (the

Shi'ite messiah), and founded
the Fatimid Dynasty, named

: for the daughter of the prophet
: Muhammad, from whom he
» claimed descent.

The Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy,

: founded in 910 by William the

? KEY.

William the Pious, who donated
the land for the abbey in 910,
placed no obligations on its
Benedictine monks, so that

it was free from secular
oversight and answerable only
to the Pope. Cluny became the
center of a monastic empire of
great power, governing around
10,000 monks. In 1098, Pope
Urban Il, a former Abbot of
Cluny, declared it “the light of
the world.”

Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, became

» the center of amonastic “empire”
: in Europe (see panel, above).

Displaced westward by the

: Pechenegs (see 891-900), the

Magyars launched a series of

_ devastating raids throughout the
: decade. In 901, they ravaged

CEE Khitans YAN
SHA
Vighurs

: The Five Dynasties

: A succession of

: regimes was unable to
: consolidate power,

: leaving warlords to

: the north and south to
: set up independent

: kingdoms. The

: fractured geopolitical
: situation is reflected in
5 this map, which shows
© a tangle of borders

: and states.

Tibetans

Chinese states

: §§ States occupied by

non-Chinese
peoples

Saxony, and Thuringia. With the

ABD AL-RAHMAN III BECAME THE
NEW UMAYYAD RULER of the
Cérdoba emirate on the death of
his grandfather, Abdallah, in 912.
His territories had been reduced
by rebellions and he quickly set
about regaining much of his lost
kingdom. During his reign and
that of his successors, Cordoba
reached the peak of its power
{see 921-930).

According to traditional
sources, Prince Igor, ruler of
Kievan Rus from 914-945, was
the son of the legendary Rurik,
who founded Novgorod in 862.
Under his protection, Kievan Rus
(see 881-890) became a
Carinthia, in 906 and 907 they
wreaked havoc in Moravia, and

i Igor | of Kiev
in 908 they attacked Bavaria,

Igor, who ruled from 914 until his
death in 945, gestures to his court
Frankish emperor unwilling or
unable to help, the East Franks
elected regional “dukes” to
defend against the incursions.

in this 19th-century illustration.

tarer Yellow
TANG Sea
FORMER _JINGNAN
SHU - WU YUE
wu
CHU
Man MIN

SOUTHERN HAN
South
China
Sea

This decorative panel at the Caliph’s Palace in Madinat az-Zahra, Spain, was.
erected by Al-Rahman III in imitation of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad.

formidable power in the region,
earning the respect of the
Byzantines by force of arms
during the Rus-Byzantine war of -
941, and winning lucrative trade
concessions from them.

In 911, in recognition of
helplessness in the face of
constant and devastating Viking
raids (see 881-890), the West
Frankish king, Charles III,
granted a large area of land
guarding the mouth of the Seine
River, which consisted of a large
part of what later became
Normandy, to the Norse chieftain
Rollo, also known as Hrolf, on the
condition that he became a
Christian. Charles’ grip on the
crown was tenuous; the authority
of the Carolingian monarchs had
declined precipitously, with local
counts ruling what were

effectively independent fiefs that
owed only nominal authority to
the king [see 841-850). A powerful
faction of West Frankish
magnates had elected Count Odo

: of Paris to the kingship in 887, so

Charles spent much of his reign

engaged in civil war with Odo and

his descendants.

One of the tribal dukes who
came to power with the
impotence of the Carolingians in
the face of the Magyar threat,

i Henry I, was elected king of the

East Franks in 919, founding the
Saxon Dynasty. The last
Carolingian monarch of the East
Frankish kingdom, Louis the
Child, died in 911, after which
Conrad, duke of Franconia, was
elected as king. On his death he
nominated his strongest rival,
Henry, as successor.

Légberg, or Law Rock, in Iceland is
the center of the oldest parliament.

100

20-

NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN THOUSANDS.

8th 9th

CENTURY

10th

Cordoba’s population growth
This estimate shows how Cordoba
grew rapidly from a small town to
become one of the world's
biggest medieval cities.

THE WANING AUTHORITY OF THE
ABBASIDS IN BAGHDAD prompted
Abd al-Rahmaan Ill to declare
himself the true caliph in 929,
thus amending his kingdom from
emirate to caliphate. During the
10th century, his capital, Cordoba,
became the largest and most
developed city in Western Europe.

In 930, Icelanders started
meeting to decide on justice
and legislation at an outdoor
assembly on the plains of
Thingvellir. All free men who
had not been outlawed could
attend the Althing, making it
the oldest representative
assembly in the world.

During what archaeologists call
the Pueblo Il phase, the Pueblo
peoples of Chaco Canyon, North
America, were thriving. They built
immense structures called
“great houses,” some with up to
700 rooms.

46 IN THIS YEAR, KING
AETHELSTAN, LORD OF WARRIORS,
RING-GIVER TO MEN... WON ETERNAL
GLORY, IN BATTLE WITH SWORD
EDGES, AROUND BRUNABURH. 99

Unknown author, from the Old English poem

The Battle of Brunaburh, 937

IN 932, THE UMMAYAD CALIPH ABD
AL-RAHMAN III (see 911-920)
captured Toledo, bringing all of
Muslim Spain back under one
banner. Al-Rahman also waged a
successful war against the
Christian kingdoms of Leén and
Navarre on his northern borders,
forcing them to acknowledge his
overlordship. In general, Jews and
Christians enjoyed tolerance
under the caliphate, though they
remained second-class citizens,
making issues such as tax status
a driving force behind conversion.

The Silla kingdom (see
651-670) was conquered by the
Koryo kingdom in 935,
completing the reunification of
Korea under the Koryo leader
Wang Kon, who now became King
T’aejo (r. 918-943]. Wang Kon had
acceded to power in the Three
Kingdoms state of Koguryo in
918, renaming it and leading it
in successful military ventures
against the Kingdom of Paekche,
who were conquered in 934,
and the Silla. During his reign,
T’aejo consolidated power by
incorporating Silla nobility into
his new ruling bureaucracy.

In one of the bloodiest battles
ever fought on British soil, the
Anglo-Saxon king Aethelstan
(c. 893-939] crushed an alliance
of forces in 937, cementing his
control of Britain and his kingship
of a the now unified Anglo-Saxon
realm of England. Alarmed by
the prospect of Anglo-Saxon
expansionism, the king of Alba lin
modern-day Scotland) had joined
forces with the Vikings and other
northern British realms to

counter the threat. The results

: were immortalized in an Old
English poem recorded in the

* 871-880}, which reported that
five kings and seven earls died
on the battlefield, alongside

: “unnumber’d crowds” of soldiers.

» Victory confined the Welsh and
Scottish to their borders, halted
Viking expansionism, and helped
create England as a nation.

In 946, the Persian Shi'ite

» Buwayhids took Baghdad and
forced the caliph to recognize
Ahmad ibn-Buwayh as supreme
commander. Although Abbasid
caliphs remained in place
until 1258, they were mere
figureheads; real power now

' passed to Buwayhid sultans
who ruled from their capital

Henry I (see 911-920] was one

of the tribal dukes who came to

| power in the face of Magyar
threat to the Carolingians. Known

: as Henry the Fowler, he enlarged
the kingdom and inflicted the

: first great defeat that the
Magyars (see 901-910) had
experienced since beginning

: their raids into Europe, at the
Battle of Riade in 933. Henry

: would be hereditary, and the

= crowned at Aachen, the old
imperial capital.

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Gold arm ring

Decorated with patterns made
Thor’s hammer by stamping, beading, and
pendant minute engraving, this arm ring
Thor's hammer— “ ¥ gold beading from Rabylille, Denmark, has

a symbol of power $ ewe ¥ and wire crosses and tree motifs.

and virility—was a — work

common theme for
jewelry. Thor was the
Norse god of thunder.

sword indicates that
rider is a warrior

Statue of Frey

The Vikings worshipped Frey,
the Norse god of fertility. This
statue from Sweden shows Frey
holding his beard—a symbol

of growth and virility.

Silver figure of horseman

This stylized metal figure from
Sweden probably represents a
warrior on horseback. The Vikings
were fine horsemen, but they
preferred to travel by ship.

ends of ring are in_/
shape of cat heads

Between the 8th and 11th centuries, the Viking world
spanned Europe, from the Pontic Steppes in the south and
east to the shores of North America in the west and north.
This realm was tied together bya culture of arts and crafts. eccinbatinc

The unifying motifs of Viking art and crafts were elaborate ornamentation,

interlacing patterns, and stylized animals. The material culture of the baldric (slinglike
Vikings was mostly utilitarian yet finely crafted. Common, ceremonial, shoulder =fapl oN
and military objects were ornamented heavily. Techniques such as etching,
engraving, and inlaying and the use of metal beading helped to create
patterns of interweaving tendrils, “gripping beasts,” and stylized limbs

Wooden shield

Shields were made from spruce, fir,
pine, or linden wood with iron
handles behind an iron boss.
They were painted with
bright colors and often
had intricate designs.

Silver brooch/pin
This gold-coated silver
brooch or cloak pin from
Sweden is highlighted with
niello, a black metallic
compound.

colors signified
intent or
allegiance
double-edged

iron blade blada

Ax
Axes were commonly used by
poor Vikings, as they were
cheaper than swords. This
Danish ax has a metal blade
and a wooden haft.

Sword

Swords were rare and extremely
valuable for the Vikings. This
sword could be easily drawn

out from its sheath and wielded
with one hand.

sturdy wooden
haft with runic
inscription

ornate
etching

Buckle plate

This metal plate was fixed toa
Viking’s leather belt so that it could
be buckled. It has two sections, one
for each end of the belt.

__ carved teeth

Hair comb Brooch
Atypical Viking grooming kit included
a comb, tweezers, and scoops for
cleaning ears. This wooden comb has
a handle secured with iron rivets.

iron crest

Helmet
Made from iron plates
welded together over a
leather cap, this Norwegian
helmet has an attached face
guard, complete with nose protector.

lion figure —_/
indicates wind
direction

__ silver and gold
inlay work

This box brooch (top view), from
Martens on the Swedish island
of Gotland, is decorated with four
squatting human figures in gold.

THE VIKINGS

Gilded weather vane
Weather vanes were originally mounted
on the prows of ships and later on the
tops of churches. This gilded weather
vane was found in Sweden.

I GRIEG

stylized great _/
beast with
sinuous limbs

Early Danish coins
Originally, the Vikings used
looted coins, hack silver
(chunks], and barter in place
of their own money. King
Harald Bluetooth started
mass minting of coins in 975.

Trading weights

Found in Sweden, these
brass-coated iron weights
were used to measure
quantities of goods and
the value of hack silver.

dragon head __/
used to terrify
enemies

symbol
indicates weight carved scale

patterns

Drinking horn

Vikings believed they would
use drinking horns like this
in Valhalla, the heaven for
warriors, if they died in
battle. This drinking vessel
was used in feasting.

carved from
an animal horn

beech panel with
tin and iron studs

Sledge Ship’s prow ornament

This oak-and-beech sledge is Elements of Viking culture were
froma ship burial in Oseberg, derived from and prefigured in
Norway. It has finely carved earlier cultures. For example,
runners and animal heads on this wooden prow ornament is
each corner post of the box. from Saxon times.

This detail from the “Gateway of the S:

un,” a great stone doorway at

Tiwanaku, is carved with a figure known as the Staff God.

THE PRE-INCA, ANDEAN
CIVILIZATION OF TIVANAKU
declined precipitously in the
second half of the 10th century.
Sophisticated agricultural and
irrigation techniques (see 741-50)
had allowed Tiwanaku to
support a population of up

to 60,000 people, with up to

1.4 million in the wider region,
according to some estimates. A
prolonged drought is believed
to have been responsible for its
decline, and archaeological
evidence suggests that the main
city was abandoned as citizens

Bronze Mirror

This intricately decorated mirror
from the Song dynasty illustrates
the artistic sophistication of China
in this period.

: retreated to smaller, rural
: settlements, and returned to a
| pre-urban lifestyle.

The establishment of the Song

: dynasty in China brought an end
: to the anarchy and warfare of the
: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
: era (see 901-10). Known as the

: Northern Song in its early stages
: because the capital was at

: Kaifeng in northern China, the

» dynasty was founded by Zhao

- Kuangyin (r. 960-76), who was a

i general under the Late Zhou, the
: last of the Five Dynasties. He dealt
© with the threat from external

states such as the Khitan Liao

» {see 901-10), the Tangut kingdom
: of Xia Xia, a confederation of
: Tibetan tribes, and conquered

several of the Ten Kingdoms to

» the south. Zhao used the civil
: service examination system to
: assert control over the military

and centralize power.

Emperor Otto I, “the Great”
(912-73), defeated the
Magyars at the Battle of
Lechfeld in 955. Since
being displaced by
Byzantine-Bulgar conflict

(see 891-900), the Magyars had
raided Frankish territories,

: reaching as far west as Aquitaine

: in 951. The son of Henry! (see

: 911-20), Otto vigorously asserted

: royal authority from his coronation
: in 936, gaining control of all the

: East Frankish duchies. His

powerful army ended the Magyar

: menace and also defeated the

Wends—tribes on the eastern

| border engaged in a long struggle
| to resist Frankish colonization
: and Christianization.

King Solomon holding a scroll.

Iceland

GAUL
* Bordeaux

IBERIA a
ff 1%
‘Seville a

Tunis @

AFRICA

Viking sea routes

OF OTTO! as emperor in 962
revived the Carolingian Roman
Empire in the West. In 961, Otto
made an expedition to Italy in
response to a plea for protection
from Pope John XIl, and in Pavia
he had assumed the Italian crown.
The following year he went to
Rome to receive the imperial
crown and assert his authority
over the fractious papacy.

His son was crowned co-emperor
as Otto Il in 967.

In 965, the King of Denmark,
Harald Bluetooth, converted to
Christianity, and the religion
spread rapidly through the Nordic
region. Denmark had been forced
to accept missionaries as the
consequence of defeat by the East
Frankish king, Henry |, in 933.

This detail from the imperial crown of Otto | shows the biblical figure

EUROPE

GREECE

Athens @

By the late 10th century, Viking seafarers had
penetrated to every corner of Europe and beyond,
reaching as far as Greenland in the north.

THE POPE’S IMPERIALCORONATION °

| Syria in 969. That same year
: he was assassinated by his

Constantinople

Asia Minor

KEY

Further afield, Vikings continued
to prosper as they penetrated into
all parts of Europe.

The death of Byzantine emperor
Constantine VII in 963 brought

"his infant son Basil II (958-1025)
: to the throne. In practice,

authority was assumed by the
general Nicephorus Phocas. As
Nicephorus Il (r. 963-969), he

_ continued the restoration of the

empire that had begun with the
reconquest of Crete in 961,
regaining Cyprus and Cilicia

in 965, subduing the Bulgars in
966-69, and invading northern

nephew, John Tzimisces.

WHO}...

33% 33%
rowing, protecting rowers

33%
ready
to attack

Longboat crew in battle

By keeping part of the crew at

the oars, Viking raiding parties
maintained an aggressive posture
without sacrificing mobility.

DURING HIS SHORT REIGN, JOHN
TZIMISCES, nephew of Nicephorus
Il [see 961-70), won a string of
victories. Having fought off a
revolt by general Bardas Phocas
in 971, Tzimisces crushed a
campaign by the Kievan Rus
leader, Sviatoslav, and conquered
Bulgaria as far as the Danube.
In 972, he campaigned in the East,
taking Edessa, Damascus, and
Beirut, reaching the gates
of Jerusalem in 976. He died
suddenly that year.

In 980, the Vikings
started raiding England
again, though they suffered
a reverse in Ireland, where
Malachy II forced Viking
Dublin to pay tribute.

Pri ia -

Venice’s modern splendor is the result of control of the Lucrative trade routes between
Europe, the Byzantine Empire, and the East in the 10th century.

IN 981, THE ISLAMIC FORCES OF
CORDOBA defeated the Christian
kingdom of Leén in Spain, under
the leadership of Al-Mansur.
“Al-Mansur” was the honorific
title taken by Muhammad ibn Abi’
Amir, the powerful and energetic
vizier who was the true power
behind the Umayyad throne (see
911-20). He campaigned
successfully against Leon,
Navarre, and Catalonia, making
their kings subordinate to the
caliphate, and extended Umayyad
control to Africa via campaigns in
Mauretania (modern-day
Morocco and part of Algeria.
In 986, the Viking explorer Eric
the Red led a party of Icelandic
colonists to the shores
of the bleak landmass
he misleadingly named

.—_____ rectangular
wool-cloth
sail

Al-Mansur

This 17th century oil painting depicts
Al Mansur, or Almanzor to his
Christian subordinates. Al Mansur

means ‘the Victorious.”

: “Greenland” in the hope of
: attracting settlers. He succeeded

in recruiting 24 boatloads of men,

= women, and children willing to

entrust their lives to Viking

: longboats and brave the perilous

crossing. Only 14 ships arrived,

: but they quickly established a

thriving colony that may have
eventually numbered around
5,000 people.

Otto Il, the emperor and king of

: East Francia, died of malaria in

Viking longboat

983 after an expedition to
southern Italy. Although his infant
son, Otto Ill (r. 983-1001),
managed to hold on to the crown
thanks to the strong regency of
his mother, Theophano, the East
Franks were also faced with an
uprising among the Wends, the
forcibly converted Slavic tribes on
the eastern border. The Wends
restored their pagan religion and
resisted Frankish colonization for
nearly two centuries.

In 987, Toltec forces conquered
the Yucatan Maya and made
Chichen Itza the capital of a
Toltec-Maya state. According to
the early Mayan chronicle Chilam

TOLTECS

Balam, Chichen Itza was
conquered by Toltecs led by
Kukulcan, the Mayan name for
the Toltec god Quetzlcoatl or “the
feathered serpent” —possibly the
exiled Toltec king, Topiltzin.
Despite the record in the
chronicle, however, archaeological
findings suggest that the city
collapsed around this time.

By the end of the 10th century,
the mercantile powers of Venice
and Genoa were beginning to
dominate the Adriatic and
Tyrrhenian seas, respectively.
Venice, in particular, enjoyed
lucrative trade links with the
Byzantine Empire.

THE WEIGHT
IN SILVER OF
THE DANEGELD
IN 991

IN 991, A FORCE OF ANGLO-SAXON
WARRIORS made a stand against
a much larger army of Vikings at
the Battle of Maldon in East
Anglia, England. They were
slaughtered. The English king,
Aethelred Il, “the Unready”
(r. 978-1016), was forced to pay a
tribute known as the Danegeld,
to buy off further incursions.

Byzantine emperor Basil II
launched the first of a long series
of campaigns against his
greatest enemy, the Bulgarian
ezar Samuel, in 996. Basil had
won major victories in Syria the
year before, but it took him
nearly 20 years to finally defeat
the Bulgarians.

From around 1000, the
inhabitants of Easter Island,

Considered by some to be the greatest
technical achievement of the early
medieval era, the Viking longboat
combined river, close-to-shore, and
oceangoing capacity.

or Rapa Nui—an island in the
Pacific Ocean—began to carve
monumental statues known as
moai. Thought to represent
ancestors and to channel
mana—spiritual energy—the cult
of moai consumed the Easter
Islanders to the point where they
may have fatally compromised
their environment—setting them
on the path to ecological disaster.

The Toltecs, who ruled a state centered on Tula in modern-day
Mexico, were notable for their aggressive militarism, which
changed society in Central America, paving the way for militaristic
states such as the Aztec. The term “Toltec” came to mean
“city-dweller” or “civilized person,” but its literal meaning is
“reed person” —signifying an inhabitant of Tollan (“Place of the
Reeds,” the city now known as Tula). Toltec art and architecture,
characterized by monumental masonry and giant statues, was
greatly influential in the region.

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These ruins at Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon reveal one of more than
a dozen Great Houses constructed by the Anasazi.

AROUND 1000, THE ANCIENT
PUEBLO CIVILIZATION centered on
Chaco Canyon in southwest North
America reached its climax. The
Anasazi used sophisticated
dryland agriculture and hydrology
to thrive in the arid environment,
and controlled trade routes that
extended as far as the Pacific
coast of present-day California
and the Valley of Mexico. They
achieved impressive feats of
architecture, most notably the
construction of Great Houses
such as Pueblo Bonito, one of 13
such buildings in Chaco Canyon.
Pueblo Bonito was six stories high
and comprised more than 600
rooms. It probably functioned

as a ceremonial center, storage
depot, and elite residence.
Well-maintained roads—some
with stone curbs—connected
Chaco Canyon to thousands of
smaller Anasazi settlements
across the region. The canyon
itself may have been home to as

many as 10,000 people, and this

: course with the fragile ecology of

: the region (see 1161-65).

Mahmud of Ghazni (c. 971-

= spreading the faith into India. In
1001, at Peshawar, he defeated

: Jaipal, raja of Punjab, who then
committed suicide.

Probably the first European to

= set foot on North America, Leif
Ericson landed in a place he
called Vinland in around 1002.

: Shortly after this discovery,

| Greenlanders under Thorfinn

» Karlsefni tried to establish a

: colony, spending three winters
there. The remains of

: settlements at LAnse aux

: Meadows, in northern

: Newfoundland, attest to Viking

i presence in North America.

LEIF ERICSON (970-1020)

Leif was the son of Eric the Red, founder
of the Greenland colony (see 981-990).
Stories differ on the exact details of his
discovery of North America. According
to one account, he was returning from
a visit to Norway in 1002, where
he had been converted to
Christianity, and was blown off
course, landing at the place he
called Vinland because of the
grapes growing there. Another
account suggests that he aimed
for a land sighted to the west by
an Icelandic trader.

One of the greatest but cruelest Byzantine emperors, Basil Il became
emperor in 976 at age 20, and ruled for nearly 50 years.

MURASAKI SHIKIBU (LADY
MURASAKI) wrote the novel Genji
Monogatari (The Tale of Genji]

in installments between 1011 and
1021. Itis regarded as the first
Japanese novel, and possibly the
first psychological novel in world
literature.

In 1014, Brian Boru, High King
of Ireland and self-styled
Emperor of the Gael, defeated a
coalition of Dublin Vikings and
Celtic Leinstermen at Clontarf,
Ireland. Although the Norse
kingdom was crushed and Viking
incursions into Ireland halted,
Brian Boru was killed in the battle
and his dream of a united Irish
kingdom fell apart thereafter.

In 1014, at the culmination
of an 18-year war [see 991-1000),
the Byzantine emperor Basil II
defeated the armies of the
Bulgarian czar at Belasita.
Earning the name Bulgaroktonos
(Bulgar Slayer], he put out the
eyes of 15,000 captured warriors
before sending them home.
Basil's arch-enemy, Samuel the
Bulgarian, was said to have died

Lady Murasaki

Ascene froma 16th-century hanging
scroll depicts author Lady Murasaki.
Of noble birth, she chronicled the
affairs of the Heian court.

of shock. By the end of the
decade, the Bulgarians finally
submitted to Byzantine
annexation.

3,000
survivors

1,000
survivors

4,000

KILLED

6,000

KILLED

GAELIC

The bloody Battle of Clontarf
Fought between the largest armies yet assembled in Ireland,
the Battle of Clontarf was a bloody affair. Up to 4,000 Gaels

and up to 6,000 Norse and their allies were killed.

VIKING

The Brihadishvara temple was built by
the Cholas in their capital Tanjore.

IN 1025, THE CHOLA KING
RAJENDRA CHOLADEVRA launched
an audacious naval expedition
against the maritime empire of
Srivijaya in Sumatra, also sacking
the Pegu kingdom in Burma.
Rajendra had inherited a strong
kingdom from his father, Rajaraja |,
who had conquered Sri Lanka
and instituted a program of Hindu
temple building centered on the
Chola capital of Tanjore. Under
Rajendra, the Cholas
expanded their kingdom
to include Bengal, and
shattered the power of
Srivijaya, securing control
of the lucrative Indian-
Chinese trade routes.
Cnut [also known as
Canute] was the son of
Sven Forkbeard, king of
Denmark and Norway,
who had invaded England
and driven the Anglo-
Saxon king, Aethelred II,
into exile in Normandy in
1013. After staging his
own successful invasion in
1015, Cnut was accepted
as overlord of all England
in 1016, and went on
to expand his empire.
By 1030, it included
Norway, Denmark, and
the Faroe, Shetland, and
Orkney islands.

Chola sculpture of Shiva
The Cholas were staunch
Hindus and enthusiastic
temple builders. Shiva, one
of the major Hindu deities,
is depicted here as a young
and handsome man.

Awise and capable king, Cnut
managed conciliation between his
Danish and Anglo-Saxon subjects.
He collected Danegeld (Danish
tax] to pay for a standing navy and
army—an important innovation.

The Seljuks are shown here battling the Byzantines,

having already conquered Persia.

IN 1037, THE SELJUKS, UNDER
CHAGRI BEG AND HIS BROTHER
TUGHRIL BEG, invaded Khurasan
in Persia. In 1040, they crushed
the Ghaznavids at the Battle of
Dandangan, winning control of
eastern Persia, the first step
on the road to creating a new
Islamic empire. The Seljuks were
Oghuz Turks, originally nomads
from Central Asia who had
converted to Islam and moved to
Transoxiana, where they served
as mercenaries in the region,
before turning their attentions
to Khurasan.
In 1031, 40 lesser
dynasties were founded on
the shattered remnants of the
Cordoba caliphate, in Spain.
Known as the Muluk
al-Tawa if |“Party Kings”),
these short-lived dynasties
took control of different
provinces of Cordoba after the
strife that brought down the
Umayyads following the
execution of Abd al-Rahman
Sanchol, son of al-Mansur, in
1009. He was the last capable
leader of the caliphate, but
his attempt to move out
from behind the throne
and take the crown
led to his downfall.
Subsequently, the
Berber faction nominated
their own candidate for
caliph and Cordoba
descended into civil war
for 22 years. In 1031, the
death of Hisham Ill, the last
Umayyad caliph, who had
already lost control of
several provinces, led to the

King and Emperor

Ferdinand | was the first ruler of
Castile to call himself king. He
added the title of emperor after
his conquest of Leén.

final breakup of the caliphate,
with the Abbadids seizing Seville,
the Jahwarids taking Cordoba,
and the Hudids seizing
Saragossa. With the Islamic
state in disarray, the Christian
kingdoms to the north were
encouraged to expand southward.
Sancho III of Navarre, who
had conquered Castile and was
overlord of Christian Spain, died
in 1035, and his kingdoms were
divided between his two sons.
Ferdinand inherited Castile, and
in 1037 he killed his brother-in-
law, the king of Léon, and made
himself emperor there in 1039. He
went on to conquer Navarre and
impose serfdom on parts of
Muslim Spain and Portugal.

Between 1041 and 1048, Bi Sheng invented the first movable type printing
system, using clay letters held in wax within an iron frame.

BANTUIS A FAMILY OF LANGUAGES °

that originated in the Bantu
homeland (now southern Nigeria
and northwestern Cameroon).
Bantu-speaking people spread
from here to the east and south
and Bantu became the dominant
language family in sub-Saharan
Africa, although whether this
indicates conquest, colonization,
or simply cultural influence is
less clear. The Bantu expansion
started in the Late Stone Age,
accelerating as the Bantu-

and cattle-husbandry skills. By

had become sophisticated
pastoralists, able to sustain high
population densities and complex
social and economic networks.
This in turn led to the emergence
of chiefdoms, and Bantu
speakers dominated Central and
southern Africa.

In 1044, Anawrata seized power
in the Pagan kingdom in Burma.
His military prowess and skillful

KEY

@ Bantu homeland
2000 BCE

— Spread of Bantu

Bantu expansion

From their homeland in the
border region of southern
Nigeria and northwestern
Cameroon, Bantu-speaking
people spread east and
south, through the tropical
forest, eventually spreading
to all parts of central and
southern Africa.

use of Hinayana Buddhism as a

: cultural and political driver made
: Pagan the center of Burmese

: politics, culture, and religion. He
: developed Burmese as a written
: language, instituted a program of
: building, and forged trade and

: cultural links to India and China.

In China, sometime between
1041 and 1048, the commoner Bi

: (or Pi] Sheng invented the first

i movable type system. Block

: printing had been in use in China
: for centuries, and since the Later
speakers acquired iron technology ;

Tang dynasty (923-36] had been

: used for most book production,
the mid-11th century, Bantu tribes :
: innovation of using tiny clay

» blocks—one for each character.

» The characters were molded on

| which were fired to harden them.
: Unlike wood, this clay type did not

but Bi Sheng introduced the

distort when wet and could be

: used over and over again.

AFRICA

Lake
jfetoria

Labanga Mosque in Ghana is possibly the oldest mosque in sub-Saharan
Africa. Ghana was Islamicized by the Almoravids in the 11th century.

IN MOROCCO, IN 1054, A FIREBRAND
CLERIC NAMED IBN YASIN inspired
the unification of Saharan tribal
groups.The confederation—known :
as the Almoravids, from the
Arabic “al-Murabitun” (“people of
the frontier garrisons”|—built an
empire that would eventually
encompass much of northwestern
Africa and Muslim Spain (see
1081-90). In 1056, the Almoravids
began the Islamic conquest of

West Africa, where a number

i of powerful states had arisen,
: including that of Ghana.

Yoruba was the name given by
outsiders to a group of city-states
in Nigeria that shared a common
language and culture. The oldest

: and most prestigious Yoruba

: kingdom was Ife, where a

century. Ife was the spiritual and

= mythical center of the Yoruba,

i but its poor location meant that

it never exerted wide-ranging
military or political control
over the other Yoruba
states. Ife is most
famous for its artistic
achievements, most
notably terracotta
and bronze heads.
In 1059, Pope
Nicholas II
recognized Robert
Guiscard the
Norman as Duke
of Apulia and
Calabria, and
Count of Sicily—
territories under
Byzantine and Arab
control—legitimizing
his attempts to
conquer them.

Ife bronze head

This head probably dates
from the 14th century, but
it represents an artistic
tradition stretching back to

least as sophisticated as
any in contemporary Europe.

the 11th century that was at

In this detail from the Bayeux Tapestry, completed in 1080, William the Conqueror
exhorts his troops to prepare themselves for battle.

IN 1066, AT THE BATTLE OF
HASTINGS, William Duke of
Normandy [c. 1028-87) defeated
Harold Godwinson (c. 1022-644),
the last Anglo-Saxon king of
England. England had fallen into
the Norman orbit earlier, with
Edward the Confessor spending
his youth in exile at the Norman
court while Cnut (see 1021-30)
ruled England. William claimed
that Edward had promised him
the English crown, but when
Edward died, in 1066, Harold was
elected king. He marched north
to defeat a Norse invasion, before
dashing south to Hastings to face
William, where he was killed and
his army shattered. William the
Conqueror quickly took southeast
England, then the southwest, and
suppressed a great uprising in the
north in 1069.

Under their leader Tughril Beg,
the Seljuks had occupied Baghdad
and ended the Buwayhid dynasty
(see 931-50), retaining the Abbasid
caliph as a figurehead but giving
him the title of sultan. Tughril Beg
died in 1063; his successor Alp
Arslan extended Seljuk dominion
into Anatolia, Armenia, and Syria.

Anglo-Saxon casualties

2 7 1
m outnumbered Norman

losses by two-to-one, thanks in part
to their forced march from the north,
and the advanced Norman tactics.

Battle of Hastings

INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY

Which was greater: secular
or religious authority? This
was the question at the
heart of the Investiture
Controversy. This 12th-
century manuscript
illumination shows Henry IV
requesting mediation from
Matilda of Tuscany and Hugh
of Cluny. Matilda was one of
the most powerful women of
the Middle Ages. It was her
stronghold of Canossa where
Henry made his penitence.

SINCE CHARLEMAGNE’S
CORONATION BY THE POPE (see
791-800), the Western emperors
had considered it their divine right
to appoint—or invest—bishops.
Emperors had derived great
income and power through their
dispensation of religious offices, i
and Emperor Henry III (1017-56)
had gone further still, in 1046,
insisting that it was the
emperor's right to appoint the
pope. Pope Gregory VII
represented the opposite view; he
held that only popes had the right
to invest clerics. In 1075, at the
Lent synod, Gregory issued a
decree forbidding lay investiture.
The emperor, Henry IV (1050-
1106], who was fighting to reduce
the power of German prelates,
defied the decree. In 1076,
Gregory excommunicated him,
absolving his subjects of their
oaths of loyalty and triggering a
rebellion by Saxon nobles

: against the king. In 1077, Henry
| crossed the Alps in the dead of
: winter and appeared at Canossa,
: dressed as a penitent, to submit

: to the pope [see panel, above].

: He was absolved but controversy
: quickly flared up again, with a

rival, Rudolf of Swabia, being

| elected to the German (formerly
| East Frankish) throne. In 1080,

: Henry had a rival pope elected,

: while Gregory allied himself with
» Roger Guiscard, Count of Sicily,
: against the imperial camp.

In 1071, the Seljuks crushed

| the Byzantine army at Manzikert,
© capturing and ransoming

: Emperor Romanus lV and going

» on to conquer Anatolia (present-

| day Turkey). This began its

: transformation into a Muslim
Turkish region. In 1077, the

: Seljuks established the Sultanate
: of Rum there, while other

: conquests brought them Syria

| and Jerusalem.

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Hassan-i Sabbah leads initiations at Alamut, in an illustration
from Marco Polo’s 13th-century Travels.

IN 1090, A GROUP OF ISMAILI
SHIITES BECAME INVOLVED IN A
DISPUTE over the Fatimid
succession in Cairo [see 901-10)
Under the leadership of the
charismatic Hassan-i Sabbah, this
group recognized the claims of an
infant called Nizar, and were
therefore known as Nizari
Ismailis. Forced to flee Cairo,
Hassan led the Nizaris to his
homeland in Persia where they
captured a fortress known as
Alamut in the mountainous region
of Kazvin and made it the base of a
de facto Nizari kingdom. Thus was
born the group later known as the
Assassins—a name derived from
the word “hashashins,” a label
applied by their enemies who
claimed they used intoxicants such
as hashish to brainwash devotees
into blind obedience.

Alarmed by the advances of
Alfonso VI of Castile, the
Abbadids (see 1031] summoned
the Almoravids from North Africa
to defend against the Christian

The Domesday Book
Nicknamed “Domesday” in reflection of the trepidation that the great
undertaking inspired in the native English, William's survey actually
comprised two manuscripts; the Great and the Little Domesday.

THE NUMBER

OF PLACES

LISTED IN THE
DOMESDAY
BOOK

threat. Defeating Alfonso at Zallaka
in 1086, they annexed most of
Islamic Spain.

In 1085, William the Conqueror
(see 1061] commissioned a survey
of his new kingdom—known as the
Domesday Book—probably to

: regulate military service and
: assess taxation opportunities.

’

44 LET SUCH AS ARE GOING TO FIGHT FOR
CHRISTIANITY PUT THE FORM OF THE CROSS UPON
THEIR GARMENTS THAT THEY MAY OUTWARDLY
DEMONSTRATE THEIR DEVOTION TO THEIR
INWARD FAITH. 99

Pope Urban II, 1095

IN 1092, CHINESE POLYMATH

SU SUNG DESIGNED AND
CONSTRUCTED ACOSMIC ENGINE.
This mechanical astronomical
clock was 30ft (9m) high, and was
water-driven with an armillary
sphere, which showed the position
of celestial objects.

In 1094, a Castilian who had
served both Christian and Islamic
Masters, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar,
known by the Moors as El Cid
(“the lord"), captured Valencia in
eastern Spain and established
himself as ruler.

At the Council of Clermont in
1095, Pope Urban, a French
Cluniac (see 910), preached to an
assembly of mainly Frankish

Battle of the Crusades

clerics and nobles about Muslim
“defilement” of the Holy Land,
urging his audience to take up
arms in a holy war. Urban had
been entreated by the Byzantines
for help against the Seljuks, and
saw a way to channel the energies
of European nobility away from
constant infighting and toward a
Christian expansion that would
benefit the papacy. Fired by
religious zeal and spurred by the
promise of remission of sins,
together with the prospect of
winning booty, land, and control of
the Lucrative trade with the Orient,
many nobles of France [formerly
West Francia] and Lorraine
joined, or “took the cross.”
Other nations were either in
conflict with the papacy or
indifferent, so the First
Crusade was a largely
French affair. Taking advantage of
disarray in the Muslim world, three
groups of Crusaders under Godfrey

This manuscript illustration shows Crusader knights joining battle with
Saracens—the generic term used by Europeans to refer to their Muslim
foes. Around 30,000 knights took part in the First Crusade.

and Baldwin of Bouillon, Count
Raymond of Toulouse, and the
Norman Bohemond of Otranto,
took the Seljuk Rum capital of
Nicaea in 1097, conquered Edessa
in the same year, captured Antioch
in 1098, and marched on
Jerusalem in 1099. Godfrey was
elected king of Jerusalem but took
the title Defender of the Holy
Sepulchre; his brother, Baldwin

? became king the following year.

: Under the overlordship of the King

: of Jerusalem, the Crusaders

: established four principal states:

_ the kingdom of Jerusalem, which

» thrived on trade mediated by the
Italian trading powers; the county

: of Tripoli, set up by Raymond; the

: county of Edessa, established by
Baldwin; and the principality of

: Antioch, set up by Bohemund.

The Siege of Antioch
Islamic forces at the Siege
of Antioch outnumbered

the Crusaders considerably.
In fact Antioch fell only
when a traitor opened a
gate to a party of knights
led by Bohemond of Otranto.

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eS ea 129

An illustration from Edward Fitzgerald's translation of the Rubaiyat; of the 600
verses, only around 120 are thought to have been written by Khayyam himself.

SOMETIME AROUND THE START

OF THE 12TH CENTURY, OMAR
KHAYYAM (1048-1131), an
astronomer and mathematician in
the service of the Seljuk sultans,
composed a series of four-line
poems, or “roba’iyat,” which
became famous thanks to the
translation made by Edward
Fitzgerald in 1859. Khayyam’s
career reflected the Seljuk era.
At Samarkand, in the early
1070s, he was able

to pursue his
mathematical
studies thanks to
patronage from

a local jurist,

and under

the strong

Seljuk sultan
Malik Shah

(r. 1072-92),
Khayyam was
invited to Isfahan
in 1073 to set upan
observatory and lead
a team of top scholars.
In this period he made many
mathematical and astronomical
breakthroughs, including

an unprecedented accurate
measurement of the length of
the year to 12 decimal places.
Although he is now most famous
for the Rubaiyat, it is not certain
that Khayyam wrote most or any
of the verses involved, and he was

little regarded as a poet in his own i
: Raymond died in an attempt to

time. Much of the current

reputation of the work derives
from the very free translation
by Edward Fitzgerald.

The success of the First
Crusade (see 1091-1100) owed

: much to the disarray of the Islamic
: regimes it had dispossessed. The

Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo was

: rich but decadent; the Abbasids

: in Baghdad were little more than

: figureheads; the Seljuk Turks had
: failed to forge a unified empire,

- and instead warlords and tribal

| groups had set up a patchwork of
: competing states such as Rum,

» Danishmend, and Damascus.

Throughout the early 12th century,
the Crusaders battled

constantly against these

foes. In 1101, Raymond

IV of Toulouse

_ (c. 1042-1105) led

a new Crusader

Baldwin of Bourcq
This coin features
Baldwin of Bourcq,
cousin of Baldwin |,
who he succeeded as
count of Edessa, then as
king of Jerusalem [see 1118).

army from Constantinople

i against the Sultanate of Rum,

taking Ankara in June, only to

: be destroyed by Danishmend

: Turks in August. Baldwin I of

» Jerusalem (c. 1058-1118)

| steadily improved his access to
: the Mediterranean by taking a

: series of coastal cities from the
: Fatimids, defeating them at
Jaffa in 1102, Acre in 1104, and

Ramleh in 1105, although

take Tripoli in 1105.

Monumental ruins in the city of Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Mwene Mutapa | The 12th-century Cathedral of

Empire. After it seized control of the gold trade, the empire grew rich.

NOTED FOR ITS FINE ARTS AND
CRAFTS and construction of
monumental temple mounds,
the post-Moche culture, known
as the Sican or Lambayeque
on the northern coast of Peru,
reached its height in the early
11th century. But a prolonged
drought, followed by
catastrophic flooding, led
to cultural and political
collapse. In the early 12th
century, the state recovered
from the convulsions of the
11th century and rebuilt
around a new capital at
Tucume. New temples were
built and the capital flourished
until its conquest by the
Chimu (see 1375), by which
time there were 26 mounds
and accompanying enclosures.
In central southern Africa,
in what is now Zimbabwe, the
Mwene Mutapa Empire, also

known as Great Zimbabwe after
its monumental capital, emerged

as the most significant regional
power. A kingdom of the Shona

peoples that emerged around 900,
Mwene Mutapa was initially based
on cattle herding, but from around
1100 it took control of the Lucrative

trade routes linking the gold,

iron, and ivory production centers

of the interior to the Arab
trading kingdoms on the east
coast, which offered luxury
goods from Asia.

Ceremonial knife

This gold knife is from the Middle
Sican culture in Peru. The early
1100s mark the threshold between
the Middle and Late Sican cultures.

St. Nicholas at Novgorod, Russia.

THE 12TH CENTURY SAW AN
EXPLOSION OF CATHEDRAL
BUILDING all over Europe,
as population growth,
increased wealth, and
architectural advances
combined with religious
zeal, civic pride, and
the personal ambition
of potentates. The
development of the
Romanesque and
Gothic styles was given
expression in the great
cathedrals, but each
region developed its
own, distinctive idiom.
In Novgorod, for
instance, the Cathedral
of St. Nicholas (started
in 1113} was given
domed cupolas.
The Investiture Controversy
between the papacy and the
Western emperors rumbled on
(see 1071-80). Henry IV's failure
to reconcile with the papacy had
helped bring about his downfall;
concerned that the ongoing
dispute was undermining royal
authority, his own family had
conspired against him, and he
was imprisoned. His successor,
Henry V (1086-1125], launched a
powerful expedition to Italy to
force an imperial coronation.
Under duress (he was a
prisoner of Henry at the
time], Pope Paschal II
offered major concessions
on the investiture issue in
the Treaty of Sutri, but he
repudiated them the following
year and the issue remained
« unsettled (see 1122).

14 — b NI
Stained glass window of a Templar
Knight in Warwickshire, England.

46 INTHIS
RELIGIOUS
ORDER HAS
FLOURISHED
AND IS
REVITALIZED
THE ORDER OF
KNIGHTHOOD. 99

From The Primitive Rule of the
Knights Templar

In Jerusalem, in 1119, a group of
knights, led by the French Hugues
de Payens (c. 1070-1136}, formed
an order to protect pilgrims
travelling along the dangerous
road from Jaffa, on the coast,

to the holy city. The new king of
Jerusalem, Baldwin Il (cousin

of Baldwin | and his successor as
count of Edessa], assigned them
quarters in part of the Temple
Mount compound, next to the site
where the Temple of Solomon
had once stood. Accordingly, they
called themselves the Poor Fellow
Soldiers of Christ and of the
Temple of Solo mon—also known
as the Knights Templar.

Bologna University was the
first in the western world. It was
founded in 1119 (or possibly
earlier, depending on the source).
Institutions such as Bologna
University were the incubators
for the philosophical school of
thought known as Scholasticism
(see panel, right).

Guelph and Ghibelline forces join battle in Italy. These factions, based on the German

Welf and Hohenstaufen dynasties, would come to dominate Italian politics.

IN 1121, MOHAMMAD IB-TUMART,
ABERBER LEADER from the Atlas
Mountains, was hailed as the
al-Mahdi (the Muslim messiah—
see 874) and led his forces, known
as the Almohads, in a campaign
of conquest against Almoravid
territories in Africa,

A synod at the German town of
Worms, in 1122, presided by a
papal legate drew up a concordat
{agreement} ending the Investiture
Controversy—although not
the imperial-papal rivalry. A
compromise was agreed along the
lines already adopted between
Henry | of England and Anselm
(see 1107), under which the
emperor would be involved
in investiture but not control it.
Essentially it was a victory for
the papacy.

In 1123, Frankish forces from
Jerusalem defeated a Fatimid
army at Ibelin, while off the coast

at Ascalon (Ashkelon], Venetian
ships destroyed the Fatimid fleet.
This marked the start of the
dominance of Italian maritime
power in the Mediterranean.
Emperor Henry V died in 1125
with no male heir, and an election
was held to choose his successor.
The closest heir was Conrad of
Swabia (1122-90), of the house
of Hohenstaufen [allied to the
Salian dynasty and their
> | antipapal policies),
but the powerful
archbishops of Mainz
and Cologne angled
for the election of a
candidate more friendly
to the Church. Lothair
of Saxony (1075-1137),
of the house of Welf, was
chosen and became

Aristotle in translation

A page from a translation
| of Aristotle's Nicomachean
Ethics, written on
vellum—a writing material
made from calf skin, which
is more durable than
Papyrus or paper.

The school of thought known as Scholasticism—
because it was taught by the scholastics, or
school masters—developed as the dominant
philosophy of learning in medieval Europe, hand
in hand with the emergence of the universities.
Scholasticism was an approach to learning

that used a method of formal discussion and
debating. It became the intellectual basis for
medieval religious and philosophical dogma.

Emperor Lothair Il (III in some
sources}. Immediately he was
plunged into a bitter civil war
with the Hohenstaufens, and the
two opposing sides became
entrenched as propapal and
proimperial factions known as
the Guelphs and Ghibellines
respectively. They would plague
relations between and within the
city-states of northern Italy
into the 14th century—long after
they had ceased to dominate

: philosopher Boethius of one

: treatise on logic. This began to

: change in the early 12th century, as

: as Toledo and Sicily gave Christian

» scholars access to Arabic works.

» Increasing exposure to the works

: of Aristotle led medieval scholars

: those who know” and the chief

: authority on matters of reason.

German power politics—as they rallied French nobles to repel

became associated with class © an English-German invasion.

struggles and reactionary versus = This proved to be amilestone in the

reforming parties. : French monarchy’s attempts to
The work of Aristotle : assert its authority, and thus

(384-322 Bce) had survived in : in the emergence of France as

Byzantium and among the Arabs, = a nation-state.

but Western Europeans only had H

access to a translation by the

)) | em =THE APPROXIMATE
, fant ; PROPORTION OF

‘ |) ARISTOTLE’S WORK
mH SURVIVING TODAY

++ Ae
Amosaic shows Roger II being
symbolically crowned by Christ.

IN 1126, THE JIN—the Jurchen
dynasty established by Aguda (see
1115) in Manchuria—turned on
their erstwhile Chinese allies,
overrunning northern China and
seizing the Northern Song capital
at Kaifeng. The Jin took control
of northern China and moved the
capital to Beijing. This marked
the end of the Northern Song.
However, a Song prince, Gaozong,
escaped to the south and
established the Southern Song
dynasty in Hangzhou in 1127.

The death of Pope Honorius,
in 1130, resulted in the election
of two rival popes, Innocent II
and Anacletus Il. During this
papal schism, Roger Il, count
of Sicily, recognized Anacletus
as pope—his reward was the
throne of Sicily.

Song dynasty porcelain ware

The Gingbai (“blue-white”) glaze on
this ewer is characteristic of Song
dynasty porcelain from southeastern
China, where the dynasty survived
the Jin invasion.

‘s ty
St. Alban’s Chronicle shows Matilda
of England holding a charter.

THE DEATH OF HENRY I, IN 1135,
PITCHED ENGLAND INTO DYNASTIC
STRIFE. His only male heir died in
1120 while crossing the English
Channel, and although Henry had
made his nobles swear allegiance
to his daughter, the Empress
Matilda (1102-67), she had spent
little time in England and her
second husband, Geoffrey of
Anjou, was unpopular with the
English nobles. Among those who
had sworn fealty to Matilda was
Henry's nephew and ward
Stephen of Blois (r. 1135-54). On
his uncle’s death he immediately
went to London, secured the
support of most of the nobles and
the Church, and had himself
proclaimed king. However,
Matilda refused to renounce her
claim, and their contest would
lead to a period of warfare and

breakdown of central

authority known as the

Anarchy (see 1136-40).

In 1133, Lothair II

(1070-1137] went to Italy to

intervene in the papal schism,
installing Innocent Il. In return,
the Pope confirmed the Matildine
inheritance (the vast estates of
Matilda of Tuscany, which she had
willed first to the papacy and then
to the emperor, sparking a dispute
that would become tied up with
the Guelph versus Ghibelline
contest—|see 1121-25] and
crowned Lothair as emperor. In
1135, Lothair pacified his rivals,
Conrad of Hohenstaufen and his
brother Frederick of Swabia,
apparently securing the German
crown for his son-in-law Henry
the Proud, of the House of Welf.

IN 1137, LOTHAIR DIED SUDDENLY
while returning froma
successful campaign in Italy
against Roger of Sicily. Lothair's
plans to concentrate German
territories in the hands of the
Welf clan, and create a stable
inheritance for his son-in-law,
evaporated when the election of
1138 chose the Waiblinger Conrad
of Hohenstaufen (1135-95). The
Waiblingers were descended from
the dukes of Franconia; the name
was later corrupted by the Italians
into “Ghibelline.” Conrad set about
reversing the grants of Lothair,
taking Saxony away from the
Welfs, which promptly sparked
renewed civil war.

In 1139, Matilda entered
England to reclaim her crown
from the usurper Stephen of
Blois. Stephen had failed to

Legendary castle

Tintagel, Cornwall, where the ruins
of a 13th-century castle still stand,
is featured in the Arthurian legends
created by Geoffrey of Monmouth.

An illustration froma 15th-century copy of the History of the Kings of Britain,
by Geoffrey of Monmouth, shows Brutus the Trojan setting sail for Britain.

strengthen his position since
taking the crown, alienating
many of his nobles on one hand,
and powerful clerics on the
other. He particularly blundered
by arresting his chief minister
Roger, Bishop of Salisbury. At

a stroke, he lost many of his
ablest administrators, and was
henceforth unable to rein in the
depredations of barons and
other landowners, who became
laws unto themselves. The
country deteriorated into a state
of anarchy famously lamented by
the author of the Peterborough
Chronicle, who wrote that under
Stephen's reign the English
“suffered nineteen long
winters... when Christ and all his
saints slept.”

Sometime around 1140, the
Welsh cleric Geoffrey of
Monmouth (c. 1100-55) wrote the
History of the Kings of Britain,
an important example of early
Anglo-Norman literature that
introduced the legend of King
Arthur to a European audience.

Ascene from the Siege of Damascus,
a battle of the Second Crusade.

IN 1141, JOHN OF SEVILLE
TRANSLATED FROM THE ARABIC
the Epitome of the Whole of
Astrology, while in 1142 Adelard
of Bath translated an Arabic
version of Euclid’s Elements of
Geometry, one of the founding
texts of mathematics. This
transmission of learning,
ancient and contemporary, via
Arabic into Latin, was a key
contributor to the emergence of
an intellectual renaissance in
Europe, and beyond that to the
scientific achievements of the
Early Modern period (1500-1800).
In an attempt to end
the civil war that was
convulsing Germany, an
1142 meeting, or diet,
at Frankfurt confirmed
the Welf Henry the Lion
(1129-95) as Duke of
Saxony [which he had
already taken by force).
Henry engaged in
a vigorous renewal of
German expansion
to the east, where his

Pot helm helmet
This type of helmet
was typical of those
worn by Crusader
knights. Made of
steel, the pot helm
helmet completely
covered the head
except for two small
eye slits.

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44 THOSE WHO ARE OF GOD... STRIVE
TO OPPOSE THE MULTITUDE OF THE
INFIDELS, WHO REJOICE IN
VICTORY GAINED OVER US, AND
DEFEND THE ORIENTAL CHURCH

FREED FROM THEIR TYRANNY BY SO
GREAT AN OUTPOURING OF THE
BLOOD OF YOUR FATHERS... JJ

Pope Eugenius II, from Papal bull calling for the Second Crusade, 1145

campaigns against the heathen
Slavs were given the status
of Crusades.
: In 1144, the atabeg (governor) of
= Mosul, Imad el-Din Zengi
(1085-1146), founder of the
» Zengid dynasty, took advantage
of feuding between the Crusader
principalities to seize the
Crusader county of Edessa. Fulk,
king of Jerusalem, had died in
1143 and his successor Baldwin
Il (1130-63) was only a child,
under the regency of his mother
Melisende. She did not have the
authority to settle a dispute
between Antioch and Edessa,
and Imad el-Din besieged Edessa
until it fell to him. The Loss of
Edessa caused alarm and
outrage in Europe, and provided
the trigger for the Second
Crusade (see 1146-50).

In 1145, Eugenius Ill issued

a call-to-arms in the form

of a Papal bull.

Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, was built during the reign of Suryavarman II. It covers
nearly 500 acres (200 hectares) and the central tower is 138 ft (42 m) high.

IN 1146, THE INFLUENTIAL
CISTERCIAN MONK BERNARD OF
CLAIRVAUX (1090-1153) egged on
by Pope Eugenius Ill, preached a
new Crusade to liberate Edessa
from the clutches of the Zengids;
Conrad III of Germany (1093-
1152) and Louis VII of France
(1120-80) “took the cross.” But
the expedition was a disastrous
affair, except for incidental
success in Portugal achieved by a
contingent of English and Flemish
Crusaders who helped Afonso-
Henriques, Count of Portugal,
take Lisbon from the Moors in
1147. Conrad and Louis took
different routes to the Holy Land,
their armies meeting equally
disastrous fates as they struggled
through Anatolia. In 1148, forced
to hitch a ride on a Byzantine ship,
having lost his army at the Battle
of Dorylaeum, Conrad met up
with Louis. Rather than pitch their

Koutoubia Mosque in Morocco
The Koutoubia (“booksellers”)
Mosque, built by the Almohads,
reflects the mercantile success of

25,000 Almohad Marrakech, where book,
cloth, and other souqs flourished.
20;0e9 depleted forces against the
ae powerful Zengids, they decided
aes instead to launch an attack on
a Damascus, the only Muslim state
& 10,000 that was friendly to the Crusader
kingdoms. Hampered by lack
5,000 of supplies and threatened by

the Zengid leader Nur al-Din,
0 successor to Imad el-Din, the
Siege of Damascus also failed.
The Second Crusade broke up

French German

French and German Crusaders
The German force outnumbered the
French contingent during the Second
Crusade. Neither army achieved any
success: defeat in Anatolia preceded
failure at Damascus.

having failed to achieve anything
beyond a damaging fallout. Louis
was cuckolded by one of his

generals, eventually leading to a
divorce from his wife, Eleanor of

: Aquitaine (c. 1122-04), and the
loss of her territories [see 1151-
55). The Byzantines were forced

: to step in where the Crusade had

: failed, occupying western Edessa,

» but Roger of Sicily took

: advantage of Byzantine distraction

: to invade and plunder Greece in

: 1147. The disasters of the Second

: Crusade marked the beginning of

: the decline of the Frankish
Crusader kingdoms.

In 1147, the Almohads under

: Almoravid Morocco, taking
Marrakech, before invading
Moorish Spain (although it took

: them until 1172 to subjugate all

: the Islamic kingdoms).

Suryavarman Il (c. 1113-50)

= was the most warlike Khmer king,

: launched attacks against the Dai
Vet of northern Vietnam and made

: repeated attempts to subjugate the

: Champa. More significant

zenith of which was the temple
of Angkor Wat. This vast complex
includes five towers symbolizing

: holy mountains, and large numbers
of elaborate carvings.

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133

600-1449 |

TRADE AND INVENTION

foliage in
gold leaf

Bronze vase
18TH CENTURY © CHINA

Persian ceramic and gold leaf ewer
1200-1399 © IRAN

| It was prohibited to make drinking vessels from
gold and silver, as these were considered indulgent,
so Islamic craftsmen became expert in alternatives
such as ceramic, which was then richly decorated.

Chinese influence.

Islamic arts and crafts were shaped by religious

restrictions, cultural heritage acquired through conquest,
and the elaboration of unique features, notably the use of

ornamentation and color, and inclusion of Arabic script.

Through its rapid conquest of a huge empire, the Islamic caliphate was
exposed to a diverse mix of cultural styles and heritages; Islamic art
reflects these while maintaining a high degree of homogeneity due to
religious uniformity. Restrictions imposed by Islam, such as prohibitions
on representative art and on the use of gold and silver, generated creative
responses, especially stylized abstract designs, elaborate ornamentation,
strong use of color, and the use of Arabic script and Qu’ranic quotations.

Jade necklace

1875-1925 © ORIGIN UNKNOWN

This jade necklace is made from

five pieces, all different in shape

and engraved with verses from
the Qu’ran. Such artifacts

could serve as amulets with
quasi-magical powers.

Pendant
18TH CENTURY © INDIA

From the Indian Mughal Empire, this gold
pendant shows how Muslim rulers sometimes
disregarded prohibitions on representative
art and the use of precious metals.

Coins

720-910 © SYRIA/EGYPT
Coins from the Ummayad and Abbadis
caliphates, minted in Damascus and
Cairo, bear Arabic text in place of
pictures of heads of state.

Although this bronze vase from China
displays a text from the Qu’ran in
Arabic, it nonetheless shows clear

script border to
prevent clipping

Star-shaped tile

1267 © IRAN

Though distinctively Islamic in its
use of luster {a ceramic technology
mimicking gilding) and arabesques
(stylized foliage}, this tile shows
Mongol influence with
the inclusion of
doglike animals.

AND CRAFTS

inlaid with
ornate
foliage

inscription
reads “Allah,
Muhammad,
Fatima, and
‘Ali, Hasan,
and Husayn”

Surgical scissors and scalpel
10TH CENTURY © ORIGIN UNKNOWN
Islamic physicians made huge
advances in medicine and surgery,
including devising a range of
surgical instruments such as the
mibda (scalpel) and migass (scissors).

Khanjar

19TH CENTURY ¢ INDIA
Although from India, this curved,
double-edged dagger is actually
a traditional Omani blade. It is
decorated with ornate foliage,

a typical Islamic motif.

Ornate gilded Shi'ite alam
17TH CENTURY ® IRAN

This alam, or standard, made
of brass and gold, symbolically
recalls the Shi'ite standard planted
at the Battle of Kerbala in 680.

twisted cord
design in ochre,
black, and white

Bowl

1000-1199 e IRAN/IRAQ
The bold colors of this simple bowl are
typically Islamic, as is the interlacing cord
design. The lace of highlighted detail lends
a meditative quality to the design.

Pen case
1700-1899 © ORIGIN UNKNOWN
This hexagonal case for
carrying pens bares
geometric shapes,
a typical feature of
Islamic design.

bold colors |

and gold leaf

Feline incense burner

11-12 TH CENTURIES ¢ IRAN/AFGHANISTAN

Burners like this, in the shape of a big cat,
were used in the courts of Medieval Islamic
kings—tions and cheetahs symbolized power.
The head tilts to allow insertion of charcoal.

1700-99 © IRAN

head is hinged
to body

Calligraphy scissors

THE ISLAMIC WORLD

rim markings
indicate city
or location

Candlestick

15TH CENTURY ® MAMLUK EGYPT

To circumvent the prohibition on precious
metals, Islamic metalworkers became
adept at combining baser metals like
brass with silver and gold inlay.

These scissors were used

for shaping pens and brushes.

The blades are inlaid with
gold, a variety of damascening
known as koftgari.

Qibla compass
DATE AND ORIGIN UNKNOWN

This ornamental compass was
used to indicate the direction,
qibla, of Mecca, so that

no empty space
left unfilled

Sear se

Arabic script
inscribed with
careful calligraphy

worshipers could orient
themselves properly for prayer.

Islamic lamp

DATE AND ORIGIN UNKNOWN

This hourglass-shaped lamp
bares a design of Arabic script
on the side, which is picked out
in vibrant blue, a ceramic dye
perfected by Islamic craftsmen.

Illuminated Divan

1800-99 © INDIA

A Divan, or Diwan, is a collection or anthology of poems,
inspired by ancient Persian poetry models. This illuminated
Divan of the Persian poet Hafez from 19th-century India
has typical Kashmiri painted lacquer covers.

ul illuminations

flout normal
prohibitions

’ rk
I of a |
"
a3 fas Tha
The University of Bologna was The Hassan Tower in Rabat, Morocco, is all that was built of
originally a school for jurists. what was intended to be an Almohad super-mosque.

Monks Mound, the largest mound at Cahokia, is over 100 ft (30m) high.
It has been estimated that it took 15 million baskets of earth to make it.

THE CITY OF CAHOKIA SPRANG
UP AT THE CLIMAX of the
Mississippian (or Cahokian)
culture of the American Bottom
{an area of the Mississippi river
valley). Around the mid-12th
century they constructed more
than 100 mounds, including one
with a base that is larger than
that of the Great Pyramid at Giza,
along with a huge landscaped
plaza that may be the biggest
earthencity square in the world. ©
The most remarkable feature of
Cahokia is the speed with which it
came into existence. Until around
1050, Mississippians lived in
small villages and had never built
on anything approaching this
scale. By the 1150s the city may
have covered 493 hectares (1,200
acres) and been home to 30,000
people. its cultural and economic
influence spread across the
Midwest, from the present
Canadian border to the Gulf Coast.

Perhaps because urban living
was so exceptional for the

i Mississippians, Cahokia would
© decline rapidly, within around
: a century, with a return to low-
: density farming communities.

In 1152, Conrad III (b. 1093),

| king of the Romans, died and his

: nephew Frederick of Swabia,

: known as Barbarossa (see panel,
: below) was elected as successor.

: Of combined Welf and Waiblinger
» parentage (see 1131-35], he

: brought relative peace to

Germany. His coronation as

» emperor in Rome was delayed

: because the city was in the grip

: of arevolutionary commune led
: by radical reformer Arnold of

_ Brescia (1090-1155). Frederick

: allied with the papacy against

The following year, in the face of

» Roman hostility, he was crowned
' by the new pope, Adrian IV
: (1100-59), but had to retreat to

Germany, abandoning Adrian,

| who was forced to ally himself
: with the Normans.

Energetic and ambitious,
Frederick | was determined to
make Germany the dominant
state in Europe, and to reassert
authority over all the imperial
lands in Italy. Aware of the
historic context of his office, he
desired to restore the imperial
crown to Roman-era glory,

and began to style his realm
the Holy Roman Empire. In
Germany, he pacified rebels
and expanded royal lands.

WITH ORIGINS DATING BACK TO
PERHAPS 1088, BOLOGNA CLAIMS
to be the oldest university in the
Western world (see 1116-20)—
in the sense of an institution
specifically designated as a
universitas, as opposed toa
studium generale, as centers for
teaching had previously been
known. In 1158, the emperor
Frederick | (1122-90), on
the advice of scholars
who may have been
Bologna alumni, granted
the university a charter, firmly
establishing the institution as
an independent center of
scholarship. Early universities
tended to specialize in one
field of study, and Bologna was
dedicated to law.

In 1159, Alexander III
{c. 1100-81] was chosen as pope,
although his election was
opposed by the emperor,
Frederick |. Frederick had
once again invaded Italy, this
time intent on assuming his full
imperial inheritance. With the aid
of the League of Pavia (Bresci,
Parma, and others), he had
subdued Milan and its associated
cities, but at the Diet of Roncaglia,
in 1158, he went too far. Harking
back to the Roman era, Frederick
insisted that ancient law gave him
the right to appoint an imperial
podesta (local governor) to rule
each city. Milan was pushed into
revolt, and other cities joined
them in forming a Lombard
League under the auspices of the
papacy. Alexander III would earn
the title “the Great” for leading
this anti-imperial rebellion.

The Bodhisattva Guanyin
This 12th-century Chinese statue
depicts the Buddhist deity Guanyin,
who protects those in danger—
perhaps accounting for his popularity.

IN 1161, THE SOUTHERN SONG
REPULSED AN INCURSION by the
northern Jin [see 1126-30},
securing their kingdom from
invasion. A peace treaty of 1165
recognized an uneasy truce
between the two powers.

The Almohad caliph Abd
al-Mu’min died in 1163, having
destroyed the Almoravids and
extended Almohad rule from
Morocco to Tunisia [the province
of Ifriqiya). He made his office

: hereditary, and his son Yusuf

_ abn Ya‘qub (1135-84) succeeded

: him. He would spend most of his

: reign battling internal opposition,
: although he was also noted for

: military success in Muslim Spain
: and for his patronage of the arts.

In 1164, the Zengid emir Nur

_ al-Din (1118-74) defeated the

: Crusader princes at Artah.

| Throughout the 1160s, Nur al-Din
: contested with the Crusader

| kingdoms, particularly as they

» vied for control of the ailing

Fatimid kingdom in Egypt,
led by the vizier Shawar.
Amaltric, who had become
king of Jerusalem in 1162,
was the first to occupy

Egypt, but Zengid success

at Artah forced him to march

north, leaving the way clear for

Nur al-Din’s general Shirkuh

and his nephew Saladin to
invade Egypt (see 1167).
Around the mid-12th

: century, the dense urban culture

» of the ancient Pueblo peoples at

» Chaco Canyon in North America

» collapsed, probably because their

: marginal system of agriculture

© had overtaxed the fragile dryland
: ecology, leaving them vulnerable
: to drought. Dating of timbers from
© the Chaco Canyon pueblos shows
| that the newest timbers date from
" around the 1160s—in other words,
: there was no construction after

» this, Other Pueblo, or Anasazi,

: sites show evidence from this

: is also evidence of orderly

| abandonment, presumably by

: people moving to new sites.

IN 1170, THOMAS BECKET,
ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY,
was murdered in Canterbury
Cathedral, England, by four
knights of the court of Henry II

(r. 1154-89). Although he swore
that he had not ordered the crime,
and was absolved of responsibility
by Pope Alexander in 1172,
Henry's famous outburst (see
above] had prompted the action of
the knights. The context for this
outrage was an ongoing dispute
over the extent of ecclesiastical

The murder of Thomas Becket is depicted in stained glass at Canterbury Cathedral.
Canonizedin 1173, Becket became one of the most popular English saints.

versus royal jurisdiction. During
the anarchy of Stephen's reign
(see 1136-40), clerical courts had
encroached on areas previously
under royal jurisdiction. Following
Stephen's death, Henry
Plantagenet came to the throne.
He controlled England alongside
the territories of Anjou,
Normandy, and Aquitaine—known
as the Angevin Empire—and set
about instituting a badly needed
reorganization of his new
kingdom. Taxation reforms,

tablet in clay
with molded
design

46 WILL NO ONE
RID ME OF THIS
TURBULENT
PRIEST? 99

Attributed to Henry II, 1170

for instance, replaced the
Danegeld with new levies, but

it was the judicial reform that
brought him into conflict with his
friend and chancellor Thomas
Becket. Becket had already
been forced into exile after being
found guilty of violating the
Constitutions of Clarendon
(see 1164). On his return he vexed
Henry by excommunicating
royally favored bishops.

At its height, in the late 12th
century, the commercial empire
of Srivijaya, based in Sumatra,
controlled much of the Malay
Archipelago. Its authority
extended to colonies around the
East Indies and as far as Sri
Lanka and Taiwan. Srivijayan
power was based almost
exclusively on its maritime
prowess. By securing the seas
in the region against piracy, they
enabled and directed trade
between China, India, and the
Islamic world, but imposition of
heavy duties and taxes stoked
resentment and, eventually, revolt.

Frederick I's fourth expedition
to Italy, beginning in 1166,
prompted the renewal of the
Lombard League (see 1156-60)
and the construction of the mighty
fortress town Alessandria,
named for the pope. With this
citadel guarding the mountain
passes, Italy became virtually
independent of imperial authority.

Votive tablet

This votive tablet from the trading
empire of Srivijaya is engraved
with Buddhist figures. The ruling
Sailendras were ardent Buddhists.

THE GHURIDS WERE A DYNASTY
FOUNDED IN 1151 by Ala-ud-Din
Husayn, who conquered much
of Ghaznavid Afghanistan and
founded a new state based at
Ghur in western Afghanistan. In
1173, Ghiyas-ud-Din became
emir, making his brother
Mu'izz-du-Din, better Known as
Muhammad of Ghur, co-emir.
Together the brothers brought
most of Afghanistan under their
control, and in 1175 Muhammad
launched the Islamic invasion of
northern India.

The Spanish rabbi Benjamin of
Tudela [1130-73] was the first
recorded European to have

approached the borders of China,

in an epic journey he made from
1159 to 1173. His account, The
Travels of Benjamin of Tudela,
recounts many exotic legends,
including Noah's Ark resting

on Mount Ararat.

In the medieval period, the city
of Pisa, in Tuscany, became the
center of a thriving city-state. Its
cathedral was constructed in the
11th century, but in 1173 work
began on a separate bell tower.
Even during construction the
foundations sank and the tower
began to slant. Eventually it
came to lean 15ft (4.5m) from
the perpendicular.

During the 1170s, anew
religious movement emerged
in Lyons. Also known as the Poor
Men of Lyons and the Vaudois,
the Waldenses were led by Peter
Waldes [c. 1140-1218], a rich
merchant who gave away his
property and began to preach a
radical creed of gospel simplicity

Muhammad of Ghur, traveling by elephant, leads his
army in the Islamic conquest of India.

» Leaning Tower of Pisa

Pisa's famous leaning tower is 179 it
(54.5m] tall and 57ft (17.5m) in

: diameter at the base.

that rejected many of the teachings

blessing by Pope Alexander III,
the Waldensians' refusal to abide

led to their denunciation as
heretics in 1179 and along history

In 1174, the Zengid emir Nur
al-Din died. His nephew Saladin,

» who had already assumed control

of Egypt, quickly marched north to

recognized as sultan of Egypt and
Syria by the caliph in Baghdad,
founding the Ayyubid dynasty.

This depiction of the Battle of Yashima during the Gempei Wars illustrates a
heavily armed Minamoto discovering the terrified mother of Emperor Taira.

EMPEROR FREDERICK

BARBARROSA’S FIFTH EXPEDITION i

TO ITALY in 1176 [see also
1151-55] ended in disaster for the
imperial forces when his army
was crushed at the Battle of
Legnano. The battle marked one
of the earliest occasions in the
medieval era when cavalry were
defeated by infantry. This had
class implications as knights on
horseback generally belonged to
the feudal aristocracy, while
footmen with pikes represented
freemen of the rising bourgeoisie.
In 1177, Frederick was forced to
concede the Peace of Venice with
the pope; a prelude to the more

comprehensive Peace of
Constance in 1183 (see 1181-85).
Now reconciled with the

: emperor, Pope Alexander III was

able to call an ecumenical council

= at the Lateran Palace in Rome,

in 1179. The council decreed that

: papalelections would be solely

in the hands of the cardinals, and

needed to elect a pope. It was

: hoped that this would draw a
: line under years of contention

between papal candidates

: elected by the antiimperial party
+ and “anti-popes”—persons

: selected by the emperor to

: Oppose the legitimately elected

or sitting pope.

In 1176, the army
of Byzantine
emperor Manuel
Commenus was
destroyed by the
Turks of the
Sultanate of Rum
(see 1100-05)
at the Battle of
Myriocephalum.

never again able to
send land forces to
help the Crusaders.
The Gempei Wars
(1180-85) in Japan

Pope Alexander Ill
This 14th-century
fresco shows

Pope Alexander II/
presenting a sword
to the Venetian Doge
for use against the
emperor, Frederick
Barbarossa.

The Byzantines were |
: who quickly assumed a similar

: level of power to the Fujiwara

: clan (see 851-860). Not only did

» also married his daughters to the

Growing populations, new
agricultural implements, and
constant military activity
increased the demand for
iron in the Middle Ages.
Charcoal was still the main
source of power for iron
forges, but deforestation
caused wood shortages.

As a consequence, demand
for coal increased and
scavenging for sea coal was
increasingly supplemented
by mining. The first record
of a coal mine comes from
Escomb near Durham, in
northern England in 1183.

: marked the end of Taira
: domination of Japan [see

641-650], and the start of the
Minamoto shogunate. Civil

: wars in 1156 and 1159 had left

control of Japan in the hands of
Taira no Kiyomori (c.1118-81],

imperial family, enabling him to

| place his infant grandson on the
: throne as emperor in 1180. But
: his excessive lust for power and

perceived corruption alienated his
provincial supporters, and in the
same year there was an uprising

» by the Minamoto clan against
i Taira rule, which grew into the

five-year-long Gempei Wars.

BY THE 1180s, THE CRUSADER
KINGDOMS OF OUTREMER (“beyond
the sea,” as they were known in
Europe) were in an increasingly
precarious position. Europe was
deaf to entreaties for Crusader
reinforcements, and the Christian
Byzantines were preoccupied with
other matters, such as war with
Norman Sicily. Meanwhile, their
Muslim opponents were gathering
under the leadership of Saladin, or
Salah al-Din, (c. 1137-93] the
sultan of Egypt and Syria. By 1183,
he had suppressed Christian rebels
at Edessa and Aleppo, and with
both sides reeling from the effects
of a drought, had brokered a peace
treaty with the leper king of
Jerusalem, Baldwin IV

(c. 1161-85). The uneasy peace was |
© the naval battle.

shattered, however, by the actions
of Reynald of Chatillon, an
adventurer from the Second
Crusade, who persistently raided
unarmed caravans of Islamic

pilgrims, and sponsored a pirate
fleet that pillaged the Red Sea.

@ 46 SALADIN'S HOPE HAD AN

EASY PASSAGE, HIS PATHS WERE
FRAGRANT, HIS GIFTS POURED
OUT, ... HIS POWER WAS MANIFEST,
HIS AUTHORITY SUPREME. 99

Imad al Din, Secretary to Saladin, from Lightning of Syria, c.1200

: Saladin mobilized his army,
_ intent on punishing Reynald, but

his progress was checked by

| Frankish fortresses and another
: prolonged famine. In 1185,
Baldwin died and his sickly infant
: nephew inherited the crown as

Baldwin V (1177-86).
In 1183, the peace between

: Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and
: his Italian foes was ratified as the
: Peace of Constance, but although

imperial authority over Italy was

H recognized, the Lombard cities

were granted effective autonomy.
The Battle of Dannoura of 1185

| marked the climax of the Gempei
: Wars. Warrior Minamoto

Yoshitsune, younger brother of

: Yoritomo, the founder of the

shogunate, destroyed the Taira in

: Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria

Saladin escapes from battle on
acamel in this 18th-century

engraving. He was renowned as
: a generous and principled leader.

The Horns of Hattin, an extinct volcano crowned with two Focey outcrops,

was the site of the Battle of Hattin in 1187.

ON JULY 4, 1187, THE CRUSADER
ARMY WAS DEFEATED by the
forces of Saladin. The Crusader
forces were led by the new king of
Jerusalem, Guy of Lusignan, who
had seized power on the death

of the infant Baldwin V in 1186.
Baldwin's regents had negotiated
another truce with Saladin, but

Battle of Hattin
Ld Saladin’s troops
=Z outnumbered the
Crusaders by 30,000 to 20,000, yet
his success was owed to his tactics
and the Christians’ desperate thirst.

once again, Reynald of Chatillon
had broken it, raiding a caravan of
pilgrims and provoking Saladin
into a final campaign to sweep the
Holy Land clear of the Christian
principalities. Goaded by Reynald,
King Guy led a combined force

of Crusader knights, Templars,
Hospitallers, and English

a waterless plateau in the blazing
heat to take up a position on

the Horns of Hattin, an extinct
volcano. Between them and Lake
Tiberias—the main source of
fresh water for the thirst-crazed
knights—lay the well-rested and
provisioned army of Saladin.
Using raiding tactics, Saladin
drove the Crusaders into
desperate confusion, surrounding

| King Guy was later released,

: itwas easy for Saladin to cow

/ 1189. Richard | and Philip I!
| finally set out in late 1190.
| Frederick Barbarossa had
: already set out overland in
: 1189, but was drowned en
: route the following year.
mercenaries (see 1116-20) across ©

Samurai armor

: the 19th century, though the
: first samurai warriors fought
| with similar armor in the

and capturing them all. More than :

: 200 Templars and Hospitallers
: were executed, while Saladin

personally beheaded Reynald.
but, with his army annihilated,

many of the remaining
Crusader strongholds into

: surrender. He took Acre in July
» and Jerusalem in October. Tyre,
Antioch, Tripoli, and a few castles

NAARR

: European assistance for years
: and the fall of Jerusalem in
» 1187 finally prompted Pope

| Gregory VIII to preach a new

| Crusade. The dispatch of

were all that remained of the
Crusader kingdoms.

The Crusader kingdom of
Outremer had been pleading for

Anglo-French forces was
delayed by disputes between

accession of Richard | in

metal plated
gloves or tekko —_

skirts split for ease
of movement

This beautifully presented
Japanese armor daies from

12th century.

leading Crusaders into battle.

horns made of
gilded wood

THE THIRD CRUSADE was
hampered by infighting among
the European factions of the
Crusaders of Outremer,
and although Richard the
Lionheart won most of his
battles, he was unable to
achieve his sworn aim of
“liberating” Jerusalem. The
Crusade had already gotten off
to a bad start [see 1186-90), and

when, in 1191, Richard stopped to
conquer Byzantine Cyprus. He
sold the island to the Templars,
who would later pass it on to the
diminished Crusader kingdoms,
where it became one of the main
supports for continuing Christian
presence in the Holy Land. On
arriving in Palestine, Richard
joined Philip II of France in the
siege of Acre, which was
actually a double siege—King
Guy had laid siege to the city
on his release from captivity
(see 1186-90), but Saladin
had then encircled his
forces. Acre was taken by
the Crusaders in July and
much of the population
was massacred. Philip II
returned to France, but
Richard | had sworn to
liberate Jerusalem, and
marched along the coast,
retaking towns and defeating
Saladin at Arsuf in September.
Although he would go on to
clear Muslim forces from
the rest of the coastal strip,
and camp within sight of
Jerusalem, Richard did not
have the forces he needed
to take and hold the holy

OO)HUUANIET LA Mbbaa

As TT

King Richard | of England, also known as Richard the Lionheart, is shown

there were further delays en route :

| CRUSADER ARMOR

— 69 1D cranon
3.3 Ib ora sworn
0.4 1D oramace

city. With continued infighting
/ among the Crusader barons, the
» murder of Conrad of Montferrat
_ by Assassins [see 1081-90)
: soon after being made king,
: reinforcements arriving for
: Saladin, and bad news from
» England—where his brother John
: was scheming to seize the
| crown—Richard was forced to
: conclude a peace treaty with
| Saladin in 1192, Outremer would
: henceforth be confined to a 90
© mile (145km] coastal strip, from
© Tyre to Jaffa, along with Antioch
: and Tripoli.
In 1192, Minamoto Yoritomo
» (see 1181-85) awarded himself
| the title Seii tai-shogun
» (barbarian-subduing great
' general’). Since the end of the
: Gempei Wars, Yoritomo had
: dispatched all challengers,
: including his brother Yoshitsune.
: As undisputed military dictator,
» his bakufu, or administration, at
» Kamakura now supplanted the
© imperial court. Japan would be
: ruled by shoguns—military
: dictators—for centuries to come.
In 1192, the Ghurids of Persia
: defeated a Hindu rebellion at the
: Battle of Taraori near Thanesar in
» India. The following year, Delhi was
» taken and Muhammad of Ghur
| founded the Sultanate of Dethi.

A Persian painting shows Temujin, later known as Genghis Khan, battling the
Tartars. The Tartar tribes fought constantly with the Mongols.

POPE INNOCENT III HAD
PROCLAIMED A NEW CRUSADE in
1199, intent on restoring papal
supervision to the crusading
movement, and hoping to reunite
the Greek and Latin churches to
fulfill his vision of a single
Christian dominion under the
papacy. In 1201, envoys met
Enrico Dandolo, Doge of Venice, to
arrange passage to Egypt for the
Fourth Crusade. Under the
Peace of Venice (see 1176-80),
the Venetians agreed to transport
33,500 men and 4,500 horses fora :
payment of 85,000 marks. In
addition, they would supply 50 war £
galleys in return for half of the i
Crusaders’ conquests.

When the Crusaders gathered in
Venice in 1202, it transpired that
there were too few of them, and
they could not pay the agreed
bill. Instead, they agreed to help
Venice by taking Zara, Dalmatia—
a rich source of wood for Venetian
galleys. Pope Innocent protested,
but worse was to come. In 1204,
the Crusaders arrived in

Novgorod
Kiev
:

EUROPE # Gran

Constantinople,
Medite Ir
Ys,

: Constantinople, where relations

with the Byzantines quickly
soured; the city was taken for the

brutally sacked. A new Latin

proclaimed under a new emperor,

: Baldwin of Flanders, while Venice

was awarded nearly half the city,

= numerous Mediterranean islands, :
© and other territories. Although the =

Byzantine emperors relocated to

: Byzantine Nicaea, the Fourth

Crusade marked the end of the

Byzantine Empire as a true power, :
: which discredited the Crusading

movement and helped the Turks.
In the late 12th century, the

: Mongolian and Turkic nomads of

the steppes were fearsome but

: disunited. Temujin (c. 1162-1227),

who later became known as

» Genghis Khan, was a minor
| leader who became a nokhor

(companion) to Toghril, Khan of
the Kereits, the dominant tribe in
Central Mongolia. Through ability

: and charisma, he rose to become
: a great general, crushing the

CHAGATAI
KHANATE

Kaifeng

2
CHINA

: Jayavarman VII

: This bronze statue of King

: Jayavarman VII, in Mahayana

: Buddhist style, portrays a serene
: and contemplative king.

| neighboring Tartar tribes in 1202,
» butinciting resentment among

: other Kereits so that in 1203 he

: as the dominant leader among

: the Mongol tribes.

Jayavarman VII (c. 1125-1220)

: had returned from exile to claim
: the Khmer crown in 1181. He

KEY

~» Campaigns of Genghis
Khan 1206-1227

_ Empire of Genghis

avenged the destruction of the

i capital by deposing the Champa

king in 1191, suppressed a revolt
in the west, restored Angkor, and
finally gained ascendancy over the
Champa kingdom. Jayavarman
made Mahayana Buddhism the
state religion and taxed the
resources of the kingdom to build
great temples, as well as hospitals,
shrines, roads, and bridges. One
of his temples, Preah Khan, was
served by 98,000 retainers.

In around 1200, the Chimd state,
centered on their capital at Chan
Chan in the Moche Valley in Peru,
began to expand. Their power
rested on their mastery of
intensive agriculture techniques
and elaborate irrigation. At Chan
Chan, Chimd leaders built
citadels, or palaces, high-walled
buildings with audience chambers
and storage depots. It is believed
that each new Chimt ruler was
obliged to build and fund his own

: citadel, which drove the expansion

of the empire.

In 1202, the mathematician
Leonardo of Pisa, better known as
Fibonacci (c. 1177-1250),
produced the most influential
book in European mathematics to
date, the Liber Abaci, or Book of
Calculation. Based on Arabic
mathematics, it introduced
Europe to Hindu numerals (0-9)
and to the word zephirum, a
Latinized version of an Arabic

Peterhouse College, Cambridge, was
founded 75 years after the university.

BY 1206, TEMUJIN HAD UNITED
ALL THE TRIBES OF MONGOLIA into
the Khamag Mongol Ulus, “the AlL
Mongol State,” reorganizing tribal
society into an army grouped ona
decimal system. At the Mongolian
capital of Karakorum, he took the
title Chinggis Khan or “ruler of the
world.” His name is now most
commonly spelled “Genghis.”

In 1208, Pope Innocent III
proclaimed a crusade against
heretics in the south of France—
the Albigensians (Cathars based
around Albi] and Waldenses

(see 1171-75). Their teachings
challenged the worldliness of the
established church, while their
anticlericalism attracted nobles
keen to appropriate church lands;
the Cathars, for instance, were
under the protection of Raymond
of Toulouse, who ruled much of
southern France. The pope's
declaration gave license to the
French king, Philip II (1165-1223),
to allow his northern lords to
wreak havoc in areas outside of

464 KILL THEM
ALL, GOD
WILL KNOW
HIS OWN. 99

Abbot Arnaud Amaury, on the
Albigensian Crusade

Medina Patnae Fae ae ee 1227 : word that, in the Venetian
AFRICA boa INDIA pags Fino: Se Sitkirosd | dialect, became
teeee ppue Map of Genghis Khan's empire bedi algebra,
Sea Temujin would go on to unite the Mongol addition, and

the Fibonacci
sequence.

tribes and conquer a huge empire. His
successors would extend it still further.

PERSECUTION OF
THE CATHARS

Although only 200 Cathars
lived in the town of Beziers
in Languedoc, Crusaders
massacred the entire
population in 1209. Asked
how the attackers should
distinguish between
Catholics and heretics,
crusade leader Abbot
Amaury is reputed to have
given his famous order to
“kill them all.” In its pursuit
of Cathars, the papacy would
eventually create the
Inquisition [see 1231-35)

his control, preparing the way for
an expansion of royal power.

In 1209, Cambridge University
was founded by scholars who had
relocated from Oxford. By 1226,
they had acquired some formal
organization.

This 19th-century oil painting depicts the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa,
said to have been the decisive battle of the Reconquista.

PETER II OF ARAGON (1178-1213)
AND ALFONSO Vill OF CASTILE
(1155-1214) defeated the
Almohads (see 1146-50) at the
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in
1212. Alfonso had earlier been
crushingly defeated by the
Almohads in 1195 but had fought
off invasions by the other Christian
Spanish kingdoms and rebuilt his
army. After this decisive victory, the
Almohads were soon expelled from
Spain, leaving only local Muslim
dynasties that could not stand up to
the Christian advance. Accordingly,
this battle is traditionally said to be
a decisive point in the Christian
reconquest or Reconquista of
Moorish Spain (see 1241-45].
Having lost most of his lands in
France, King John of England
(1166-1216] joined in alliance with
Emperor Otto IV (1178-1215) and
others, but they were crushed at
the Battle of Bouvines in Flanders
in 1214 by Philip II of France and
the rival German emperor,
Frederick II. This ended Anglo-
Norman hopes of regaining French
territories. King John’s barons
were forced to concentrate on
England, where they had cause for
discontent. Thanks to a dispute
with the pope, the king had been
briefly excommunicated. More
importantly, he was taxing the
barons heavily and invalidating the

law when it suited him. The barons
revolted and after a brief civil war,
John was forced to sign the Articles
of the Barons, known in history as
the Great Charter or Magna Carta.
Although this mainly concerned the
rights of barons, its statement that
the king was not above the law was
an important milestone for human
rights. King John immediately
disowned the charter, and war

3clauses
still in use

4 surviving
copies

CLAUSES

ORIGINAL COPIES

The Magna Carta

Of the 63 clauses contained in the
original Magna Carta, only three
survive as laws today. Numerous
copies were made, to be distributed
around England; four survive.

broke out once more, this time
with added French involvement.
Retreating from a French invasion
force in 1216, the king lost his
baggage train—and his royal
treasure—while crossing the Wash
in Lincolnshire, England, and died
soon after. His infant son, Henry Ill
(1207-72] came to the throne.

A detail from the south gate of the
great Khmer city of Angkor Thom.

THE HEIGHT OF
THE WALLS OF
ANGKOR THOM

JAYAVARMAN VII DIED IN AROUND
1220, having seen his greatest
creation take shape. At Angkor, in
modern-day Cambodia, he
created a new city, Angkor Thom,
centered on the great temple of
Bayon. The temple comprises
towers decorated with huge
sculpted faces; the identities of
these are disputed, although they
may include Jayavarman himself.
Having conquered most of
Central Asia and northern China,
Genghis Khan's empire (see
1201-05) now bordered the
Khwarazm Empire of Persia.

Mongolian dagger

The Mongolians had a deservedly
fearsome reputation. After archers
had decimated the enemy, fighters
with hand weapons would close in.

44 | AMTHE
PUNISHMENT

4 OF GOD... 99

Genghis Khan, Mongolian warlord

DOMINGO DE GUZMAN, A CASTILIAN
CLERIC, DIED IN 1221. In 1203, he
had gone to Rome to ask
permission to do missionary work
with the Tartars {see 1201-10], but
was sent to France to preach to
the Cathars of Languedoc
instead. By adopting absolute
poverty, he was able to challenge
the Cathars and make some
headway, although ultimately his
failure to “correct” the heretics led
to the Albigensian Crusade (see
1206-10). However, like Francis of
Assisi (see 1226-30), he had
created a new kind of monastic
order—the Dominicans—adapted
to the new urban culture. The
Dominicans and Franciscans
were mendicant friars, mainly
recruited from the middle classes,
living off charity rather than
farming, and devoted to preaching
and charity in towns and cities.

A largely ineffective affair, the
Fifth Crusade was the fruit of
Pope Innocent’s determination to
reboot the Crusading movement.
Targeting Egypt, the Crusaders
took that but then lost Damietta,
and failed to account for the Nile
floods, which foiled their advance
on Cairo. They high-handedly
rejected a treaty offered by the
sultan that would have given them
Jerusalem, and left Egypt in 1221
having accomplished nothing.

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This 13th-century painting by Giotto di Bonodore
shows St. Francis of Assisi preaching to the birds.

THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE
KILLED DURING THE
ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE

THE RENEWAL OF THE
ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE (see
1206-10) in 1226 was in spite of
the Pope declaring an “official”
end to the Crusade at the Fourth
Lateran Council of 1215. In reality,
the battle for the south of France
descended into vicious guerrilla
warfare. Renewal of the Crusade

was followed eventually by the
submission of Raymond VII, Count ;

: of Toulouse —the Cathars’

Meaux [also known as the Peace
of Paris) of 1229, the town of

: Toulouse was ceded to the
: Capetian dynasty—the ruling
: house of France from 987 to 1328.

: Crusader coin
: Arare Crusader coin from the
: Kingdom of Jerusalem illustrates

the effects of intermingling policy:

: Meanwhile, Emperor Frederick II

of Germany realized that peace

_ with the Muslims was better than

: military adventures that could not
: be won. In 1229, he concluded a

: treaty with the sultan of Egypt that
_ restored Jerusalem and some

: surrounding land to the Christians.

: The Sixth Crusade thus passed

i without bloodshed, although

A former soldier, Francis of

Assisi, had founded the

| Franciscan order in 1209 (see

: 1221-25). In 1224, he received the
stigmata (the wounds of Christ),

: and he was canonized just two

: years after his death in 1226.

Cathar stronghold
The Cathar castle of Peyrepertuse in
the Pyrenees was located ina
strategic defensive position on the
French-Spanish border.

This 14th-century image shows Pope
Gregory IX receiving a list of heretics.

IN 1231, POPE GREGORY IX
established the Papal Inquisition,
a campaign by the church
against heresy. Prior to 1231, the
investigation of heresy had been
the responsibility of bishops but
it now became the preserve of
specialist inquisitors, mostly
drawn from the Dominican and
Franciscan orders (see 1221-25).
In 1233, the Dominicans were
charged with bringing the
Inquisition to Languedoc in
France, where the Cathar heresy
clung on despite the military
defeat of the Count of Toulouse
(see 1226-30).

Mongolian expansion
continued, although Genghis
Khan (see 1201-05) had died
in 1227 while suppressing a
rebellion in Xia Xia in China. He
was succeeded by his second son,
Ogodei (c. 1186-1241], who was
still more ambitious. Ogodei sent
armies to the east and west,
leading the final assault on the
Chinese Jin Empire (see 1126-
30), which was conquered by
1234. The Southern Song had
aided the Mongol advance, but
when they tried to seize Kaifeng
in northern China in 1235, the
Mongols turned on them.

In 1235, Sundiata, king of the
Keita, a Mande people from
sub-Saharan Mali, defeated the
Susu king Sumnaguru at the
Battle of Kirina. The Susu had
destroyed the old Ghana Empire
(c. 830-1235], and Sundiata now
built a new Mande empire on the
ruins of Ghana.

5 sculls

Steppe landscape; little changed
since the days of the Mongol Empire.

ON HIS DEATH, GENGHIS KHAN had
informally divided his empire
among four of his sons. Given
authority over the west, Batu
Khan (c. 1207-55] established the
Kipchak Khanate, also known as
the Golden Horde Khanate. In
the winter of 1237, when the
frozen rivers allowed his cavalry
to cross, Batu invaded Russia.
Over the next four years, his
armies conquered the Russian
principalities and blazed a trail of
destruction deep into Central
Europe. Under the overlordship
of Ogodei (see 1231-35], the
expanding reach of the Mongol
Empire had important
implications for pan-Eurasian
trade. The Pax Mongolica or
“Mongol Peace” achieved in the
lands under Mongolian control
made the perilous passage
across Central Asia and the silk
road increasingly viable, enabling
the first direct contact between
Europeans and the Chinese
since Roman times in

around 1240.

By 1236, the Teutonic
Knights—a military order formed
in 1198 by German merchants
serving at the Hospital of St. Mary
of the Teutons in Jerusalem—had
completed the subjugation of the
Pomeranians, a pagan tribe in
Prussia. Under their grand
master, Hermann von Salza
(c. 1179-1239), the knights
established numerous
strongholds, and in 1237, they
merged with the Livonian
Brothers of the Sword and
advanced into Livonia (present-
day Estonia and Latvia).

IN 1241, THE GERMAN TRADING

formed an alliance to protect the
Baltic trade routes. This was the
first act in the formation of the
Hanseatic League [from the
medieval Latin hansa, meaning
a group or association). Lubeck
quickly became the center of
expanding German trade in the
Baltic region, which extended
along the Russian rivers as far
as Novgorod, and linked to the
European trading centers of
England and Flanders.

In 1242, the efforts of the
Teutonic Knights (see 1236-40]

The notion of the
Reconquista—the Christian
reconquest of Islamic Spain—
as a single, continuous
project, is a myth, first created
by clerical propagandists in
the 14th century. In practice,
the advance of the Christian
kingdoms was by degrees,
driven by the need for land,
and facilitated by Muslim
dissention and advances in
military technology.

TOWNS OF LUBECK AND HAMBURG

This miniature from the Annalistic Code of the 14th century depicts the “Battle of the Ice,
fought on the frozen waters of Lake Peipus, Novgorod.

Medieval trade

: Amanuscript

illumination of the port
of Hamburg, a founder
member of the
Hanseatic League,
which had its roots in

: analliance of 1241

with Luibeck.

to extend their
Livonian territories
eastward and launch
the conversion of the
Russians from the
Greek to the Roman

: church were checked

by defeat at the
Battle of Lake
Peipus. Led by
Alexander Nevski,
prince of Novgorod,

IN 1247, FERDINAND III OF CASTILE
AND LEON (c. 1199-1252) laid
siege to the Moorish city of Seville.
It fell to him in 1248, and with it
the last Moorish kingdom in
Spain—with the exception of
Granada. Here, Mohammad
ibn-Yusuf ibn Nasr had

1230. By 1238, the Nasrids had
begun to reconstruct an old
fortress, the Alhambra, which
would become one of the wonders
of world architecture by the
mid-14th century (see 1350-55).
In 1246, the emir of Granada
agreed to become Ferdinand's
vassal, but the last relic of
Moorish al-Andalus would resist
Christian pressure until 1492 [see
1490-92).

Louis IX of France (1214-70)

In this 16th-century painting, Ferdinand III, King of Castile and Lon, accepts
the surrender of the city of Seville from the Moors in 1248.

Theobald of Navarre had

| launched a crusade in 1239, but

it was so unsuccessful that it is
not usually recognized as an

of 1248 is accounted the
Seventh, the last Crusade of this

| magnitude ever undertaken.
established the Nasrid dynasty in |

Louis landed in Egypt and took
Damietta without opposition, but
in 1250 his army was destroyed
by the Egyptians at Fariskur and
he was taken captive. His mother,

: Blanche of Castile, raised a large

ransom to buy his freedom.

The Mamluks (or Mamelukes)
of Egypt were slave soldiers
captured from Turkic and
Circassian tribes (of the Pontic-
Caspian steppes}, who formed the
main component of the Ayyubid
army. Eventually they became

the Russians

: checked the knights’ progress and
: Lake Peipus thereafter served as

the eastern limit of Livonia.

In a series of stunning victories
in Eastern and Central Europe,
the Mongol armies destroyed all
opposition. Early in 1241, an army
of horsemen crossed the frozen

- Vistula River into Poland, sacking

Kracow and defeating an alliance
of Poles, Silesians, and Teutonic
Knights at Leignitz in April.

Just three days later, another

: force under Batu (see 1236-40)

overwhelmed the Hungarian

: army in their camp at Mohi. By
: December, Batu was destroying
: Pest, the largest city in Hungary.

The Mongols had reached the
gates of Vienna when, in 1242, the
news reached them that Ogodei,
the Great Khan, had died. As was

traditional, Batu withdrew his
forces back to Karakorum, the
Mongol capital, for the election
of a new leader. Elsewhere,
Mongol forces had penetrated
the Indian subcontinent, sacking
Lahore in 1241.

In 1244, Jerusalem, which
had been under partial Christian
control since Frederick II's treaty
with the sultan of Egypt {see
1226-30), was lost to medieval
Christians for the final time. The
Egyptian sultan, Ayyub, was
engaged in a contest with the
Syrian branch of the Ayyubids
(see 1171-75) at Damascus,
which had allied itself with the
Christian Crusader kingdoms.

In 1244, Ayyub’s forces overran
Jerusalem and expelled the
Christians.

: strong enough to take power for
themselves murdering Turan

i Shah, the last Ayyubid sultan of

: Egypt, in 1250. At first the Mamluk

commander Izz-ad-Din Aybak

used the sultan’s widow as a

puppet ruler, but he soon married

her and founded the Mamluk

dynasty, the first slave dynasty to

hold power in its own name.

was much respected throughout
Europe and had a reputation

for justice. Under his reign, royal
control was extended to the
Mediterranean, and the previously
autonomous realms of Languedoc ;
and Provence would become part

of French Capetian territories. In
1244, Louis “took the cross,”
embarking ona crusade in 1248.

THE CRUSADES

3-99 FIRST CRUSADE
19 SECOND CRUSADE
92. THIRD CRUSADE
FOURTH CRUSADE
FIFTH CRUSADE
SIXTH CRUSADE
3-54 SEVENTH CRUSADE

600-1449 | TRADE AND INVENTION

\__ eagle head

sculpted

in gold
Lip ornament Human mask
AZTEC/MIXTEC AZTEC
This eagle-shaped lip plug, or labret, Found at the Great Temple of the
would have been worn by a member of Aztecs in their capital Tenochtitlan
the Aztec elite. The Mixtec, a conquered (now Mexico City), this greenstone
tribe, made most Aztec gold jewelry. mask was a votive offering.

THE AZTECS,

The Incas, Aztecs, and Maya were advanced civilizations
with sophisticated arts and crafts and highly developed

graphic systems. The artifacts they created dazzled the

medieval European invaders and still fascinate today.

The art and culture of the pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and
the Andes represent the height of ancient traditions stretching back to the
4th millennium BCE. The conquistadors had a devastating effect on these
cultures, but the artifacts that survive are a testament to their rich heritage.
Much of Incan culture came from client states, such as the Moche, while the
Aztecs and Mayans derived theirs from older cultures, such as the Olmecs.

Sun stone

co? AZTEC
ik ; This sun stone, or calendar stone, is the

= et largest Aztec sculpture ever found.
SS ay ets It represents the Aztecs’ mythical
history of the universe. The Sun,
believed to have been formed
in the most recent era of
creation, is at the center.

decorated with
pictoglyphs

band showing
days of month

disc is 13 ft (4m)
across

Warrior effigy pot

MOCHE

This pot from the Moche culture of the
north coast of Peru shows a warrior in
a headdress grasping a club. Constant
warfare was a way of life.

heavy wooden
handle

skin of flayed
victim

Xipe Totec, god of the springtime
AZTEC

The name of this grisly god translates as
“our flayed lord”; he is depicted wearing
the skin of a sacrificial victim, denoting
the spring renewal of the Earth's “skin.”

Obsidian knife

AZTEC

Long-bladed, razor-sharp
obsidian knives such as
this one were used by
warriors and in the gory
human sacrifices practiced
by the Aztecs.

quahuitl

AZTEC
Lacking iron or steel, pre-Columbian

ericans used obsidian [volcanic

glass} to form cutting edges. The
maquahuitl—a wooden club fringed
with obsidian blades—was a
common Aztec weapon

Priceless heart

AZTEC

The heart was considered the most
precious organ that could be offered to
the gods, and this replica was carved in
jade, which the Aztecs regarded as their
most valuable substance.

sharp
obsidian blade

Necklace

INCA

Turquoise was highly valued by the
Incas (Aztecs and Mayans preferred
jade and other greenstones], and this
rare necklace is made from beads

of gold, turquoise, and red shell.
a — ,
“KC ,
r ornate

: headdress
a4

hunter disguised

Decorative plate
MAYA

This plate from the Yucatan Maya shows hunting
scenes—in the center, a hunter drapes a deer he
has caught across his head and shoulders, while

around the edges other hunters wear deer masks.

Codex Tro-Cortesianus
MAYA

One of only four surviving Mayan codices,
this one records instructions for divination
(predicting the future) and priestly rituals.
Sheets of bark paper were coated in gesso
(chalky paste] to form a writing surface.

THE AZT

Tomb figurine

INCA

This cast gold figurine
representing an Inca god
made up part of the grave
goods interred in the tomb
of a high-status individual.

size and position of
knots records numbers

heavy

earplugs

PROCOCBORL

Panpipes

INCA

Known in Europe
as the syrinx, the
panpipes were
among the most
common Inca musical

instruments. This unusual

setis made of quills from

the feathers of a condor. ’

elaborate
carvings

Greenstone yoke
MAYA

Yokes were worn as protective belts in the
‘ sacred ball game ulama, played by most
Jaina figurine Mesoamerican cultures. This ornate yoke
male was probably a ceremonial replica.
This pottery figure from the island of Jaina

shows a powerful man dressed in all his

finery, with a heavy bead necklace, massive barstandidets
headdress, and ear plugs. peeetentetincers

(AQ

ECS, INCAS, AND MAYA

Counting device

INCA

This quipu, or counting device, was a
versatile accounting tool that helped
the Incas keep track of the tribute and
population of their empire—data was

recorded in lengths of string and knots.

codex was read
from top to bottom,
then left to right

: &S
ike] : es

even

Although not as sophisticated as Maven hiereglypts Aztec pimicaren a cifchy
as the one shown could express simple concepts.

BY THE MID-13TH CENTURY, THE
MEXICA TRIBE—better known
today as the Aztecs—were
established in the Valley of
Mexico. Aztec legend suggests
that they migrated from the
ancestral homeland of Aztlan in
the early 12th century. Settling at
Chapultepec, near Lake Texcoco,
Mexico, in around 1250, they were
soon expelled by the Tepanecs,
one of the tribal confederations
competing for dominance in the

wake of the Toltec collapse in the —

early 12th century.

Although the Mongols had
conquered most of the Russian
principalities (see 1236-40), and
the Golden Horde Khanate had
claimed authority over Russia,
surprisingly little changed for
the Russians. In return for
tribute and military service,
the Russian princes were left
in power and the Russian
Church was not interfered
with. Alexander Nevski
{c. 1220-63], the prince of
Novgorod who had led the
Russians to victory against the
Teutonic Knights in 1242,
became the dominant Russian
noble, appointed Grand Duke of
Vladimir after his brother was
driven out by the Mongols.

Under the support of the new
Great Khan, Mongke (r. 1251-59),
his brothers Kublai and Hulagu
renewed the Mongol expansion.

Prince of Novgorod
This statue depicts Russian leader,
Alexander Nevski, whose name

derives from the Russian victory at
the Battle of the Neva River.

i In 1253, Hulagu led a huge army
: into Western Asia to conquer the

Great Seljuk sultanate (see

» Nanchao in China.

rAS

a &

This illustration of Mongols battling the Seater is from a chronicle By Rashid
al-Din, a Muslim minister in the service of the Il-Khanate.

HULAGU KHAN (SEE 1251-1255)
CONTINUED HIS CAMPAIGN
AGAINST THE SELJUKS and other
Islamic powers. In 1256, he
crushed the Order of the
Assassins (see 1081-90), taking
their stronghold at Alamut in
Persia. In 1258, he sacked
Baghdad and executed the
Abbasid Caliph—the figurehead
of IsLam—in just one of countless
atrocities committed by Mongol
invaders who massacred
hundreds of thousands of
Muslims during their campaigns.
In 1259, Hulagu penetrated deep
into Syria, but as with Batu’s
campaign in Europe 18 years
earlier (see 1241-45], his
progress was halted by news of
the death of the Great Khan,
and he withdrew his armies
while he returned to the
Mongolian capital to help
select a new leader.
Taking advantage of Hulagu’s
withdrawal, the Mamluk
general al-Zahir Baybars
marched north and struck at
the Mongol garrisons in
Syria. At the Battle of
\\ Ayn Jalut in Palestine,
y General Baybars
defeated the
Mongols and
expelled them from
Palestine and Syria.
On his return to Egypt
he murdered the
sultan and took his
place. Distracted by
dynastic struggles, and
later by a protracted
inter-khanate war,
Hulagu was not able to

: Mongol Empire was halted.

: Mamluks gave refuge to a fugitive

KUBLAI KHAN (1215-94]

The grandson of Genghis Khan,
Kublai spent eight years
campaigning in southern China
before succeeding his brother
Mongke as Great Khan in 1260.
His own kingdom, the Great
Khanate, encompassed
Mongolia and China, where he
founded the Yuan dynasty,
moved the capital to Shangdu,
and did much to foster trade
and international links.

regain his Syrian conquests and
the westward expansion of the

: formally made sultans of Egypt,
© Syria, and the Levant.
Alfonso X of Castile (r. 1252-
© 1284) won the nickname “the Wise”
: thanks to his learning, patronage of
: the arts and Castilian literature,
© sponsorship of natural philosophy,
: and judicial reforms. He oversaw
: the final expulsion of the
: Almohads (see 1121-25) from
: Spain in 1257.

Hulagu’s conquests, which
encompassed Iran, Iraq, most of
Anatolia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and
Georgia, became the Il-Khanate,
or Ilkhanate. Meanwhile, the

Abbasid prince, setting him
up in Cairo as the new caliph.

: Recognized as guardians of the

Islamic faith, the Mamluks were

(46 HADI BEEN PRESENT

AT THE CREATION, I

WOULD HAVE GIVEN

SOME USEFUL HINTS FOR

THE BETTER ORDERING
OF THE UNIVERSE. 99

Alfonso X, the Wise, on the Ptolemaic system

This example of Mamluk architecture from the height of the sultanate adorns
the entrance to the mausoleum of Qalawun in Cairo, Egypt.

ITALIAN NOBLEMAN AND LATER
DOMINICAN MONK, THOMAS
AQUINAS (1225-74) became one of
the most important philosophers
in the history of Western thought.
Renowned for his work in uniting
faith and reason, Aquinas's
period of greatest productivity
occurred between 1258 and 1273,
when he penned his two best-
known works, the Summa contra
Gentiles and the Summa
Theologiae.

In 1261, Michael VIII Paleologus
(r. 1259-61), the Byzantine
emperor of Nicaea, concluded the
Treaty of Nymphaeum with the
Genoese, agreeing to cede them
all the trading privileges once
enjoyed by the Venetians [see
981-990). He had already secured
an alliance with the Bulgarians,
and was now poised to achieve his

dream of re-taking Constantinople :

from the Latin Empire
(Constantinople and environs,
captured from the Byzantines
during the fourth crusade),
and reconstituting the
Byzantine Greek Empire. In
July 1261, a Byzantine army
took advantage of the
absence of the Venetian fleet
to cross the Bosporus strait
and take Constantinople. The
Latin emperor, Baldwin II
fled, and the Paleologus
Empire was established.

Thomas Aquinas

This 15th-century altarpiece
depicts Thomas Aquinas,
whose philosophy still
underpins Catholic dogma.

Geneta Mariam church in Ethiopia,
built during the Solomonid era.

: Paleologus would campaign
tirelessly to restore lost
Byzantine lands.

: The Second Baron’s War in
England between 1264 and

: 1267 was brought about by a
combination of newly kindled
national consciousness and

: resentment at foreign

interference. Henry Ill of England

(r. 1216-72) had introduced many

foreign officers into government

and taxed the English heavily to
fund overseas adventures and
papal extortion. Rebels led by

Simon de Montfort, Earl of

Leicester, captured the king at

Lewes in 1265 and summoned the

first European parliament that

included elected representatives.
Meanwhile, the Mamluks began

a push to rid the Holy Land of the

Crusader kingdoms once and

for all.

Cost of paper versus parchment
After paper-making technology was
introduced to Italy, the cost of
vegetable-based paper fell to 1/6 of
the cost of animal-based parchment.

THE SOLOMONID DYNASTY IN
ETHOPIA was founded in 1270 by
Yekuno Amlak, displacing the
previous Zagwe dynasty, and
claiming to have restored the
legitimate line of the ancient
Christian kings of Aksum. Amlak
claimed descent from the biblical
Solomon, via the possibly
Ethiopian Queen of Sheba.

The town of Fabriano in Italy lies
close to the Adriatic port of Ancona,
which was notable in the 13th
century for trade with the Muslim
world. This is probably how paper
manufacture became established
there in the 1270s. Use of animal
gelatin in place of more degradable
vegetable gel made Fabriano
paper more durable, and the town
became the principal paper
manufacturing site in Europe.

In 1270, Louis IX of France made
another attempt at crusading, but
on the request of Charles of Anjou,
the Eighth Crusade was diverted to
Tunis, where disease killed Louis
and his army.

Former stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller, Krak des Chevaliers or “fortress
of the knights” in Syria was taken by the Mamluks and fortified further,

c
KHANATE OFTHE KuaNaTe OFTHE
GOLDEN HORDE GREAT KHAN
EUROPE Asia / Karakorume
Venice @,

“ny ‘
Sahara Mecca
Mau @Aden
AFRICA

Travels of Marco Polo
To reach China, Marco Polo traveled
Anatolia, Iran, and Afghanistan. On h

he sailed to Hormuz in Persia via Sumatra.

IN 1271,THE VENETIAN MERCHANT :

AND EXPLORER, MARCO POLO
(c. 1254-1324), traveled to China.
Arriving at Kublai Khan’s court in
1275, the Great Khan employed
Marco Polo in various capacities.
In 1292, he escorted a Mongol
princess to Persia, returning to
Italy three years later and writing
a travel memoir while a prisoner
of the Genoese. Polo's memoir,
The Travels—known by Italians as
Il Milione, because of the belief
that it contains a million lies
—is a fascinating portrait of the
Mongolian Empire at its height.
The Pax Mongolica (see 1236-40)
allowed freedom of movement
through lands under the authority
of Il-khanate, and it was said that
a virgin with a pot of gold on her
head could pass unmolested from
Constantinople {modern-day
Istanbul) to Beijing.

In 1272, Edward Plantagenet
(r. 1272-1307), heir apparent to
the English throne, returned from

Balkh
CHINA
IL-KHANATE 27,11BET

Angkor @

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KEY

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= Silk road

through
is return,

the Holy Land, having forced the
: Mamluks to conclude a 10-year

: truce in his attempts to destroy
Acre, one of the last remaining

: Crusader footholds in Outremer.
The Mamluks had already taken

PERCENT
THE WORLD
LAND AREA
COVERED BY
THE MONGOL
EMPIRE AT ITS
HEIGHT

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Statues adorn the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, India. Originally constructed by Kulasekhara Pandya, the

temple was destroyed by Muslim invaders and later rebuilt.

IN SOUTHERN INDIA, KING
KULASEKHARA | (r. 1268-1308]
expanded the empire of the
Pandyas to its greatest extent.
The Pandyas were an ancient
Tamil people of the far south, who
contended for supremacy over
the centuries with neighboring
kingdoms such as the Cholas and
the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
Under Sundara [r. 1251-68] the
Pandya empire had expanded
dramatically and reduced some
neighboring states to vassalage.
His son Kulasekhara went on to
conquer Kerala, Kongu, and
Ceylon, and in 1279 he defeated
the last Chola king, Rajendra lll,
and annexed his territories. The

Divine wind

An engraving shows the destruction
of the Mongol fleet by the kamikaze
(“divine wind’) in 1281.

: greatness of the Pandya court was :

attested to by Venetian merchant
Marco Polo, who would pass
: through in 1293, but the empire
was short-lived, breaking up in

the early 14th century due to family :

quarrels and Muslim invasions.
By the late 13th century, the

Maori had settled in New Zealand
(with the exception of Antarctica,

| the last land mass to be colonized
by humans). Dating the Maori

: colonization is contentious.
According to estimates based
on Maori traditions, the first

: Polynesians visited the islands in

: arrival of the Great Fleet of

: ocean-going canoes in 1350.
Archaeological findings tella
slightly different story. However, it

: seems likely that Polynesians,

: probably from Tahiti, arrived in

New Zealand around 1280,

: dividing the territory between
: hapu (clans). Hapu that traced a
= common ancestry formed iwi

(tribes), some of which could trace
their lineage back to a single waka

» houra [ocean-going canoe).

Having conquered Korea and

: most of China, Kublai Khan
| (1215-94) set his sights on
i Japan, sending embassies

demanding submission as early

: as 1268. Under the bold

i cowed. After a failed invasion

: 150,000 men in two huge

fleets in 1281, but the
Japanese held off the invading

: armada until a great typhoon,
© known in Japan as the

: kamikaze (“divine wind”),

: devastated the Mongol fleet.

MAORI CARVING

Maori culture is noted for its
tradition of arts and crafts;
chief among these is te toi
whakairo (carving). Master
craftsmen were believed to
channel the voices
of the spirits and
ancestors, and
intricately carved
posts and lintels
adorning
structures,
around the marae
(sacred space]
and waka
{canoes} were
believed to
accumulate and
pass on mana
(spiritual power).

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Guglielmo Berardi da Narbona was
killed at the Battle of Campaldino.

IN THE 1280S, A TRIBE OF
TURKOMAN NOMADIC HORSEMEN
and raiders based in northwestern
Anatolia, known as the Ottomans,
elected Osman (1258-1354) as
their chieftain. At this time, the
political map of Anatolia was
fractured: the Mongol onslaught
had broken up Seljuk Rum and
replaced it with many small
principalities, while also driving
waves of Muslim refugees into the
region. Meanwhile, the Byzantine
Empire had been successively
reduced and broken up by Seljuk
and Latin encroachment. Osman
was able to lead his tribe ina
territorial expansion, rapidly
conquering Byzantine territory.
Florence, like many other Italian
cities, had developed into a largely
autonomous republic or
commune. It was typically easier
for the German emperors—the
notional feudal overlords—to grant
cities powers of self-government
than try to control them directly.
Since the mid-13th century,
Florence had see-sawed violently
between Guelph and Ghibelline
regimes [see 1221-25). This
Guelph-Ghibelline conflict had
gripped the Italian city-states,
providing a vehicle for the
expression of local class tensions
as well as national and
international politics. When one
faction gained the upper hand ina
city, the other was typically
expelled. In the 1280s, the
Guelphs had the upper hand, and
Guelph partisans exiled from
Arezzo encouraged them to take
up arms against the rival city. The
Florentines defeated Arezzo at the

Battle of Campaldino, heralding
the start of a period of Florentine
dominance in Tuscany. Among
those battling on the Florentine
side was the poet Dante Alighieri
(see 1311-17).

The line of Slave Kings of Delhi
came to an end in 1290 with the
seizure of power by Firuz of the
Khalji Turks—a tribe living in
Afghanistan—thus founding the
Khalji dynasty. Firuz is best
remembered for releasing into
Bengal 1,000 Thugs or Thuggees,
cult followers of the goddess Kali
devoted to murder and robbery
in her name.

Ornate Mughal screen

This screen fram the main gateway
of the Qutb complex in Delhi was
built by the Khalji sultan Ala-ud-din,
murderer and successor of Firuz.

The Eleanor Cross in Geddington, Northamptonshire, England, features an
ogee arch, marking a milestone for the English Gothic style.

IN 1291, AFTER A DESPERATE
SIX-WEEK SIEGE, the Mamluks
took Acre, the last major Crusader
stronghold in Palestine, anda
few months later they took Beirut,
the last remnant of the Crusader
kingdom known as Outremer
(see 1181-85]. After nearly 200
years, Christian presence in the
Holy Land was extinguished, and
the Mamluks plundered the
region to deter future Crusades.
To limit the risk of disastrous
fires, Venice moved its glass-
making industry to the island
of Murano in 1291. Venetian
glassmakers were the only ones
in Europe to master the art of
producing clear glass. Their
expertise in working with glass
had earlier borne fruit in the
invention of spectacles (see 1284).
Edward | of England [r. 1272-
1307) had married Eleanor
of Castile in 1254. Though
unpopular with the English, she
and Edward enjoyed a happy
marriage, and he was devastated
when she died in 1290. The
following year he ordered the
erection of 12 so-called Eleanor
crosses to mark the passage of
her funeral cortege to London.
The contest for mastery of the
Mediterranean between Genoa
and Venice continued, with a
Genoese fleet defeating the
Venetians off Laiazzo in 1294. The
following year, Genoa put together
a huge fleet, with the aim of
landing a killer blow. However,
despite a formal challenge being
made, it was not engaged.
Developments in Venetian
shipbuilding, however, were

EGY Ce LED

aay

Murano glass

This Murano glass vessel dates to
around 1330. As wellas increasing
fire safety, concentrating the glass
industry on an island helped to
regulate it and guard its secrets.

underway. Capable of carrying
more cargo and a larger crew, the
construction of the first of the great
galleys in 1294 heralded a distinct
advantage for the Venetians.

THE NUMBER
OF GALLEYS
IN THE 1295

FLEET OF
GENOA

William Wallace was outlawed for killing one of Edward's sheriffs in 1296.

? =

He was one of the first men to be hanged, drawn, and quartered.

THE EXTINCTION OF THE CANMORE
DYNASTY, followed by dissent
among the Scottish nobles, had
allowed Edward | to exercise
increasing dominance over the
Scots, and in 1292 he awarded the
crown to John Balliol. However, in
1295, Balliol made an alliance
with England's enemy, France.
The following year Edward
launched a campaign to subdue
the Scots, defeating them at
Dunbar, and taking the Stone of
Destiny—the Scottish coronation
stone—back to London. In 1297,
the Scottish nationalist William
Wallace [c. 1272-1305] led a
revolt against English dominance,
overcoming a larger English army
at Stirling Bridge, but he was
defeated at Falkirk in 1298 and
forced into years of guerrilla
warfare and overseas fundraising

Battle of

AARRK

1:4
= Under William Wallace,

an estimated 2,500 Scots defeated a
much larger force of English soldiers

: (numbering up to 10,000) at the
Battle of Stirling Bridge.

The Genoese-Venetian naval
conflict continued, with battles in
the Black Sea and the Greek
islands. At the Battle of Curzola,
in 1298, the Genoese fleet inflicted

_ a disastrous defeat on the
Venetians, destroying all but a few

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The Genoese opened a lucrative trade route to the

Trade routes

North Sea, and competed with Venice to dominate
trade with the Byzantines and the East.

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149

46 LET EVIL SWIFTLY BEFALL
THOSE WHO HAVE WRONGLY
CONDEMNED US—GOD

WILL AVENGE US. 99

Jacques de Molay, the Grand Master of the Knights
Templar, cursing King Philip and Pope Clement V, 1314

a sa.

Domenico di Michelino’s painting The Comedy Illuminating Florence, depicts

fai | i

Dante, the city of Florence, and scenes from the Divine Comedy.

ALTHOUGH THE GHIBELLINES HAD
BEEN EXPELLED FROM FLORENCE
(see 1286-90}, factionalism still
plagued the city, with a drawn-out
power struggle between the old
aristocratic nobility, the new
mercantile nobles, and the
powerful guilds. The Guelph
faction split into Black {extreme]
and White (moderate) parties.
In 1301, the Whites expelled the
Blacks, only for them to return
when Charles, count of Valois,
entered the city. The following
year the Black Guelphs sentenced
the Whites to death or exile—
among them the poet Dante
Alighieri (see panel, right).

In 1301, Pope Boniface VIII
(c. 1235-1303) supposedly issued

a bull asserting papal supremacy }

over France. In fact, the bull was a

forgery, put out by the French king =
Philip IV the Fair (r. 1285-1314) to

stir up animosity against the pope.
Philip “responded” by calling one
of the first Estates General—

: including representatives of the
towns and clergy—and received
their backing. Boniface
excommunicated Philip and

: Philip called for the Pope to face

: criminal charges. In 1303, agents

: who died soon after. Facing
tumultuous conditions in Italy, in

: 1303 the cardinals elected the

: archbishop of Bordeaux as Pope

: Clement V. Although hoping to

: establish himself in Italy when

= the violence subsided, Clement

: remained in southern France,

finally settling in Avignon in 1309,

then owned by the king of Naples.

This temporary arrangement for

the papacy would last until 1378.

: Palais des Papes

: Situated ona rocky outcrop, the
papal palace in Avignon is one of the

: largest and most important medieval

: Gothic buildings in Europe.

FROM THEIR HUMBLE BEGINNINGS,
WHEN THEY HAD BEEN SO POOR
that two knights sometimes had
to share a horse, the Knights
Templar had risen to
dizzying heights. With the
backing of Cistercian

abbot Bernard of
Clairvaux (1090-1153),

and subsequently the
Pope, they had won
exemption from secular
jurisdiction and taxation,
and thrived as donations

of land and money poured
in. By the 13th century

they had become de facto
bankers to much of
Europe, able to directa
large fleet and maintain the
primary Crusader army in
Outremer. Templar knights rose
to prominence all over Europe,
especially in England, where the
Master of the Temple was the
first baron of the realm. In the
early 13th century, then Master
William Marshal ruled the
country as regent for the young
king Henry Ill (1207-72). However,
after the fall of Outremer, the
Templars were struggling to stay
afloat, and presented an easy
target for their enemy, Philip IV of
France. Philip coveted the Templar
lands and cooked up charges of
heresy in which to indict them. On
October 13, 1307, Philip's officials
simultaneously arrested every
Templar in France. They were
accused of a variety of crimes,
including sexual and occult
outrages and worshipping an idol.
The use of torture obtained lurid
confessions, and over the next few

Hereford Mappa Mundi
The world is shown as a disk, with
Jerusalem at the center. Trade and

pilgrimage routes are illustrated,
together with places of interest.

years around 60 Templars were
executed. Elsewhere in Europe,
some arrests were made, but
there was much less appetite for
condemning the order. At the
Council of Vienne (1311-12),
Philip forced Pope Clement to

dissolve the Templars, and in 1314 ©

the last Grand Master, Jacques de
Molay, was burned at the stake.

Hereford, in England, was an
important center for the wool
trade—one of the main sources
of wealth in medieval England.
Foreign buyers flocked to the
country to buy wool for export to
the textile industries of Flanders
and Italy, and the wool trade was
described as “the jewel inthe
realm.” The wealth of places
such as Hereford was expressed
in the magnificence of their

The torture of Jacques de Molay, Grand
Master of the Knights Templar.

: cathedrals and the richness of

: their accessories. At Hereford

_ variously dated to 1285 and 1314)

and used as an altarpiece; it is the

i largest mappa mundi in existence.
: Such maps encapsulated the

medieval world view on the eve

- : of the Age of Discovery.

At the Battle of Bannockburn

: in 1314, Robert the Bruce, king
| of Scotland (r.1306-29), finally
_ expelled the English from Scotland.

DANTE ALIGHIERI
(1265-1321)

Dante is the greatest Italian
poet to have lived and one of
the most important writers
in European literature. He is
best known for his epic poem
the Divine Comedy, and for
his tragic love for Beatrice,
who married another and
died young. Exiled from his
native Florence for political
reasons, Dante spent much
of his life traveling from one
city to another. He died in
Ravenna in 1321.

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The earliest European illustration of a cannon, from a book by Walter de
Milemete, presented to the future Edward III of England in 1326.

The gilded bronze doors on the Baptistry in Florence, sculpted and cast by Andrea
Pisano, took six years to make after he won the commission in 1329.

GUNPOWDER WAS SLOWLY BUT
STEADILY CHANGING THE FACE OF
WARFARE. Arabs and Moors had
probably gained knowledge of
gunpowder from the Chinese,
using cannons in Spain as early as
1284. The Mamluks are believed
to have used handguns at Ain
Jalut, while the Mongols acquired
the technology on conquering
China. Europeans probably picked
it up from Spain and contact with
the Mongols. The first record of
cannons forged from iron comes
from Metz in 1324; later that year
an English fortress in Gascony
was bombarded for a month.

The Mali Empire of West Africa
reached its height under Mansa
Musa [r. 1312-37], extending from
the Atlantic to Nigeria, and from
the Sahara to the rain forest. His
great wealth was based on Mali’s
gold, and when he traveled on
pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-25,
he dispensed so much gold on his

THE PERCENTAGE
OF TIMBUKTU’S
POPULATION AT
SANKORE
UNIVERSITY

passage through Cairo that he
destabilized the economy. On

his return, he employed an
Andalusian architect to build a
new palace at Timbuktu, which
became a centrer for Islamic
scholarship. Mali was later
visited by the Moroccan scholar
Ibn Battuta (c, 1304-69), who first
set out on his travels in 1325.

Moscowe Bulgar
* > KHANATE OF THE — CHAGATAL
Rees ew Sarai GOLDEN HORDE = KHANATE
EUROPE ASIA

Constantinople

Astrakhan.

EMPIRE OF THE
aim ». GREAT KHAN

INDIAN OCEAN

FLORENCE IN THE 1320s AND
1330S WAS HOME TO ARTISTS
including Giotto di Bondone
(c. 1267-1337] and Andrea
Pisano (c. 1290-1349]—both seen
as forerunners of the Italian
Renaissance (see pp.208-09).
Giotto painted naturalistic frescoes
on the walls of the Basilica of
Santa Croce in around 1325, and
in 1334 was put in charge of the
construction of the Duomo
(cathedral). Greatly influenced by
Giotto, Pisano won a commission
to craft a set of bronze doors for
the Baptistry of Florence,
finishing them in 1336.

The Tughluk dynasty of the
Dethi sultanate had expanded
the reach of the Muslim state,
reducing neighboring Hindu
kingdoms to vassal status, and
repelling a series of Mongol
incursions. In 1325, Muhammad
Tughluk (c. 1300-51) murdered
his father and took the throne,
and established a reputation for
cruelty. In 1327, he transferred the
capital from Delhi to Daulatabad
for defensive reasons, forcing the
population to relocate. In 1336,
Harihara | and his brother Bukka
of the Sangama dynasty in the

44 THE FIRST
KING AFTER THE
CONQUEST WHO
WAS NOT A MAN

south, led a revolt that resulted in
the establishment of the last great
Hindu empire in India, centered
on the city of Vijayanagar.
Edward II of England invested
power in favorites, especially
Piers Gaveston (murdered by
resentful barons in 1312] and the
Despenser family. He also
alienated his wife, Isabella of
France, who was sent to France
in 1325 to arrange the marriage of
their son. While there, she
became the lover of Roger
Mortimer, and when
they returned, in
1326, they leda
revolt against
the king. The
Despensers were
hanged, Edward
was forced to
abdicate in favor of
his teenage son,
and Roger and
Isabella ruled as
regents. Eight
months later,
Edward II was
horribly murdered.
The regents ceded
Gascony to France
and acknowledged
Robert the Bruce
as king of an
independent
Scotland. In 1330,
Edward Ill (r.1327-
77) had Mortimer
hanged and began

Flanders, which triggered a
revolt there against French
domination. In 1337, Philip VI

: of France declared Edward's

French territories forfeit, while
Edward claimed the French
crown, triggering the start of
the Hundred Years’ War.

Vijayanagar sculpture

Lord Hanuman, the Hindu monkey
god, is shown carved ona rock
surface in Vijayanagar, the heart

of the last great Hindu empire.

Zaria his own rule. Rising
a OF BUSINESS tension with F
The travels of Ibn Battuta Roltect o yy ension with France
Ibn Battuta’s first journey was the Hajj (pilgrimage) Ibn Battuta was exacerbated by
to Mecca. He made seven further journeys, visiting 1325-1345 William Stubbs, English historian, | Edward's embargo on
almost every corner of the Muslim world. Silk road describing Edward II, 1875 wool exports to
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The Strait of Gibraltar, where Marinid
forces destroyed the Castilian fleet.

THE BATTLE OF RIOSALADO IS
CONSIDERED, BY SOME, to be the
defining battle of the Reconquista,
ending forever the threat of
Islamic incursion into the Iberian
Peninsula from Africa. The Marinid
dynasty of Morocco, which had
overthrown the Almohads in the
mid-13th century, gathered a vast
force and destroyed the Castilian
fleet in the Strait of Gibraltar.
The Marinids then marched inland
to the Salado River, where they
were defeated by the Christian
kings Alfonso XI of Castile

(r. 1312-50) and Afonso IV of
Portugal (r. 1325-57).

THE AMOUNT
IN FLORINS
OWED BY
EDWARD III

To finance his expensive war in
France, Edward III of England

(r. 1327-77) had taken out huge
loans from Florentine bankers,
especially the Peruzzi family.
When the money ran out, Edward
renounced his loan in 1342.

With the king of Naples also
defaulting on loans, the Peruzzi
were bankrupted, throwing
Florence into economic chaos.
Walter de Brienne, the mercenary
duke of Athens, was called in

to take power in Florence but,
eventually, a mercantile

An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle, of 1346, depicts the Battle of Crécy,

at which the English used mobile artillery for the first time.

HAVING GAINED MASTERY OF THE
ENGLISH CHANNEL at the naval

battle of Sluys in 1340, Edward III i

was free to invade France. He
landed in Normandy in 1346 and
took Caen, but retreated in the

face of a huge French army. At

bay, on the borders of the forest

of Crécy, Edward took up a
defensive position and inflicted a
crushing defeat on the forces of
Philip VI. This was largely thanks

to the indiscipline and arrogance

of the French knights and the
effectiveness of the Welsh and
English longbowmen. At the cost =
of a handful of casualties, the
English killed tens of thousands, H
including the kings of Bohemia :
and Majorca, the duke of Lorraine, :
the count of Flanders, the count of =
Blois, eight other counts, and

three archbishops. The English

use of combinedaristocratic and =
yeoman forces had produced a :
powerful new form of army. They
would go on to besiege Calais,

TOTAL hs,
LATION

Ye 45% |

MI KILLED

Plague deaths

It is estimated that up to 45 percent
of the total population of Europe was
killed by the various waves of the

THE BLACK DEATH

The effects of the Black Death
are best recorded in Europe,
where it had profound
consequences. It depopulated
the land, depressed the
economy, checked intellectual
and artistic progress, changed
the social order, contributed
to the end of feudalism, and
triggered a wave of anti-
Semitic pogroms on Jews,
who were blamed for the
pestilence, forcing many to
migrate to Eastern Europe.

: which fell in 1347, after a
: protracted siege.

Also in 1347, the Black Death

| : arrived in Europe. It is thought to

have been carried initially by

Transmitted by fleas that were
carried by rats, the plague was
spread by ship to the principal

| ports, and then to every corner of
| Europe and Western Asia. A large

44 WHATEVER THE WORLD
FINDS PLEASING, [5 BUT
A BRIEF DREAM. 99

Petrarch, Florentine scholar and poet, from Canzoniere Number 1 (c. 1352)

THE PAPACY WAS REFORMING ITS
BUREAUCRACY and improving its
finances under the Avignon popes.
In 1348, Clement VI (1291-1352)
bought Avignon from Joanne of
Naples, and work continued on
its papal palace. Scholars and
artists were attracted to the
papal city, briefly among them the
Florentine Francesco Petrarch
(1304-74), who had been crowned
poet laureate in Rome in 1341. In
1351, Petrarch started to arrange
his poems in sonnet form. He was
also a scholar, whose translation
and popularization of Classical
literature contributed to the
emergence of humanism, a new
school of philosophy that would
help to trigger the Renaissance.
In 1354, the Nasrid king of
Granada, Yusuf 1, was murdered
by his son Mohammed V (1338-
91] who took the throne. Under
Mohammed, the Alhambra—the
fortress-palace of Granada—was
further developed, becoming a
treasure of Islamic architecture.
The Ottomans were invited to
Gallipoli, on the Dardanelles
(the straits separating Asia from
Europe}, by John Cantacuzenus
(c. 1292-1383], claimant to the
Byzantine throne, to help in his
attempt to gain power. Led by
Orhan, the Turkish dynasty soon
seized the peninsula, securing
themselves a foothold in Europe.

Architectural jewel

The Court of the Lions is at the heart
of the Alhambra palace, built by
Mohammed V as the winter

oligarchy took over. Black Death plague. proportion of the population died. residence of the royal family.
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To many people, Petrarch is known
as the “father of humanism.”

This mural features Timur Leng, who rose from humble beginnings to found
the Timurid dynasty after outmatching the conquests of Genghis Khan.

BOHEMIA HAD EMERGED AS A
POWERFUL STATE under the
Premyslid dynasty in the 13th
century. Under the Luxembourg
dynasty, it became the central
force in German imperial
geopolitics, while its ruler
Charles I (Charles IV as Holy
Roman Emperor] sought to
modernize the imperial
institution and advance the
fortunes of Bohemia. In 1348, he
had enlarged the kingdom by
granting it territories such

as Moravia and Silesia, and
refounded Prague to become one
of the foremost cities in Europe,
with a major university. In 1356,
Charles IV issued the Golden
Bull, which regularized the
election of the emperor toa
majority vote of seven electoral
princes, most of which were
hereditary; the papacy would have
no role. This, in turn, allowed the
electoral principalities to develop
sovereign states, and set the
constitutional basis of the Holy

dissolution in 1806. The Bull
established Bohemia as first
among the electors and
guaranteed its independence.
Timur Leng (1336-1405]—also
known as Tamerlane—rose from
modest beginnings to become
leader of a Turkic-Mongol
Chagatai tribe in Transoxiana,
Central Asia, in around 1362.
Despite having a limp, and the
fact that he was not of Chinggid
descent [directly descended from
Genghis Khan—only Chinggids
could become khans}, he was
destined to become one of the
greatest conquerors in history.
Edward of Woodstock, eldest son
of Edward III, also known as the
Black Prince (1330-76), had won
his spurs at the Battle of Crécy at
age 16. He went on to become one
of the most effective English
commanders. When hostilities
renewed between England and
France in 1355, he invaded
France, winning a great victory
near Poitiers in 1356, in which he

Constructed of brick and timber, the Bell Tower of Xi’an was built during the

early Ming dynasty, in the reign of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming emperor.

EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, HAD
BEEN MADE PRINCE OF GASCONY
AND AQUITAINE in 1362, moving to
Bordeaux and becoming a major
player in continental affairs. In
1367, he intervened in a dynastic
dispute in Castile, where French
ally Henry of Trastamara (1334-
79) had deposed English ally
Pedro |, thereby placing control
of the Castilian navy in the
French camp. Edward defeated
Henry at Najera but was forced to
withdraw owing to illness.
Subsequently, Henry regained the
Castilian throne. In 1372—after
Charles V of France [r. 1364-80)
had fomented a Gascon

Years’ War—the Castilian navy

proved instrumental in defeating an
: the mainstay of Ottoman armies.

English fleet at La Rochelle.
China was reunited by conquest
from the south, as a native
rebellion drove out the Mongol
Yuan dynasty. In 1368, rebels
under Zhu Yuanzhang
(1328-98]—a former peasant

AAC
e
ZAC
THE SPAN, IN

YEARS, OF THE

MING DYNASTY

: Under Murad I (r. 1362-89), the
: Ottoman Turks extended their
» control deep into the Balkans.

In 1371, Murad defeated an

i alliance of Serbs, Byzantines, and

Bulgars, and held control over

: much of Thrace, Macedonia,
rebellion, restarting the Hundred :
i created the janissaries, a

Bulgaria, and Serbia. He also

slave-warrior corps that became

70,000

60,000
7,000 dead

Roman Empire until its final captured King John of France. turned Buddhist monk then ah) ed009
general—struck north from: 8
their base in Nanjing, sate 40,000

peer et displacingthe Yuanfrom = °

licts issued with Belli e z | © 50,000

golden seals were eijing. Taking the imperial a 100 dead

called Golden name Hongwu, Yuanzhang 5

Bulls. That of established the Ming | = 20,000

Emperor Charles dynasty, setting up a strong,

IV sought to centralized government, 10,000

prevent future: in which the position of

imperiatelections emperor was strengthened,

from descending 0 “

into conflict. but so was access to the } English French
bureaucracy. In 1372, he "Battle of Najera

passed an edict attempting
to ban maritime trade and
thus limit contact with
foreigners.

: Qutnumbered by almost three to

: defeated the French-Castilian forces
: with the loss of only around 100 men.

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600-1449 | TRADE AND INVENTION

By making it possible to communicate and disseminate information at a
speed and scale previously unthinkable, printing wrought changes that
are still unfolding today, from triggering religious mania, to scientific
and political revolutions—even changing language itself.

bar to lower platen Zz

Printing is the impression of marks on amedium—
most commonly ink on paper. The earliest writing,
cuneiform, was a form of printing composed of
indentations made by a stylus in clay. Printing in the
modern sense of the word first arose in 8th-century
China with the development of block printing.
Blocks of wood carved into bas-relief were used as
stamps to reproduce multiple copies of a single text,
complete with images, such as the Diamond Sutra,
the earliest datable printed book (see 861-70).

MECHANICAL PRINTING

Block printing was laborious and slow, as each block
was specific to one page. Movable type was a major
advance [see panel, opposite], first achieved in

44 HE WHO FIRST SHORTENED THE LABOUR OF COPYISTS
BY DEVICE OF MOVABLE TYPES WAS ... CREATING A
WHOLE NEW DEMOCRATIC WORLD; HE HAD INVENTED

eastern Asia but perfected by German printer
Johannes Gutenberg (see 1454-55). His printing
press was So advanced that, except for refinements
such as new typefaces and mechanization of the
presses and paper handling, the basic process
remained unchanged until the 19th century.

In the 1880s, the development of linotype allowed
a typesetter to compose lines of type using a
keyboard, rather than by hand. Stereotyping made
it possible to duplicate complete pages for multiple
printing. In the 20th century, filmsetting enabled
rapid photographic creation of printing plates. By
the end of the century, computers allowed every
aspect of printing, from typesetting and graphics
to inking and drying, to be done on one machine.

THE ART OF PRINTING. 99

Thomas Carlyle, Scottish essayist and historian, 1759-1881

paper is pressed
against form to
produce imprint

form, or frame, for __/

setting Gutenberg
special type

wooden coffin,
which slides
under platen

868

¢. 2291-2254 BCE
Sumerian cuneiform
Stamping cuneiform

inscriptions, rather

than drawing them by
hand, is introduced.
Stamps are pressed
into soft clay bricks,
which are then fired.

Sumerian cuneiform

Japanese
dharani
scroll

8th century
Block printing

Printing using carved
wooden blocks and ink

is known as xylography; the
earliest surviving xylographic
fragment is a Buddhist
dharani scroll from Korea.

Block printed book
The earliest dated
book [entire
manuscript) is

the Diamond Sutra,
a Buddhist text
found in a cave in
Dunhuang, China.

¢. 1275-1313
Movable type
Invented in China in the
11th century, movable
type is refined by
Wang Shen, who uses
over 60,000 wooden
types in his treatise.

The Diamond Sutra

1377
Movable metal type
The first metal
movable type is

cast in bronze in
Korea and is used

to produce the

Jikji Simche Yojeol,

a Buddhist scripture.

¢. 1455-56
The printing press
Gutenberg prints the

first book in Europe—the
Gutenberg or 42-Line Bible
(because of the number of
lines on each page).

Gutenberg’s printing press

Early Korean book

1790s-1820s
Metal presses
The all-metal
Columbian printing
press is the first to
replace the screw with
levers and weights.

Columbian metal press

THE STORY OF PRINTING

screw, or spindle,
adapted from

i i
4 — wine press
The key technology in the printing revolution was
movable type, in which each character in a script
had a corresponding single, small block, or type,
square sleeve, allowing lines of type to be assembled, and then
i socket reordered for different texts. The first book, printed
ae by movable type cast in bronze, was published in

Korea in the late 14th century. Gutenberg improved
upon this technology by developing a technique that
enabled rapid, precision casting of metal type.

heavy
platen, or

i
printing 3
plate — :

ink impression raised
on paper movable type

leather

ink balls
stuffed with
horsehair

Letterpress printing with movable type

sturdy construction Gutenberg’s press
for industrial-scale Gutenberg created a screw
- production press for pressing inked

type, set on a wooden frame,
against a sheet of paper. This
was a dramatic improvement
on the traditional method

of taking impressions by
means of rubbing.

century-present

p Desktop printing
—) The laser printer

> ee == | offers technology

that would once
have filled an
entire workshop.

Laser printer

1886
Linotype

A linotype machine allows a
typesetter to make up entire lines
of type, using a typewriter-like
keyboard, rather than hand-
compositing letter-by-letter.

1903
Offset printing

In offset printing, the inked image
is transferred [or offset) from the
printing plate to the paper via a
rubber sheet, achieving smooth,
precise transfer and reducing
wear on the plate.

1949
Photocopying
Developed by American Chester
Carlson at the Xerox Corporation
in the US, the photocopier

uses electrostatic distribution of
powder ink or toner, rather than
wet ink, to create an exact copy.

Early
photocopier

Linotype typesetter

A 16th-century painting captures the triumphant return of the
Doge to Venice after victory over the Genoese.

An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle depicts the Peasants’ Revolt, the first great popular
rebellion in English history, led by Wat Tyler, who was executed by the mayor of London.

THE WAR OF CHIOGGIA, BETWEEN
VENICE AND GENOA, was triggered
by the continuing contest for
control of the trade routes
through the Dardanelles, along
which flowed the lucrative trade
of the Byzantine Empire and the
Silk Road beyond it. In 1376,

the Byzantine emperor John V
Palaeologus (r. 1341-76) granted
to Venice the Aegean island of
Tenedos, key to the Dardanelles.
Meanwhile, his son and rival
Andronicus IV (1348-85) granted
it to Genoa. In the ensuing war,
the Genoans defeated the
Venetians at Pola and, in 1379,
seized Chioggia in Italy and
blockaded Venice. Under Vittorio
Pisano, the Venetians counter-
blockaded the Genoese fleet,
starving it into submission.
Genoese maritime power was
broken and Venice now controlled
the Levantine trade.

44 NOTHING
GREAT [S EVER
ACHIEVED
WITHOUT MUCH
ENDURING. 99

St. Catherine of Siena, (1347-80)

In 1376, Dominican mystic and
miracle worker Catherine of Siena
travelled to Avignon to convince
Gregory XI [c. 1336-78} to return
the papacy to Rome. A few
months later, Gregory went to
Rome to attempt to restore order
in the Papal States, and died soon

Executioner of Cesena

The anti-pope Clement VII was
knownas the “executioner of
Cesena” for his brutal suppression
of a rebellion in the Papal States
while acting as a papal legate.

after. The Roman mob pressured
the conclave of cardinals to choose
an Italian pope, and Urban VI

(c. 1318-89] was duly elected.
French cardinals, meanwhile,
elected Robert of Geneva
(1342-94) as anti-pope Clement
VII. The French king, Charles V,
threw his weight behind Clement,
while Richard II of England allied
with the Holy Roman Emperor
Charles IV in supporting the
Roman candidate. Thus began the
Western, or Great Schism, which
saw rival popes installed in Rome
and Avignon until 1417.

THE BLACK DEATH AND
SUBSEQUENT LABOUR SHORTAGES
contributed to rising social
tension in England. Around 1362,
for instance, the poor country
priest William Langland had
written Piers Plowman, a poem in
English sympathizing with the
plight of the poor peasant.
Churchman and scholar John
Wycliffe (or Wiclif] had caused a
stir with writings that prefigured
Protestantism, and a popular
Biblical egalitarian sect, known as
the Lollards, partially inspired
by Wycliffe, was winning
widespread support. In
1377, the so-called Bad
Parliament, dominated
by the king's son John
of Gaunt, Earl of
Lancaster and
soon-to-be regent to
his infant nephew
Richard Il (1367-

1400), introduced a

poll tax; subsequent
parliaments

extended it, causing
widespread
grievance. In 1381,
attempts to

reintroduce serfdom
triggered the
Peasants’ Revolt,
which saw peasants
rising against landlords,
burning manors, and
destroying records. Up
to 100,000 men, under
Jack Straw and Wat Tyler,

mask usually made _/
of wood or clay

marched on London and
siezed the Tower, burning the
palace of John of Gaunt and killing
Archbishop Sudbury, who was
blamed for the poll taxes. Richard
Il cleverly appeased the rebels;
Tyler was executed and the revolt
was brutally suppressed.
Japanese Noh drama developed
in the 14th century, mainly under
the aegis of Kanami Kiyotsugo
(1333-84) and his son Zeami
Motokiyo (1363-1443), who wrote

: hundreds of Noh plays and
: developed the highly stylized and
© symbolic performances.

Castilian influence in Portugal

: in the 1380s threatened the
: independence of the kingdom and
: sparked resentment among the

Portuguese. An uprising
triggered by a nun resulted in

* country. In 1384, John | of Castile
: (1358-90) invaded Portugal, but

: Joao was elected king by the

Portuguese parliament and, with

English help, defeated

Castile at the Battle of
Aljubarrota, in 1385.

In doing so, he freed

Portugal from Castilian
influence and, after
marrying the daughter
of John of Gaunt,
founded the Anglo-
Portuguese Avis
dynasty.

In 1384, Philip the
Bold of Burgundy
inherited the county
of Flanders, adding
to his extensive
territories. France,
ruled by the young
and mentally ill

Charles VI, was now
dominated by rivalry
between the houses of
Burgundy and Orléans.

Noh mask

In Noh drama, which involves
music, singing, speech, and mime,
masks are used by the principal
character, and by female and
elderly characters.

\
Wor

JAGIELLO OF LITHUANIA
(C. 1362-1434), THE LAST PAGAN
RULER in Europe, was crowned
king of Poland and converted to
Christianity in 1386. Marriage to
Jadwiga of Poland united the two
kingdoms, and brought Lithuania
into the Catholic Church, although
pagan traditions lingered on.
Timur Leng (see 1356-65]
completed his conquest of Persia
in 1386 and raided deep into the
Caucasus, sacking Tbilisi in

king. However, when the army of
the Golden Horde attacked his
Central Asian territories, in 1387,
he was forced to turn back and
meet them. It took another nine
years for him to destroy the threat.
Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340-

diplomat, government official, and

Constantinople.

Smyriai

Alexandriae
Cairoe Jerusalem

MAMLUK
‘SULTANATE
EGYPT =
Aswane >

The Timurid Empire

Established by Timur Leng, the
Timurid Empire eventually reached
a greater extent even than that of
Genghis Khan, but it would not long
survive Timur's death.

Georgia and capturing the Georgian

1400) was a soldier, scholar, writer, :

Traveling pilgrims are shown in an illustration from the Canterbury Tales. This unfinished poem by Geoffrey Chaucer,
17,000 lines Long, vividly illustrates the medieval world view on social, religious, and moral matters.

aE Wy

In Europe, the medieval period
saw the vigorous advance

of Christianity until it
encompassed the entire region
(with just a few exceptions).
The spectacular success in
converting Europe posed
extreme challenges to the
Church, as it struggled to
reconcile temporal and
spiritual power. Internal
forces would continue to
revolutionize the religion.

Member of Parliament. He was
instrumental in the development

of Old English and French
influences. His greatest work, the

KHANATE OF THE
GOLDEN HORDE

few Sarai

KEY
Campaigns of Timur
©) Extent of Timur’s empire

Canterbury Tales, partially
modeled on Italian author Giovanni

Boccaccio’s Decameron, tells the
story of pilgrims on the road to the
shrine of Thomas Becket [see
1170); it was begun in 1387.

At the Battle of Kosovo, in 1389,
the Ottomans defeated the Serbs
and Bosnians, smashing the
Serbian empire and absorbing
most of its territories. The Ottoman
leader, Murad, was killed in the
battle but his son Bayezid the
Thunderbolt (1360-1403) took over.
News of Murad’s death prompted
the Ottoman vassals in Europe and
Anatolia to revolt, but Bayezid
swiftly reduced most of them,
bringing their territories under

direct Ottoman rule. The Ottomans
now controlled most of Anatolia and

the Balkans south of the Danube.
Bayezid introduced the devshirme
—the levy of Christian children
who were converted to Islam and
used in the administration and
Janissary corps.

A miniature from the Topkapi Museum in Istanbul, shows the Battle of
Nicopolis, at which the Ottomans destroyed a crusading army.

THE START OF THE MING DYNASTY
IN CHINA TRIGGERED CHANGE IN
KOREA, which was considered

a client state by the Ming. The

new Chinese dynasty, but this did
not prevent the Ming from
threatening to invade. In 1388, Yi
Songgye (1335-1408), a leading
general who favored the Chinese,
seized power in Korea. In 1392,
as King Taejo, he founded the

Yi dynasty, also known as the
Choson [or Joseon), a name
taken from an ancient Korean
kingdom. Taejo restructured his
government on the Chinese
model, and instituted wide-
ranging land reforms to
redistribute estates from the
hands of the oligarchy, replacing
them with a new class of
technocrats known as the
yangban. Neo-Confucianism
was adopted as the state religion,
and a new capital was founded at

lasted until 1910.

In Japan, the union of
the northern and
southern imperial
courts in 1392 brought
to an end the Yoshino
period [also known
as the Period of
Northern and Southern

Gyeongbokgung Palace
This colossal palace, built
by King Taejo (Yi Songgyel
in 1395, is also known as
the “Palace of Shining
Happiness” and the
“Palace Greatly Blessed
by Heaven.”

Ce hae
f aa

: Courts). During this period, the

: line of the emperor Godaigo—

: driven out of the capital, Kyoto, by
: the Ashikaga shogun Takauji, in
Koryo empire had supported the =
: court in the mountainous

: Japan was wracked by civil war
© until the shogun Ashikaga

» Yoshimitsu (1358-1408)

! negotiated a reunification

: and brought Ashikaga power

: to its apogee.

1336—had maintained a rival

The Nicopolis Crusade of

: 1396—intended to roll back the
© Ottoman advance in the

: Balkans—saw a Franco-

: Hungarian expedition led by

humiliatingly crushed at the

i Bulgarian town of Nicopolis on

» featuring volunteers from most

: ill-disciplined. The failure of this
: adventure proved that Christian
Hanseong (Seoul). The Yi dynasty =

Europe had to look to its defense.

Be
The wall of skulls at the Templo Mayor archaeological site in Mexico City is made from skulls carved in stone,
covered with stucco; the Aztecs practised human sacrifice at the vast temples in the centre of Tenochtitlan.

FOUNDED BY THE AZTECS IN 1325,
the city of Tenochtitlan—existing
on the apparently unpromising
site of a marshy island in a
partially brackish lake—reached
its height at the beginning of the
15th century. Tenochtitlan means
“Place of the Fruit of the
Cactus"—a reference to the vision
that supposedly informed the
choice of location. In this vision,
the tossed heart of a conquered
enemy landed on the island where -
an eagle wrestled with a snake on
a cactus growing out of a rock—
as depicted on the present-
day Mexican flag. The Aztecs
drained the island, reclaiming
surrounding land, and joined the
land together with causeways.
eTenayuca

VALLEY OF
MEXICO

Pantlaco

: eS

Meanwhile, they expanded their
political territory through
marriages, alliances, and

arranged around a central
sacred district, regarded as
the center of the world. A huge
population of up to 200,000
was supported by intensive
agriculture and extensive
networks of trade and tribute.
The African Songhay kingdom

| was centered on the trading

metropolis of Gao, in the Niger
Bend area of West Africa. Gao
had long been a prosperous city
thanks to interregional and
trans-Saharan trade with the
Islamic world, especially
in salt, gold, slaves, and
ivory. In the mid-13th
century, because of the
allure of its riches, it
became an eastern

Songhay gold coin

This coin from the Songhay Empire
is from the Songhay city of Gao; rich
and powertul, the city provided the
basis for building the empire.

15th century, Mali declined and
Gao won its independence,
beginning the growth of a
Songhay Empire that would
eclipse the other two largest
empires of the late Iron Age in

REGIONS... FAR
AWAY... 99

Zheng He, Chinese explorer

HAVING CONQUERED AS FAR AS
RUSSIA in the East, Timur Leng
(see 1386-90) set his sights on the
greatest empire—China. In 1405,
he embarked on a campaign, but
died en route to China and was
buried at his capital, Samarkand.
Despite his possibly exaggerated
reputation for cruelty, Timur was
a devout Muslim and a patron of
the arts and architecture. His
enormous empire did not long
survive him, quickly breaking
down into a Timurid state ruled by
his son Shah Rukh (1377-1447),
which soon fragmented further.

In 1404, John the Fearless
(1371-1419) became duke of
Burgundy, leading opposition to
the regency of Louis, duke of
Orleans (1372-1407), brother of
the mad king, Charles VI of France
(1368-1422). In 1407, John
ordered the assassination of
Louis, triggering civil war
between the Burgundians and the

Wladyslaw II Jagiello of Poland prepares
for the Battle of Tannenberg.

THE RELENTLESS ADVANCE OF
THE ORDER OF TEUTONIC KNIGHTS
(see 1236-40] had brought
Prussia and much of the Baltic
coast under their control, cutting
Poland off from the sea. The union
of Poland and Lithuania under
King Wladyslaw II Jagiello

(c. 1362-1434) posed a new threat
to the Order, and the Great
Northern War ensued. At the
Battle of Tannenberg in 1410—
one of the greatest cavalry
confrontations of the age—a huge
Polish-Lithuanian army of up to
16,500, including Bohemian
mercenaries, Russians, and even
Tatars (Turkic Mongols}, defeated

@Atepehuacdn, ——_Atzacualco : i ; :
= ij s province of the Mali West Africa—Ghana and Mali. Armagnacs [named for the count
Coltonco/ Tepeyacac@ a 5 h
fAzcapotzalco = Empire (see 1231-35). In 1398, Timur Leng (see of Armagnac, the father-in-law of
= However, in the early 1356-65) had invaded northern Charles, the new duke of Orleans).
Tacuba) ef Altepetiac | g India and destroyed the Dethi The Burgundians, who favored
Pott. eee & sultanate with astonishing speed peace with the English, were
3 and terrifying cruelty. Marching popular in Paris and the north,
fo bake Map of Tenochtitlan 160 miles (260km] in two days, he | while the Armagnacs, who were
/ Texcoco Causeways connected captured and massacred 100,000 anti-English and pro-war, had the
Chapultepec Tenochtitlan to other fugitives outside Delhi before support of Queen Isabeau of
TENOCHTITLAN Settlements onthe ke king the cit dl Bavaria, the great nobles, and
re andithé mainland(The sacking the city, supposedly avaria, the great nobles, an
Tlacateco Acachinancog . city and its emperor building a huge pyramid fromthe | the south of the country.
Wiluees OF .lalmany dominated the Valley skulls of his victims. In 1401, In 1404, Zheng He (1371-1435)
BM ttctzincog \ of Mexico. Timur massacred the population —a Muslim captured from Yunnan
\ of Baghdad and launched an in China as a boy, castrated, and
} KEY invasion of Syria. He then moved pressed into military service—was
— street against the Ottomans (see named grand, or high-ranking,
j eusacititee = aqueduct 1286-90), occupying Anatolia and eunuch at the imperial court. The
Coygesn A Xo causeway restoring the old Turkoman following year he led the first of
Ber a ~ dyke principalities. seven epic voyages of discovery.
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158

the forces of the Teutonic Knights
who were around 11,000 strong.
The Order was crushed, but
Jagiello was unable to keep the
powerful Polish nobles in order
and thus could not press home
his advantage. The Peace of
Thorn, concluded the following
year, failed to secure Polish
access to the Baltic and enabled
the Teutonic Knights to regain
some of their advantage.

Andrei Rublev (c. 1370-1430)
was a Russian monk and painter,
based at the St. Sergius monastery
of the Holy Trinity in Moscow.

He worked during a period of
monastic revival in Russia, when
the Eastern Orthodox
Church offered
comfort in the face of
internecine war and
the hated Mongol
Yoke—the tribute
and service exacted
by the Golden Horde.
Though inspired by
the great icon painter
Theophanes the
Greek, Rublev was
celebrated for
pioneering a new,
more serene and
symmetrical style.

The Holy Trinity

This detail from Andrei
Rublev's greatest icon,
painted around 1410,
shows the three angels
who visited Abraham.
Each angel represents
a different aspect of
the Trinity.

This later depiction of the Battle of Agincourt shows cavalry engaged in
conflict; around 10,000 French troops were killed or captured.

IN 1413, HENRY IV OF ENGLAND
DIED and his son, Henry V
(1386-1422), came to the throne.

: convene a general council—the
» Council of Constance—to resolve
5 the split in the Catholic Church

This illustration from the Chronicle of Ulrich von Richental shows the papal
electors taking their leave from Emperor Sigismund at the Council of Constance.

THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE
ENDED THE GREAT SCHISM in 1417
by trying and deposing the last

: [1361-1419], sparked a Hussite
» uprising in Bohemia. This
© combined a religious tussle

In 1415, Henry concluded an
alliance with Burgundy and
reasserted the English claim to
the French crownas a pretext for :
renewing the Hundred Years’
War (see panel, right). In October,
Henry inflicted a terrible defeat on ©
a far superior French force at i
Agincourt, taking the Duke of
Orleans prisoner, and going on to
conquer Normandy.

46 THE LIVING
FELL ON TOP OF
THE DEAD, AND
OTHERS FALLING -
ON TOP OF THE
LIVING WERE
KILLED AS WELL.

From Gesta Henrici Ouinti, c. 1416

During Chinese explorer Zheng ©
He's fourth and greatest i
expedition in 1413, he visited
Calicut in India, and reached
Hormuz on the Persian Gulf,
sending ships to explore down the :
African coast as far as Malindi in
Kenya. The fleet included 63 ships :
of up to 260ft (80m) long. i

In 1414, anti-pope John XXIII—
one of three men claiming to be i
pope—was expelled from Rome by |
King Ladislas of Naples. John
sought refuge with the emperor,
Sigismund, who forced him to

: deposed the existing claimants,

and condemned the Bohemian

priest, religious reformer, and

: philosopher Jan Huss, who was

executed the same year.

antipope, Benedict XIII, and
electing Martin V (c. 1348-1431}
as the sole true pope.

The burning at the stake of
Bohemian religious reformer Jan

of Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

The series of conflicts from 1337 to 1453, later known as the
Hundred Years’ War, was triggered by a combination of factors:
tensions over the status of the duchy of Guienne, which belonged
to the kings of England but owed sovereignty to the French
crown; English claims to that crown, based on descent from the
Capetians; anxieties of influence on both sides; and the need of
English kings to use foreign adventures to shore up support at
home. There should have been little contest between France, the
most powerful nation in Europe, and smaller, poorer England, but
the English used new tactics and weapons, especially the longbow,
to devastating effect. The war drained resources on both sides, but
also forged a new degree of national identity for both countries.

: antipapists, with a nationalist

: struggle between Czechs
(Bohemians and Moravians) and
: Germans. The Hussites, made
Huss (see 1411-15), and the death ©
© extreme (Taborite] factions, united
i to face a crusading alliance led by
: Wenceslaus’ brother, the emperor
: Sigismund. The Hussites defeated
© the alliance outside Prague.

up of moderate (Utraquist) and

In 1411, peace was concluded

: began to look outward, winning
» a foothold on the north coast of

Africa at Ceuta in 1415. Explorer

| Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)
| distinguished himself in the

: expedition; his visit to Africa

: sparked an interest in exploration,
: and he may have set up the first

: school of navigation in Europe at

_ Sagres, in Portugal (see 1434).

THE NUMBER
_OF SESSIONS
HELD AT THE
-42-MONTH-
LONG COUNCIL
OF CONSTANCE

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Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan sits in state; having assassinated his brother to

become duke of Milan, he restored Visconti hegemony over northern Italy.

SULTAN MEHMED |
(1382-1421) had
successfully
restored the
Ottoman state
after the Timurid
invasion [see
1401-03],
although his navy
had come out
worse ina conflict
with the Venetians
at the Battle of
Gallipoli in 1416,
forcing the Ottomans to
recognize Venetian claims in
Albania. In 1421, Mehmed died
and his son, Murad II (1404-51),
became sultan. Domestically, he
restored the devshirme practice of :
training Christian slaves for key
roles in government; externally,
he pursued a policy of renewed
expansion, beginning with the
first Ottoman siege of
Constantinople. The siege was
unsuccessful and Mehmed was
distracted by an uprising led by
the Sufi theologian and preacher
Sheikh Bedreddin—it was
suppressed, and the sheikh

was executed.

The Visconti family had ruled
Milan since Archbishop Otto
Visconti rose to power in 1277;
their domain had spread to
encompass much of northern
Italy, reaching its height under
Gian Galeazzo (1351-1402), sole
ruler from 1385. He had made
marriage alliances with the chief
monarchs of Europe; was made
hereditary duke in 1395; mastered
Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Pisa,
Siena, Assisi, and Perugia

Sultan Murad II
Murad defended and
extended the Ottoman
Empire, and was also
a patron of poetry
and learning,
making his court
a cultural center.

between 1386

and 1400; and
threatened Florence
until his death in
1402. Strife between
his sons Gian Maria and

: Filippo Maria saw this empire

: disintegrate, but when Filippo had
: Gian assassinated in 1412, he set
: about restoring it, regaining

Genoa in 1421. The Visconti

| patronized the arts and
© scholarship, helping to drive the

Renaissance (see pp. 208-09)
The French had suffered great
losses at Agincourt [see 1411-

» 15], and in 1420, at the prompting
} of the pro-English Burgundians,
‘ Charles VI of France had accepted

the Treaty of Troyes and

» acknowledged Henry V of England
: ashis heir and immediate regent.
| The agreement ceded all the

: conquered lands up to the Loire

to the English and declared the
dauphin, Charles, to be
illegitimate. The English now

: controlled northern France.
© In 1422, both Henry and Charles
: died, and under the terms of the
: Treaty, the infant Henry VI was

acclaimed king of both England
and France. The dauphin, based at

: Bourges, refused to accept this,
_ and the Hundred Years’ War (see

1411-15) continued.

Gothic architecture, overlain with 15th, 16th, and 17th century additions.

IN THE 1420S, THE CULTURAL
MOVEMENT known later as the
Italian or High Renaissance
gathered pace, particularly in the
field of painting and the visual
arts. In 1424, the sculptor
Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455)
completed the gilded bronze
doors for the Florence Baptistry
that he had been commissioned to
make in 1403; the following year
he was commissioned for a
further set. Working at the same
time as Ghiberti were a host of
other artists, including
Brunelleschi, Jacopo della
Quercia, Masaccio, Donatello,
Gentile da Fabriano, Jan van Eyck,
and many more.

The Tribute Money

Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone
Masaccio died at just 27 years old, but
created some of the most influential
artworks of the Renaissance.

Although Florence was the
heart of the Renaissance in the
15th century, the other great
Italian power centers of Milan,
Rome, and Venice also fostered
artistic and architectural
achievement. In Venice, the
Doge’s Palace, which had been

: evolving since its origins in the
9th century, embodied many of
the architectural high points
of the previous six centuries. The
current building began to take
shape around 1340; work on the
side overlooking the Piazzetta did

£ not begin until 1424, under Doge
Francesco Foscari (1373-1457).

In 1424, Timur’s descendant,
Ulugh Beg (1394-1449]—
astronomer and future Mongol
leader—built a great observatory
in Samarkand. It was equipped
with a 130-ft (40-m] sextant, and
Ulugh and his team of scholars
cataloged over a thousand stars.

Joan of Arc leads troops into battle,

wielding a crossbow.

Bodkin point
This type of arrowhead is an
uncomplicated, squared, metal
spike, extensively used during the
wars of the Middle Ages.

THE DAUGHTER OF A FARMER,

JOAN OF ARC [1412-31] was 16
when in 1429 voices in her head
commanded her to bear aid to the
French dauphin (see 1421-22).

The English under John, duke of
Bedford (1389-1435), had made
further gains against the forces of

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the dauphin and were besieging
Orleans, while the dauphin had
still not managed to secure his
coronation. Joan succeeded in
obtaining an interview with him at
Chinon, won him over, and was
provided with troops and the title
chef de guerre (“war leader”). She
successfully relieved Orleans,
going on to defeat the English
twice more, and stood next to the
dauphin at his coronation as
Charles VIl at Reims in 1429. Joan
failed to take Paris, however, and
the following year, she was
captured by the Burgundians,
who ransomed her to their
English allies (see 1431-33).

In 1428, Le Loi, leader of
Vietnamese resistance to the
Chinese occupation, expelled the
Chinese and founded the Le
dynasty of Dai Viet. On admitting
Chinese authority, his dynasty was
recognized by the Ming.

The Arnolfini Marriage by Jan van
Eyck is noted for its detailed interior.

FROM 1431 TO 1433, ZHENG HE
(see 1404-07) made a seventh and
final expedition, returning to the
Persian Gulf. Despite this last
trip, China’s period of exploration
had come to an end with the death
of Emperor Yongle in 1424, after
which the Ming dynasty returned
to its former isolationist policy.
Surrendering the lead in
exploration to Portugal and the
Europeans would have profound
consequences for the Chinese and
for world history.

SHIP LENGTHS

COLUMBUS'S
SHIP

ZHENG HE'S
SHIP

Not all the great Renaissance
painters were Italian; Janvan
Eyck (c. 1390-1441] was Flemish.
Celebrated for his mastery of
realism and his perfection of oil
painting, van Eyck produced some
of his greatest masterpieces in
the 1430s. In 1432, he and his
brother Hubert completed their
largest surviving work, the
altarpiece of St. Bavo’s Cathedral
in Ghent, Belgium. Later that year,
in London, van Eyck painted
the Portrait of an Unknown Man
and the Man with the Red Turban;
possibly a self-portrait.

In 1431, Joan of Arc was turned
over by the English to the French
ecclesiastical authorities for trial.
She was found guilty of heresy,
and was burned at the stake
in Rouen.

464 WE READ THAT WE OUGHT TO
FORGIVE OUR ENEMIES; BUT WE
DO NOT READ THAT WE OUGHT
TO FORGIVE OUR FRIENDS. 99

Cosimo de Medici

SINCE THE 1380S, FLORENCE HAD
BEEN DOMINATED by the Albizzi
family, who extended the city's
control of Tuscany. The attempts
of Visconti Milan {see 1421-22] to
gain control over all of Tuscany
forced Florence into a ruinously
expensive war, although alliance
with Venice saw Milan defeated.
A leader of the peace party was
wool merchant and banker
Giovanni de Medici, possibly the
richest man in Europe. After his
death in 1429 and a disastrous
war with Lucca in Tuscany, the
Albizzi succeeded in having
Giovanni's son, Cosimo de Medici,
banished from Florence in 1433,
but new elections saw him
returned the following year,
marking the start of Medici
domination of the city. Cosimo
combined business acumen with
political shrewdness, winning
popular support for his policies.
All attempts by anti-Hussite
forces under the emperor
Sigismund to dislodge the
Hussites and regain control of the
Czech territories had failed
(see 1416-20]. The superior
organization and tactics of the
Hussites, first under Jan Zizka
and, after his death in 1424, under
Andrew Prokops, made them
militarily powerful. In 1430, they
invaded Germany and raided as
far as Franconia. Negotiations
with the ecumenical Council of
Basel in 1413 led to the Compact
of Prague, or Compactacta, under
which moderate Hussites [the
Utraquists} agreed to go back to
the Catholic Church. The extreme
anti-papist Taborites rejected the

Compact, and civil war broke out
between the factions, which
represented different classes as
well as religious ideals. In 1434, at
the Battle of Lipany, the upper-
class Utraquists vanquished the
Taborites, killing Prokops.

The rising power of the
Sukhothai kingdom of Thailand
had increasingly threatened the
Khmer Empire (see 1201-05)
through the 14th century. Repeated
Thai raids, particularly an
incursion in 1431, may have helped

»>

Painting of the first Medici ruler
of Florence, Cosimo.

into the Atlantic had discovered

: the islands of Madeira and the
Azores. Henry personally
oversaw the colonization of these
Atlantic outposts, successfully
establishing them as centers of
agricultural production and

» forward bases for Portuguese
exploration. Henry's next target
was to round Cape Bojador on the
coast of West Africa, the farthest
limit of Portuguese exploration;
contemporary European sailors’
lore viewed the seas beyond as a

The Windrose

The windrose mosaic at Sagres in
Portugal—possibly a sundial—was
commissioned by Portuguese
navigator Prince Henry.

trigger the 1434 abandonment of
Angkor (see 1146-50) and the
transfer of the Khmer capital to
Phnom Penh, farther south,
although it is also possible that
the new location offered better
connections for foreign trade.
Sponsored by Prince Henry the
Navigator (see 1416-20),
Portuguese explorers pushing out

dangerous and terrifying
otherworld. Cape Bojador was
finally rounded by Gil Eannes in
1434. The experiences of his
sailors on these voyages of

: discovery convinced Henry that

: the traditional barca ships in use
were unsuitable, and he worked
with shipwrights to design a new
type of vessel, the caravel. This
was smaller, lighter, and swifter,
with a shallow draft for near-

' shore operations and more space
for stores to allow the ships to
stay at sea for longer.

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This manuscript illustration shows.
Charles VII entering Paris in triumph.

46 THE
KINGDOM OF
FRANCE...
WILL BE THUS
RULED BY KING
CHARLES VII...
HE WILL ENTER
PARIS IN GOOD
COMPANY. 99

Joan of Arc, Christian visionary

THOUGH ALLIED WITH THE
ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF FRANCE,
the Burgundians (see 1404-07)
were increasingly concerned at
English gains. With the Treaty of
Arras, the Burgundians and the
French king, Charles Vil, made
peace but the English, unwilling to
accept the terms, withdrew from
negotiations. The following year,
the French alliance took Paris
from English control.

The 1430s saw increasing
tension between the papacy and
the conciliar movement, which
held that the Church ought to be
governed by a Church council,
rather than an individual pope.
Pope Eugenius IV summoned a
General Council at Basel in
1431, but it was dominated by
antipapal sentiment and, in
1437, he tried to transfer the
Council to Ferrara, where it would
be more amenable to his influence.
Most of the delegates refused to
leave Basel, resulting in two
concurrent councils.

IN 1438, PACHACUTEC [C. 1438-
1672) BECAME THE NINTH INCA
KING, or Sapa Inca. His reign
heralded the beginning of a grea’
expansion of the Inca realm,
which had been confined to the
immediate area around Cuzco
since its foundation (see 1201-
1205). It began with invasion by
the rival Chancas, who besieged
Cuzco, and were completely
defeated. Inca expansion was
facilitated by the sophisticated
nature of most of the kingdoms
and tribes they conquered;
tight-knit, centralized
administration focused on

the emperor; a genius for
organization and record-keeping

(despite having no writing); and an :

imperial road-building program
rivalled only by the Roman
Empire.

In 1440, the young king of
England founded a new
college at Eton. The King's
College of Our Lady of
Eton near Windsor, now
known as Eton College,
was intended to be part of
a large foundation
including a massive
church, an almshouse,
and 70 scholars who were

Founded by King Henry VI of England, construction of Eton college was
halted when the king was deposed during the War of the Roses.

Amazon
Basin

PACIFIC
OCEAN

| KEY
: 1) Expansion by 1400
' Expansion in the reign of Pachacutec

: Inca expansion

: The Inca Empire had expanded

: greatly between 1400 and the end of
' Pachacutec’s reign. It would triple in
size by the 16th century.

| to receive free education before
: going on to King’s College,
: Cambridge.

With the Ottomans (see
1286-90) occupying
territories on all sides of the
tiny remnants of the

Byzantine Empire, and
threatening Constantinople itself,
the embattled Byzantine emperor

John Vill Palaeologus (see

1448-49) arrived in Europe to

plead for help from the Council

of Ferrara in 1438.

Gold llama statuette

The Inca were so rich in gold that

emperor Atahualpa was able to offer

a ransom of 750 tons of it when
captured by conquistadors in 1532.

MACHU PICCHU (meaning “Old
Peak” in Quechua, the language of
the Incas} is a mountaintop citadel
about 43 miles (70km) northwest of
Cuzco. Construction probably
began in the 1440s, under the
auspices of Pachacutec. The
maximum population of Machu
Picchu was possibly only around
1,000, and it is thought that it
served as a ceremonial center,

as well as being an impregnable
stronghold for the Inca elite in

case of attack.

Resistance to Ottoman
occupation of the Balkans
increased, and in 1443, a
crusading army defeated the
Ottomans at Nis, in Bulgaria. The
Ottoman sultan, Murad II [see
1421-22], was forced out of
retirement to take over from his
son, Mehmed II, to whom he had

Fresco by Domenico di Bartolo, (c. 1410-1461), of the Sienese school,
from Siena’s hospital of Santa Maria della Scala.

: attempted to entrust his crown.

: At Adrianople, Murad made a

: 10-year truce with Albanian

» military leader Hunyadi

| Skandebeg and other resistors of
: Ottoman advance. However, with
: the pope preaching crusade, the
: resistors were absolved of their

: oaths of peace and they launched
© anewattack. Led by Hunyadi and
» Wladyslaw III of Poland and

: Hungary (1424-1444), the

: crusading army—the last major

» Machu Picchu

| High above the Urubamba

: Valley in the Peruvian

: Andes, on an

| inaccessible ridge,
lies Machu Picchu,
sacred citadel of

| the Inca

: kings.

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RRR

Battle of Varna
2 = 1 The Hungarian-led
bl crusader army, with a
strength of 30,000, suffered heavy
losses at the hands of the Ottoman

troops, who numbered 60,000.

attempt to expel the Ottomans
from the Balkans and relieve
Constantinople—was decisively
crushed by Murad at the Battle of
Varna. Wladyslaw disappeared

in the battle and was presumed
dead, despite rumors of his
miraculous survival.

The rocky north coast between Paul and Ribeira Grande
in Santa Antao in the Cape Verde islands.

HENRY THE NAVIGATOR’S
EXPENSIVE PROJECT to open up
the coast of Africa [see 1434) was
met with scepticism at home in
Portugal, untilin 1441, one of his
ships returned with gold dust and
slaves, prompting an acceleration
of activity. Between 1444 and
1446, around 35 of Henry's vessels
sailed for the West African coast.
In 1445, sailing in one of Henry's
new caravels, explorer Dinis Dias
sighted the mouth of the Senegal
River, which offered a trade route
deep into the African interior,

and rounded Cape Verde, the
westernmost point of Africa. Dias
returned the following year as
part of a fleet of caravels
intending to plant the Portuguese
flag and explore what Henry
believed might be the western
branch of the Nile, while another
of Henry's captains, Nufio Tristao,
sighted the Gambia River.

The marriage of Margaret of
Anjou (c. 1430-82] to Henry VI of
England in 1445 was negotiated by
William de la Pole, chief advisor to
the king and power behind the
throne, whose aim was to stop the
war in France (see 1435-37]. At
first, the match and the bride were
popular in England, but in 1448, the
territory of Maine in northern
France was lost to Charles VIl and
the queen was blamed for her
influence over the weak king.
Margaret would survive this,
however, and become an important
player in the Wars of the Roses
{see 1454-55).

The death of Filippo Maria
Visconti in 1447 signaled the end
of the Visconti ducal line of Milan

(see 1421-22). There were
multiple claimants to the ducal
throne, and eager to avoid
domination by a foreigner, the
Milanese powers immediately
constituted the Aurea Repubblica
Ambrosiana of Milan, or the
Ambrosian Republic, but they
faced insurmountable obstacles.
Riven by internal dissension and
unwilling to lose control of the
other cities controlled by Milan,
they were soon forced to turn
military control over toa
condotierre, or mercenary soldier-
leader—the powerful Muzio
Attendolo, nicknamed Sforza
meaning “exert” or “force.”

In the mid-15th century, the
Shona kingdom of Mwene Mutapa,
also known as Great Zimbabwe
(see 1106-10), was nearing the
end of its glory days. By this time,
the riches of the gold fields had
funded construction of the Great
Enclosure, an elliptical space
enclosed by a giant wall 800ft
(244m) around, and up to 36 ft
(11 m] high in places, built from
almost a million granite blocks.

Population
of Great
Zimbabwe

Golden age of Great Zimbabwe
In the mid-15th century, the
population of Great Zimbabwe was
just under half the size of the
population of London.

7) DF ..

Illustration from a Muromachi period manuscript. The arts flourished in

Japan under Ashikaga patronage.

IN 1449, ASHIKAGA YOSHIMASA
(1435-90) BECAME SHOGUN, or
military dictator, of Japan.
Although his reign marked a
cultural highpoint of the Ashikaga,
or Muromachi period (1336-1573)
it was also a period of increasing
civil strife. Repeated famines
triggered constant uprisings,
while the Ashikaga practice of
issuing tokuseirei or “acts of
grace” to cancel debts, damaged
the economy. Despite this,
Yoshimasa presided over a
cultural flowering at his
Higashiyama estate.

The new pope, Nicholas V,
elected in 1447, was intent on
bringing an end to the schism
caused by his predecessor's clash
with the Council of Basel (see
1435-37], and on restoring peace
to Italy and achieving harmonious
relations with other rulers. At the
Concordat of Vienna in 1448, he
made concessions to Emperor
Frederick Ill and the other
German princes, who in return
abandoned the Council of Basel
and recognized some papal
powers. The following year,
the Council of Basel finally
disbanded and the anti-pope,
Felix V, abdicated in return for a
cardinalship. This marked the
final victory of the papacy over
the conciliar movement.

Following the death of Byzantine
emperor John VIII, his brother
Constantine XI Palaeologus [see
panel, right) acceded to the throne =
in Constantinople—he would be
the last Byzantine emperor. The
Ottomans had defeated another of :
Jan Hunyadi’s crusades to clear

PALAEOLOGUS
(1404-53)

Constantine XI Palaeologus
succeeded to the remnants
of a once-great empire, left
without the resources to
defend itself. He was the last
emperor of Byzantium, a state
that had lasted throughout the
medieval period, providing a
unique bridge between east
and west, ancient and
modern. He died on the walls
of Constantinople, having
done everything in his power
to secure its defense.

: them from the Balkans at the

: second Battle of Kosovo in 1448,
: regaining control of Albania. It

| was Clear that there would be

: no European rescue for the

| Ottomans were closing in on

Constantinople.

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REFORMATION
AND

EXPLORATION
1450-1749

The 16th and 17th centuries were determined by new horizons,
as new lands were explored and new ideas formulated.
Religious reform and conflict, global exploration, and a
scientific revolution laid the grounds of a new understanding.

THE GREAT ZIMBABWE
CIVILIZATION of southeast Africa
(see 1106-10) was in decline by
the mid-15th century. This
coincided with the rise of the
Mutapa Empire in the fertile,
copper-rich uplands between
the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers
in present-day Zimbabwe and
Mozambique. Sustained by
lucrative trade in copper, cattle,
ivory, slaves, and gold with

44 NO ART, HOWEVER MINOR,

A detail from Ghiberti’s Doors of Paradise for Florence Cathedral's Baptistry. The
second pair of doors he completed, they show scenes from the Old Testament.

: into competing regional powers
: in the aftermath of Timur’s

invasion of 1398. But in 1451,

| the new Afghan Lodi dynasty

| reasserted the sultanate’s former
: dominance in the region, which

: lasted until it was ousted by the

In Europe, Florentine goldsmith

- Lorenzo Ghiberti completed his
: second set of bronze doors for the
: Baptistry in Florence in 1452.

DEMANDS LESS THAN
TOTAL DEDICATION. 99

Leon Battista Alberti, Italian polymath (1404-72)

Muslim coastal settlements, the
Mutapa Empire remained the

dominant regional power for more =
than a century, when repeated
Portuguese attempts to infiltrate
it finally succeeded (see 1629).
On the Indian subcontinent, the
Dethi sultanate had fractured

The first door, begun in 1403, took

: him 21 years; the second, 27

years. In the same year, Leon
Battista Alberti published De Re
Aedificatoria, (Ten Books of

| Architecture). Both works were
| masterpieces in their fields and
: exemplified the self-confidence

and intellectual
daring of the
Florentine
Renaissance.

Mosque pavilion in
Mehrauli

The remains of a
mosque in Mehrauli,
Delhi, built during
the reign of the Lodi
dynasty (1451-1526),
who were the last
rulers of the Delhi
sultanate.

This 16th-century fresco depicts the siege of Constantinople, which began on

April 2, 1453 and ended when the Ottomans took the city on May 29.

English defeat at Castillon

The Battle of Castillon decisively
ended the hopes of England's French
Plantagenet kings to pursue their
claim to the French throne.

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR, a
grimly drawn-out period of
Anglo-French conflict (see
1411-15), ended with absolute
French triumph in 1453. Any
hopes England's French
Plantagenet kings had of
asserting their rights to the
French throne came to a final halt
at Castillon outside Bordeaux.
Two years earlier, Bordeaux,
which had been in English hands
for 300 years, had fallen to the
French. This prompted a last,
desperate attempt by the English
to reassert themselves against
the forces of the French king,
Charles VII, which were massing
in strength in the southwest of

France. Bordeaux was
recaptured by the English, but
an attempt in July to relieve the
English stronghold of Castillon,
which was besieged bya large
French force, was a calamitous
failure. In the first major
European conflict to be decided

_ by artillery, the English lost 4,000
: men; the French, scarcely 100.

Three months later, in October,
Bordeaux itself fell again to the

: French. This brought to an end
_ the Hundred Years’ War and left

Calais on the Channel coast as
the only remaining English
possession in France. For the
English, defeat provoked the first
of a series of descents into

: madness by the country’s hapless

king, Henry VI. For the French,
victory brought closer the goal
of a properly united kingdom
under a single monarch.

In Western Asia and on the
borders of Christendom,

: Constantinople, capital of the

beleaguered Byzantine Empire,
remained the center of Orthodox
Christian civilization. But it faced
an imminent threat from the

: Muslim Ottoman Empire. This
: threat materialized when the

Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II

that only relentless conquest

+ would guarantee continued

Ottoman supremacy, mustered
an army of 80,000 to attack
Constantinople; the defenders of
the city could call on fewer than

: 7,000 troops. In addition, Mehmed

had the most formidable artillery
in the world. The ancient,
crumbling walls of the city were

MRRRIK
BARAK

1:12

: 80,000 men against only 7,000

: defenders during the siege of

: Constantinople, a disparity that

: made the city’s fall almost inevitable.

Siege of
Constantinople
Mehmed led

! no match for destructive force on

) this scale, and the city fell to the

Ottomans in May 1453.
Conscious of their destiny as

: world conquerors in need of a

: suitably imposing capital, the

: Ottomans were careful to

: preserve the city after they had

| taken it: they needed it as a

: symbol of their own, newly gained

i grandeur. Its imposing Christian

| buildings were pressed into

: the city itself remained a symbol

: more than 450 years. The

: Ottoman conquest of

: Constantinople—now renamed

: Istanbul—was the clearest

: Ottomans were the most dynamic

| military and political force in the

: region, and that they were an

: unmistakable threat, not only to

: what remained of Christian claims

» in Western Asia but also to Europe

: asa whole.

44 IT IS A PRESS, CERTAINLY, BUTA
PRESS FROM WHICH SHALL FLOW IN
INEXHAUSTIBLE STREAMS...THROUGH
IT, GOD WILL SPREAD HIS WORD. 99

Johannes Gutenberg, German inventor and printer (c. 1398-1468)

THE COMPETING AMBITIONS OF
ITALY’S CITY-STATES, which had
led to almost a century of war,
was ended by the Treaty of Lodi
in 1454. Milan, Venice, Florence,
the Papal States, and Naples were
the signatories. The treaty had
been given additional impetus by
the fall of Constantinople to the
Ottomans a year earlier, when it
became clear there was a need to
present a united Christian front.

In 1454 or 1455, Johannes
Gutenberg produced the first
major book to be printed with a
movable type printing press: the
Gutenberg Bible. His method of
printing meant that thousands
of copies of books could be made
relatively easily. The result was an
explosion in the spread of ideas
and knowledge, above all
because works appeared in
vernacular languages rather than
exclusively in Latin and Greek.

In England, on May 22, 1455,
armies belonging to the Duke
of Somerset and Duke of York

clashed in the Battle of St. Albans,

the opening conflict of the Wars
of the Roses. These were a series
of civil wars between the rival
Plantagenet houses of York and
Lancaster, both of which had
claims to the throne. Henry VI, a
Lancastrian, was on the throne at
the outbreak of the wars, but with
the victory and accession of
Edward IV in 1461, the conflict

Gutenberg Bible

Johannes Gutenberg produced only
180 copies of his Gutenberg Bible,
but it marked the start of the age of
the printed book.

: King Henry VI

! This anonymous portrait is of King

: Henry VI, reputedly a peaceful, pious

: manwho suffered from prolonged
bouts of severe mental illness.

prob

seemed to have been won by the
Yorkists. The wars continued until
1485, when Henry Tudor seized
the throne (see 1483-85)

By the mid-15th century,
Prussia (conquered by the
Teutonic Knights two centuries
earlier) had become resentful of
its lowly status within the Baltic
territories of the Teutonic Order.
In 1454 the Prussian Estates
revolted, and asked for Polish
military support, beginning what
was to become the Thirteen
Years’ War against the Teutonic
Knights. The war ended in 1466
with the division of Prussia into
two territories: one in the east still
controlled by the Order, and
so-called Royal Prussia, now a
vassal state of the kings of Poland

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A Turkish miniature painting showing Mehmed II's forces attacking Belgradey
which they tried unsuccessfully to take from Hungary in 1456.

OTTOMAN EXPANSION CONTINUED
IN THE BALKANS AND GREECE as
Mehmed I! pressed ahead in his
determination to conquer the
world for Islam. Mehmed
attempted to take Belgrade

in 1456 but was repulsed by
Hungary. However, by 1459 the
rest of Serbia was under Ottoman
control. Simultaneously, the
Ottomans conquered the
Peloponnese in southern Greece,
with Athens falling in 1456. Over
the next two decades, Ottoman
control of the Balkans was
consolidated with the conquest of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in
the Aegean, remaining Christian-
held islands—which were chiefly
Venetian and Genoan—were
clearly under threat.

if
i
r

i
I

In 1458, Matthias Corvinus,
: second son of Janos Hunyadi, the
= man who had led the successful
: defence of Belgrade against
' Mehmed II’s Ottoman troops
» in 1456, was elected king of
: Hungary. His reign promised
i much: not only to draw the
' Hungarians into the wider
: European Renaissance, but also
© to increase the reach and prestige
: of his country.
Corvinus was permanently
: distracted by the need to defend
© Hungary against further Ottoman
: incursions, but he had territorial
: ambitions to the west. He was
© successful in substantially
: expanding Hungarian territory at
: the expense of Bohemia, against
: whose Hussite ruler, George of
: Podebrady (r. 1458-71), he
: obtained papal sanction in 1468
' to lead a crusade. During the
: crusade, Corvinus gained control
© of Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia.
: However, in the longer run his
: actions destabilized both Hungary
© and Bohemia, and brought him
: into conflict with the Holy Roman
: Emperor, Frederick III. His actions
© also sparked suspicion among
- Hungary's nobles, who feared
| that their own positions would
© be undermined.
: Despite these initial territorial
: gains engineered by Corvinus,
© the net result was that most of
: Hungary fell victim to Ottoman
© conquest in 1526, and Bohemia
» and the remaining part of
: Hungary came under direct
» Habsburg control.

167

Czar lvan Ill, “Ivan the Great,” declared Moscow free of Tartar domina'

a5 ,.

the deed (money demand) of Tartar Khan.

APTLY NAMED "THE SPIDER KING,” :
: bankrupt. Yet by 1481, Louis had

Louis XI acceded the French
throne in July 1461, marking a
critical point in the evolution of
the French state. The medieval
monarchs of France, whatever
their nominal power, were heavily
limited in their influence. They
exercised direct rule over only a
limited area, chiefly in the north
and center, with the rest of the
country controlled by a series of
mostly hostile magnates, of whom
the Duke of Burgundy (Charles
the Bold] in 1461 was the most
obviously threatening (see
1472-76). By the end of the
Hundred Years’ War in 1453,

Louis XI

Crowned king of France in 1461,
Louis XI extended his rule over an
increasing number of territories

France was effectively also

not only seen off the last of the
dukes of Burgundy, bringing
Artois, Picardy, and Burgundy

: itself under his rule, but by a

combination of inheritance and

i clever diplomacy had added
© Roussillon, Cerdagne, Maine,

Provence, and Anjou. This
extension of centralizing royal

: authority was a crucial step in

the subsequent emergence of a
unified, much more powerful
French state. In reality, relations

» between the French monarchy

and its most powerful subjects
would remain fraught well into

» the 17th century. As elsewhere, it
: proved necessary both to assert

authority and to negotiate with

: provincial and noble elites. This

dual process, central to the

: making of early modern France,

led to friction and tension long

after the reign of Louis XI.

Expansion on an even more

: dramatic scale also marked

: developments in Muscovy—the
: Grand Duchy of Moscow—with the |
: accession of Ivan III “the Great”
» in March 1462. The collapse of

Mongol rule over the 14th and

| 15th centuries, and the fall of
: Constantinople (now Istanbul) in

1453, had opened the way for
Muscovy not merely to assert

: leadership of the Orthodox world,

but to defy any last Mongol
attempts at overlordship. In the

: process, it sparked a burst of
© expansion that characterized
: Russia well into the 19th century.

The most notable of these

tion by tearing up

: vast Novgorod Territory, which,
: although sparsely populated,
£ economically marginal, and

imperfectly known, was rich in

: natural resources. In 1478, lvan

simply annexed it.

However much it may have
increased the stability and
prosperity of China, the Ming
dynasty faced a series of

: substantial internal threats to its

: authority as well as continuing

: conflict with the Mongols to the

: north. If most revolts were the

: product of famine, a number were
© also the result of the increasingly
» autocratic and rigid nature of

» Ming rule. In every case, they

were harshly suppressed. In
1464, the same year that the

: 16-year-old Emperor Chenghua

came to the throne, such a revolt

= broke out among the native Miao

and Yao people in the provinces
of Huguang and then Guangxi in

» south-central China. The revolt
© took two years to put down. In

: addition to the 160,000 troops

: stationed in the south, a further

30,000 were sent to the two

: provinces. No accurate estimate
: of the death toll is possible. The
: revolt flared up again in 1467 and,

ona larger scale, in 1475.

silk binding
covers handle

Malbork Castle was the headquarters of the Teutonic Knights. It was
Europe's largest medieval brick castle and is in what is now Poland.

THE THIRTEEN YEARS’ WAR
between Poland-Lithuania and
the Teutonic Knights—a military
order founded in Palestine—ended
with the Second Treaty of Torun
in 1466. The Teutonic Knights,
powerful since the early 13th
century [see 1236-40), were

The underlying political fragility

i of Japan and the relative

: impotence of the Ashikaga

: broke out in 1467. It left Japan

devastated and led to more than

44 THE CAPITAL THAT WE
BELIEVED WOULD FLOURISH
FOR TEN THOUSAND YEARS
HAS NOW BECOME A LAIR
FOR THE WOLVES. 99

Onin Ki, late 15th—mid 16th century account of the Onin War

obliged to cede much of the
western half of their territory

to Prussia, and, in return for
Polish-Lithuanian aid in the war,
this territory became the property
of the Polish crown.

Samurai sword

This 15th-century katana, with its
scabbard, is typical of those used in
the Onin war. It could deliver a
sweeping cut in a single movement.

a century of turbulence—the

Sengoku jidai or Warring States

Period—as a series of regional

: magnates or daimyo attempted

i to eradicate their rivals. The war
| began as a succession dispute
over who would replace the

: elderly and retiring Ashikaga

: Yoshimasa as shogun, the

' Hosokawa clan supporting the

i claims of Yoshimasa’s brother,

the Yamana clan those of his

during his 22-year reign. : extensions under Ivan was in the
©
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464 THE LANDLOCKED SEA IS GREEK
OR ROMAN, THE BOUNDLESS SEA
IS PORTUGUESE. 99

Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese poet and writer, 1885-1935

NAVARRE

KINGDOM OF
ARAGON

PORT, AL

GRANADA ye
ve

Castile and Aragon

The two kingdoms of Aragon and
Castile became a composite
monarchy through the marriage of
Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469.

infant son. In the process, not
only was Kyoto, the imperial
capital, entirely destroyed,

but the Hosokawa and Yamana
themselves became victims of the
conflict, their power and status
swept away as the increasingly
brutal fighting continued.

The marriage in 1469 of
Isabella, heir to the Castilian
throne (which she inherited in
1474), and Ferdinand, heir to
the throne of Aragon (which he
inherited in 1479), led directly
to the emergence of a unified,
unbendingly Christian Spain.
This resulted in the development
of Spain as the most powerful

: state in early 16th-century
» Europe. Isabella was 17 years old
| when she married Ferdinand. In

choosing to marry him, she risked
the wrath of her older half-

: her asa threat to his own power.
: But the marriage, in the Spanish
: city of Valladolid, was the

years, Ferdinand and Isabella—
Los Reyes Catolicos, the Catholic

: Castile and Aragon, although the
: kingdoms were not formally

: remained separate and, as such,

were consistently bedeviled by
competing priorities and rivalries.
Even at the height of Spanish

} power in the 16th and early 17th

| was able to resolve the problem

: satisfactorily. Nonetheless,

| Spain's potential to emerge as the

dominant force in Renaissance

| Europe was unmistakable under
: Ferdinand and Isabella. It was a
» position that the tirelessly

| hard-headed Isabella and the

politically astute Ferdinand were

+ well placed to exploit.

tempered point

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BY ABOUT 1470, PORTUGUESE
exploration of the west coast of
Africa had reached as far as
modern-day Sierra Leone. It had
been a hesitant process, limited
by ship types, principally galleys
and cogs, that were unsuited to
long-range exploration, Its goals
were uncertain beyond a general
hope to trace the trans-Saharan
gold trade to its source and to
exploit the West African slave
trade. The death in 1460 of
Prince Henry, “the Navigator,”
the early champion of Portuguese
exploration (see 1434), had made
further progress unlikely.
However, in 1469 Portuguese king
Afonso V agreed—in exchange for
an annual fee—to allow a Lisbon
merchant, Fernao Gomes, to
continue to push Portuguese
efforts south along the West
African coast. The results were
spectacular. Within five years
Gomes had explored a further

2,000

THE EXTENT
OF THE INCA
EMPIRE

2,000 miles (3,200 km) of coastline. :

Not only was Portugal able to lay
claim to a series of what would
prove immensely lucrative

trading stations (see 1480-82] on
the West African coast, Gomes also =
opened the way to the Portuguese :

penetration of the South Atlantic.
The Inca Empire, more short-
lived even than its Aztec neighbor
to the north, was formed ina
surge of conquest after 1438 from
its Andean heartlands in central
Peru. Tupac Yupanqui (Topa Inca),
who came to the Inca throne in
1471, had been
made head of the
Inca armies in 1463
and had already
substantially
enlarged Inca
control to the north,
well into modern-
day Ecuador. The
empire extended
about 2,500 miles

Inca ruler
This 18th-century
painting shows Tupac

: Portuguese explorers

Fernao Gomes (right) continued the

: age of exploration begun by Henry the

Navigator (left) as depicted in the

: Monument to the Discoveries, Lisbon.

i (4,000 km). Topa Inca’s principal
© contribution to Inca expansion
© came with his conquest from

: about 1470 of the Peruvian
kingdom of Chimor.

In southeast Asia, the kingdom

: of Champa (in modern-day

: Vietnam) had existed since the 7th
: century. But in 1471 it was

: effectively destroyed by Vict

troops who laid waste the Champa

Yupanqui (Topa Incal, capital, Vijaya. What remained of
the fifth Inca of the : the kingdom would henceforth be
Hanan dynasty. : a vassal state of the Vietnamese.
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Acarving of the central Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl in Teotihuacan

located near present-day Mexico City.

FOLLOWING THE OTTOMAN
CONQUEST of Constantinople in
1453, its conqueror, Mehmed Il,
set out not merely to extend
Ottoman rule in the Balkans, but
also to reassert it in Anatolia,
where Ottoman strength had been
significantly reduced in the wake
of Timur’'s early 15th-century
invasion (see 1401-03). It was now |
most obviously opposed in the
region by a Turcoman people, the
White Sheep Turcomans, under
the rule of Uzun Hasan. They had
been actively, if not particularly
successfully, wooed by various

: Christian powers, notably Venice,
: inan attempt to enlist them in

: Ottoman expansion. The result

: of Uzun Hasan's efforts was a

: comprehensive defeat in 1473 at
» the Battle of Otlukbeli, the light

: of Burgundy were at their height.
: Their heartlands were the Duchy
: and County of Burgundy,

: awarded to the first duke of H
© Burgundy, Philip the Bold, brother |

Christian struggles against

cavalry of the Turcoman forces
swept aside by the Ottomans’
overwhelming firepower.

By the mid-1470s, the territories =

of King Charles V
of France, in
1363. In 1369,
with his marriage
to Margaret, the
countess of i
Flanders, Philip also:
acquired Flanders
and Artois—in
effect a significant
portion of modern-
day Belgium. To this
constellation of
territories, Philip's
grandson, Philip the —
Good, then added
parts of northeast
France and much of
modern Holland.
These holdings,
however imposing,
were still far from

Ottoman drums

The Janissaries of the
Ottoman army parade =
with the drums that
were used to urge the
soldiers into battle.

Roman Empire

: being asingle, continuous

: territory. Furthermore, as many
: of them were within the Holy

: Roman Empire, these were at

: least theoretically subject to the
: Holy Roman Emperor, just as

: Burgundy’s French lands were

nominally subject to the king

: of France. But their size and,

: crucially, the fact that they held
| many of the richest of the

: the Low Countries made the

: Burgundians a formidable

> power. Philip the Good's heir,

_ Charles the Bold, inherited this
© state within states in 1467 and

| determined not just to make it

a continuous territory—which by

: 1472 he had succeeded in doing
: through an audacious
: combination of purchase and

: Expansion of Burgundy North
: This map shows the Sea
© territories held by Charles
| the Bold, who pursued eae DUCHY
: an aggressive “Ne Bruges BRABANT
H fee ’ Ant
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: The duchies of
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z COUNTY OF
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conquest—but to assert its
independence as a separate
kingdom. The Burgundians were
inevitably opposed by the infinitely

: more calculating French king,
Louis XI. In little more than four

: months in1476, they suffered two.
calamitous defeats by Swiss
mercenary armies in the pay of
Louis—at Grandson and at Morat
in modern northwest Switzerland.

The rigidly hierarchical Aztec

Empire (1428-1521) became

© a formidable military force,
imposing itself with brutal finality
on its neighbors in central Mexico
from Tenochtitlan, its capital.

: Axayacatl, who came to the

: Aztec throne in 1469, added
substantially to the empire, mainly
with the conquest of the state of
Tlatelolco in 1473.

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170

IN JANUARY 1477, CHARLES THE
BOLD’S Burgundian forces
confronted the Swiss again, at
Nancy in Lorraine. They were
comprehensively routed and the
body of the duke was discovered
face down in a frozen pond. While
Louis XI (see 1461) seized the
Burgundians’ French territories,
those in the Low Countries
passed to the Habsburgs with the
marriage of Charles's only child,
Margaret, to the future Holy
Roman Emperor, Maximilian |.
William Caxton (c. 1420-92)
was an English merchant whose
continental travels introduced him
to printing. He established the
first printing press in England in
1476, printing the first book a year
later. He published 87 books,
many also translated by him.

Caxton’s printing press
The first printing press in England,
established by William Caxton in
Westminster, London, produced its
first book in 1477.

The Battle of Nancy was the final and decisive Burgundian War, which left
thousands dead, including the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold.

44 IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO
HOPE IN ORDER TO UNDERTAKE,
NOR TO SUCCEED IN ORDER TO

PERSEVERE. 99

Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1433-77)

The Ottomans continued their
expansion with the Treaty of
Constantinople of 1479, which
ended the intermittent Ottoman-
Venetian war that had begun in
1463. It confirmed the Ottomans
asa naval power of growing

importance. It also brought with it

Ottoman control of the Greek
island Negroponte (Euobea) and
of Lemnos in the north Aegean.
Venice remained a major power
in much of the region but it was
anxious not to jeopardize its
lucrative Ottoman trading links.
The accession of Isabella | to the
throne of Castile in 1474 was
challenged by her step-niece,

THE NUMBER
OF BOOKS
PUBLISHED BY
CAXTON’S
PRESS

: Joan, wife of King Afonso V of

» Portugal, in part to disrupt

» Castilian claims in the exploration
© of the West African coast. At its

: heart was a dispute as to which

: country could lay claim to the

: Atlantic island groups—the
Canaries, the Azores, and

_ Madeira—successively colonized
© by Spain and Portugal since the

: early 15th century. The outcome

» was the 1479 Treaty of Alcacovas,
: confirming Castile’s claims to the
: Canaries and Portugal's claims to
: the Azores and Madeira, and

» Portuguese rights in West Africa.

THE SPANISH INQUISITION

Founded by Ferdinand and
Isabella in 1478, the goal of the
Inquisition was to impose an
overarching Christian Catholic
identity on all Spanish
territories. Tribunals were held
in which heretics—which at this
time meant Jews and those
who had converted to
Christianity from Judaism—
were punished and expelled.
After the fall of Granada in
1492, it was also applied to
Muslims. The Inquisition was
finally disbanded in 1820.

Built in 1482 as Sao Jorge da Mina, Elmina Castle was one of the first
Portuguese trading forts on the west coast of Africa [pow Ghana).

BY ABOUT 1440, THREE SEPARATE
MOSSI KINGDOMS had become
established in West Africa, roughly
in present-day Burkina Faso.
These were Tengkodogo, Yatenga,
and Wogodogo. Making use of
formidable cavalry, from about
1480 they exploited the gradual
decline of Mali in the face of
Songhay expansion by raiding
deep into Mali territories. They
would remain an important
presence until colonization by
France some 400 years later.

The year 1482 saw two crucial
developments in the continuing
Portuguese exploration and
settlement of West Africa.

The first was the construction of
Sao Jorge da Mina, now called
Elmina Castle, on what was later
known as the Gold Coast and is
today Ghana. It was a strongly
fortified trading post, built on royal
authority and the first permanent
European settlement in

sub-Saharan Africa, designed to
secure a Portuguese monopoly
of the West African gold trade.
It proved immensely lucrative

By the early 16th century, 1,500lb

(680kg] of gold a year were passing

through Elmina.

The second development was a
further series of voyages, led by
Diogo Cao, southward along the
West African coast. The voyages
were sponsored by the new king
of Portugal, John II, who came
to the throne in 1481 and who
committed his country to a
deliberately aggressive policy of
Portuguese expansion. On Cao’s
first voyage, in 1482, he
reached—and claimed for
Portugal—the mouth of the
Congo. On his second voyage, in
1484-86, he penetrated almost a
farther 1,000 miles (1,600 km)
south to Walvis Bay (now in
Namibia], once again imperiously
claiming the coast in the name of

: Cao's cross

: Portuguese explorer Diogo Cao

| marked his discoveries of the west
: coast of Africa with a series of

: imposing stone crosses.

: the Portuguese throne. Both

: voyages were epics of tenacity,

= made in the face of consistently

- West Africa to the Gulf of Guinea
were generally benign, aided by

= northeast trade winds and the

= Guinea Current, to the south they
: were much more arduous. Cao's

: achievement was impressive, but
: it emphasized that if a practical

| route existed to the Indian Ocean

: and the East, it would be left to

: later Portuguese navigators—

: notably Bartolomeu Dias in

: 1487—to pioneer the newroute,

: deep into the South Atlantic.

1450-1749 | REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

ARCTIC OCEAN

VOYAGES OF

EXPLORATION

Christopher Columbus's voyage across the Atlantic in 1492 sparked an }

unprecedented opening-up of the world—first by the Portuguese and Pe

Spanish, then by the Dutch, English, and French. By 1700, European

explorers and colonizers had established themselves globally. GFFENagasaki

European explorers were motivated by glory, The Spanish went west. Theirs was a more dramatic

Christian zeal, and—above all—gold, spices, and discovery: an unknown world, America. By the MiMaceo Philippine Loaisa 1524 ~
slaves. The goal was the East, source of legendary 1550s, they had conquered two empires—the gee

riches. With overland routes blocked by Muslim Aztecs and the Incas—and created a huge New sie - sil
states, maritime routes offered the prospect of World empire. By 1522, they had also completed 4 a)

outflanking them. By 1488, the Portuguese had the first circumnavigation of the globe. English and yes PACIFIC
rounded southern Africa. Ten years later they French efforts were directed initially at finding a es ies 4

reached India and, by 1512, the Spice Islands. way around North America. Though futile, this paved . ey,

There, they were later challenged by the Dutch. the way for two further European empires there. 5 4 870

44 1 AND MY COMPANIONS SUFFER FROM
A DISEASE OF THE HEART WHICH CAN
BE CURED ONLY BY GOLD. 99

Hernan Cortés, Spanish explorer, on his quest to defeat the Aztecs, 1519

od
Major European voyages

This map shows the date and routes taken by the first

European voyages of discovery and exploration: the

earliest Christopher Columbus in 1492, through to

Francis Drake in 1577-80. Ships sailed for months

5 ata time to cross the vast oceans, often with crude
systems for navigation.

SHIPS IN 1519

1 COST AND IMPACT

* SHIP aye European maritime exploration was

1: 4 3: Survival ratio [eee i : made possible by better ship types

of Magellan's YAMS, AND iceth 7

circumnavigation Ships commanded by Magellan Ne / anciavigalions Buy ators note
Magellan left Spain in September 1519 Five ships set sailon Magellan's a still arduous, and many ships simply
with 237 men. Just 18 men made it back _cicumnavigation. Two were disappeared. The fate of Magellan's
three years later. Magellan himself was wrecked, one abandoned, and one es
killed in the Philippines, in April 1521. deserted. Only Victoria returned. Wists in (YZ rekdadissltenese neh,

AMERICA Relations with native peoples also
Sn ea proved fraught and almost invariably
CHILI PEPPERS .
ended violently. Europeans generally
population in SAND W | saw natives as a resource to be
mete exploited and Christianized. But the
2 5 startling death tolls in the New World

MILLION 1 1 population in Biological exchange were more the result of the dislocation
CENTRAL AMERICA MILLION iii asepnnollias of settled ways of life and of imported
lISCASES —PaSSel . »
1519 peko Effect on populations between Europe and the European diseases than of deliberate
1519 The Spanish conquests New World as a direct policy. The sudden intermingling of
hada devastating impact result of the voyages of previously separate worlds had a
on native populations. discovery. The results Ae 5 a F
ESTIMATED NATIVE POPULATION ESTIMATED NATIVE African slaves were taken were at times beneficial; dramatic impact in both directions,
OF CENTRAL AMERICA POPULATION OF PERU over to replace them. at others, fatal. with crops and animal types

introduced to new environments.

VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION
ARCTIC OCEAN

- -

Spitsbergen “a sle
pl Jel andy —.s

Pe Novaya
= Fo = Zemlya
(
\F Barents 1596-97

RS
( S
Iceland S

“ys = ‘Archangel

Frobisher 1978 *

ENGLAND

Panama oe
* NETHERLANDS

7 ‘4 ~ Cabot 1497
NORTH sdioncsiZ — EUROPE
= ‘

AMERICA [ ¥~" \ 1886-36

Islands \_ PORTUGAL

i
( ATLANTIC
OCEAN

~) Bahamas

Cub ns
oe Columbus 1492 ¢ Philippine
9 Goa INDIA fi Islands
- a 1519-21
*Gotumbus 1807 AFRICA Ks
q

y Calicut }

s Cape Sierra Leone SS Malacca
OCEAN ; TNS SS Ven

SO ad a
bec INDIAN
de Abreu
% ee SOUTH = Ve OCEAN 1511
AMERICA :

Sumairas

Isla de Chiloé __, Cape of Good Hope
KEY

» Spanish expeditions

SOUTHERN OCEAN - <> Hanieuro time

> English expeditions

Puerto San Julian _\ |

> French expeditions

Strait of Magellan. > Dutch expeditions

NORTH
AMERICA

PACIFIC
OCEAN

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

AFRICA e AFRICA

‘

INDIAN
OCEAN

INDIAN
SOUTH OCEAN
AMERICA

PACIFIC " PACIFIC
OCEAN AUSTRALIA Obes AUSTRALIA

SOUTHERN OCEAN * ewe SOUTHERN OCEAN Pa ye

1600 Spain took the lead in exploring and claiming KEY 1800 European expansion continued in the 17th KEY

new lands, especially in Central and South America. —® Spain and » Denmarkand and 18th centuries, with massive areas of the Britainand = @ Spain and

By 1600, Spain also had claims on the Philippine Got Laer as world claimed by Europe by 1800. Britain, in Leppard pesseeslo Ue
Islands. Portugal claimed only a handful of coastal Portugaland 9 Dutch (United particular, despite losing its American colonies, France and Portugal and
trading posts in Africa, India, and the Spice Islands, [eeeCb ole Provinces] was gaining ground—in Canada, in southern Rossesclons. Rosseerions:
along with a strip of Brazilian coast. England and saa Aa Africa, and above all, in India. ~-@Denmarkand © The Netherlands

possessions possessions and possessions

Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China was rebuilt during the Ming dynasty.

Dotted with fortifications it extends over 4,000 miles (6,400km).

IN 1483, THE WARS OF THE ROSES
flared up again (see 1454-55).
Fought between Lancastrians and
Yorkists—rival Plantagenet
claimants to the English throne—
it had appeared to have been
settled for good in 1471. In 1470,
the Yorkist Edward IV, who had
seized the throne from the
hapless Lancastrian Henry VI in
1461, had been forced from it by a
group of vengeful magnates. In
1471, with Burgundian support
from Charles the Bold [see
1472-76), Edward retook the
throne. Henry was murdered,
probably on Edward's orders.

In 1483, Edward, now grossly
corpulent, died. Instantly, the
conflict reignited, albeit ina
different form. The problem was
that the new king, Edward V,
was only 12 years old and his
mother’s family, the Woodvilles,
saw the boy-king as an obvious
opportunity to proclaim
themselves regents—in effect,
to seize the throne themselves,
undoing Edward IV's legacy. This
at least was the view of the dead
king's most consistent champion,
his brother the Duke of
Gloucester, who was competent,
intelligent, and loyal. Gloucester
characteristically preempted the
Woodvilles by seizing the throne
himself, as Richard III, executing
the leading Woodvilles, and
imprisoning Edward V with his
younger brother inthe Towerof
London where both were then H
murdered. If no definitive proof H 5 . 8 -
has ever been offered that Richard i a ee Peele
Ill was responsible for the deaths | Richard I's much larger force, which -
of his nephews, the overwhelming ! was undermined by poor leadership.

| probability is that he ordered

| their killings; his hold on the

: throne was too shaky to permit

: eliminate them. Richard II] was

: vilified in later Tudor propaganda.
: But given the turbulent treachery
| of late-medieval England,

| Richard's actions seem fairly

| rational. Sooner or later the

: Woodvilles would have sought an
: excuse for his death.

Battle of Bosworth

: But there was a further

» Lancastrian claimant, Henry

2 Tudor (1457-1509). His right to

: the throne was tenuous at best,

: but critically he had the support of
| the French king, Charles VIII (r.

» 1483-98). In August 1485, Henry

» led an invasion from France. By

: the end of the month, Richard

: was dead, killed at the Battle of

: Bosworth, his superiority in

| numbers undone by the ineptitude
» of many of his commanders.

| Henry Tudor, in turn, crowned on

| the field of the battle, had become
: Henry VII. The Tudor monarch’s

: seizure of the throne might easily
: have provoked yet another round

_ in this destabilizing infighting. But
i Henry VII would prove among the
: most pragmatic, capable, and

| far-sighted of kings. Under the

: Tudors, England was significantly
: strengthened, its magnates

: comprehensively overhauled.

: Gulf, reporting favorably on all
these routes in 1492. The second

- expedition, under Bartolomeu

: with finding a navigable passage

: around the presumed southern tip

» than simply following the African

: coast southward as Cao and

: others before him had done, at

» around 27°S [several hundred
miles short of the tip of south

: Africa] he headed southwest,

: away from the coast. By any

: measure, that was remarkably

: daring. Miles from land, he picked

» up the westerlies that blow in the

: South Atlantic and was carried

: almost 300 miles (500 km] to the

: east of the Cape of Good Hope

onthe tip of southern Africa.

' Dias's voyage provided a better

The Renaissance (literally
“rebirth") grew out of the
Italian Middle Ages and
marked a reevaluation of
European thought. At its heart
was a reinterpretation of
Europe's Classical past. It gave
rise, first in Florence (left), to
an artistic and architectural
revolution, and later, toa
scientific one. Its early impact
was fitful but eventually spread
to most of Europe in the
following 200 years.

FOLLOWING ON FROM EARLIER
PORTUGUESE VOYAGES (see
1470-71], two further expeditions
were despatched in 1487 to » understanding of the wind
investigate routes to and across _°_ systems that linked the Atlantic
the Indian Ocean. PérodaCovilha = and Indian oceans, and proved
was charged with investigating : vital in calculating the route to the
the East African coast as wellas Cape of Good Hope and beyond.
the Indian Ocean. From Aden, » Later, Vasco da Gama and Pedro
reached via the Red Sea, he sailed | Cabral exploited this knowledge
to Calicut in India, as far south as in their own voyages.

Sofala in East Africa, andnorthto : Human sacrifice is a feature
the Strait of Hormuz inthe Persian | common to many early societies.

plawalale
20,006

THE ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
PEOPLE SACRIFICED AT THE
INAUGURATION OF THE
TENOCHTITLAN PYRAMID

tamed, and its government

i None is known to have practiced
it with the vigor of the Aztecs,
however—or on the same
gargantuan scale. It is estimated
that the Aztecs ritually sacrificed
upward of 20,000 victims a
year—slaves, enemies captured
in battle, and people simply
offered in tribute. The aim was to
placate their gods, above all the
god of war, Huitzilopochtil,
whose daily battles with the sun
could be sustained only by blood.

In 1487, on the opening of the new =

great temple in the Aztec capital,
Tenochtitlan, up to 20,000 people
were ritually executed, their
hearts sliced from their bodies, in
a single ceremony that may have
lasted anything from 4 to 20 days.
In China, the Ming dynasty
(1368-1644) continued the

ambitious rebuilding of the

: superiority as wellas a barrier

_ to incursions from barbarians in

1 the north. Under the Ming, its

| mountainous eastern length was

| western, desertlike length of clay

: and earth, often reinforced with

studded with 25,000 towers and

: upward of 15,000 garrisons—a

i monumental feat of construction.

Tenochtitlan
: This mural of the 1éth-century Aztec
: capital imagined by 20th-century
: Mexican artist Diego Rivera shows
: the city's massive scale.

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This 19th-century painting shows the Fall of Granada in 1492, which ended

780 years of Muslim rule in Spain.

Mamluk helmet

This 15th-century iron Mamluk
helmet, as worn by Mamluk soldiers,
is decorated with inlaid silver
calligraphy.

THE OTTOMAN-MAMLUK peace
treaty of May 1491 ended a war
that had begun in 1485 for control
of the Western Asia and Red Sea
trade routes. Neither side gained
much but the war exhausted the
Mamluks financially, making their
subsequent conquest by the
Ottomans in 1516-17 inevitable.

By 1490, Vladislas II (1456-
1516) ruled over a vast kingdom,
including Poland-Lithuania,
Bohemia, and Hungary, whose
crown he accepted in 1490. Despite
the size of these territories, they
had little influence on Europe as
a whole. Poland-Lithuania—vast,
desolate, and impoverished—was
on the margins of Europe.
Hungary and Bohemia, although
more sophisticated, remained
not just separate kingdoms but
uneasy rivals. The potential of
these sprawling lands would
never be realized.

On January 2, 1492, Spanish
monarchs Ferdinand and
Isabella (see 1469) presided
over the fall of the Kingdom of
Granada, marking the end of a
10-year campaign to claim the
last Moorish territory in Iberia.

It was the end of a process begun

in the 8th century—the Christian

reconquest or reconquista. It

underlined Spain's determination

to project itself as an aggressively
: expansionist Christian power.

decided to back Christopher

Columbus's first Atlantic crossing. =

Columbus had made a series of
extravagant claims about the
reward his voyage to the Indies
(Asia] would generate. Spain was
anxious to match the spoils
flowing to Portugal from its West
African ventures. It also needed
to replace the lost revenues from

464 SAILED THIS
DAY NINETEEN
LEAGUES...
(COUNTED) LESS
THAN THE TRUE
NUMBER, THAT
THE CREW
MIGHT NOT BE
DISMAYED IF
THE VOYAGE
SHOULD PROV]
LONG. 99

Christopher Columbus, 1492

: “crusading” taxes, previously paid
: before the fall of Granada. Success

: depended on Columbus's

: undoubted navigational ability and
» onhis insistence that Asia lay

| much farther to the east than

: conventionally believed. On his

: arrival in the New World on
October 12, somewhere in the

: Bahamas, he immediately

: despatched emissaries to the

Chinese” court. Columbus's

- self-belief blinded him to the
In 1492, the Spanish crown finally i

reality of what he had discovered.

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
(c. 1451-1506)

Born in Genoa, Italy,
Christopher Columbus made
four transatlantic voyages
believing that the riches of
the East could be reached by
sailing west from Spain. His
first journey (1492-93) was
followed by others in 1493-96,
1498-1500, and 1502-04.

He was the first European to
sight South America, in 1498,
and charted most of the
Caribbean. He died still
certain he had reached Asia.

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This map by Alberto Cantino was the first to show Portugal's disc

‘overies in the West and East

and the division between Spanish and Portuguese territories agreed upon at Tordesillas.

IN 1494, POPE ALEXANDER VI drew {

up the Treaty of Tordesillas,
which effectively divided up
existing and future New World
discoveries between Spain and
Portugal. It drew a north-south
line 370 leagues (about 1,350
miles or 2,000 km] west of the
Cape Verde Islands. Land to the
west was assigned to Spain; that
to the east, to Portugal.

The political crisis provoked in
Florence by the death of Lorenzo
(“the Magnificent”) de Medici in
1492 was expoited by a Dominican
monk, Girolamo Savonarola, who
imposed on the citya “Christian
and religious republic.” In 1494, he
denounced tyrants and instituted
the Bonfire of the Vanities: the
destruction of idolatrous goods.
He was overthrown, tortured, and
executed four years later.

The Italian Wars, nominally
sparked by the desire of Charles

VIII of France (1470-98) toasserta =

claim to the kingdom of Naples,
saw an intermittent 65-year
struggle between France and
Spain for control of Italy. Its
opening salvo, which ended in
1499, was both destructive and

with the Battle of Fornovo, fought

LEONARDO DA VINCI
(1452-1519)

Born in Italy, Leonardo was a
self-taught polymath—a
painter, sculptor, inventor,
and scientific enquirer—
whose restless genius drove
him to embrace a limitless
range of projects, but to
complete almost none.
Among his masterpieces are
Mona Lisa and The Last
Supper. He died in France in
the service of Francois |.

= near Parma in July 1495, However,
: having made his triumphant way to :
: Naples to claim its throne, Charles
inconclusive. The first phase ended =
: notably Milan, had joined forces

VIII found his former Italian allies,

THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF

: with Venice, the papacy, and the

: Holy Roman Empire to oppose him
: inaHoly League, ending his

| | dreams of Italian conquest.

By about 1496, an outbreak of

: what was commonly called the

: French pox (so-named as it was
» first recorded among French

| troops there] occurred in Italy. It

: was syphilis. By the middle of the
16th century, about one million

: people had contracted the

: disease—probably from a more

From about 1490, Genoese

» Portugal and Spain to sponsor a

» westward voyage to Asia across

: turned his attentions to England,

: basing himselfin Bristol. An early
© voyage failed, but in May 1497—

: with royal backing—he set out

_ again. He reached northern

: Newfoundland, then sailed south
© along 400 miles (650 km] of coast.
| He returned to England certain

» he had reached China. The

: following year, he led a much

larger expedition. All but one

| of its five ships were lost, Cabot

i with them. But his initial

| success prompted five more

» voyages to Newfoundland from

: 1501 to 1505, which confirmed

: the new discoveries were clearly

: not Asian. Despite these

: disappointments, the English

: ventures were important in proving
: the existence of a hitherto

» unsuspected continent—North

EUROPEANS WHO CONTRACTED
SYPHILIS IN 50 YEARS FROM 1496.

| America—and in staking a claim

to later English primacy in its
exploration and settlement.

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_
This 20th-century painting depicts King

» 1 EN @

Manuel | of Portugal blessing Vasco da

Gama and his expedition as they get ready to set sail from Lisbon.

THE SOUTHWARD PROBING ALONG
the African coast by the
Portuguese in the 15th century
had reached a climax when
Bartolomeu Dias rounded the tip
of Africa in 1488. In May 1498,
Vasco da Gama consolidated this
achievement when he continued
into the Indian Ocean and reached

: Calicut in southwest India. A

: crossing of the Indian Ocean—
© crisscrossed by Arab and other
: trade routes since the 9th
century—depended on local

Muslim knowledge. His route to

» the Indian Ocean, on the other

: hand, was new. Where previous

Battle of Zonchio

This woodcut depicts ships in the
first battle of the Ottoman-Venetian
War. It was the first time cannons
had been used in a naval battle.

» Portuguese mariners had hugged
i the African coast, da Gama made a

vast sweep westward into the

_ South Atlantic. It was not only the

longest ocean crossing yet made,

but it also initiated the route used
throughout the “Age of Sail”
(see pp.172-73).

The ongoing Ottoman naval
threat to Christendom was
underlined by the Venetian-
Ottoman War of 1499-1503. Both
sides enjoyed profitable trade
links. But Venetian sea-power
represented an obstacle to
Ottoman designs in the eastern
Mediterranean. The Venetian
defeat at the Battle of Zonchio in
August 1499 made Ottoman naval
power strikingly clear.

81
galleys and galliots

200
other ships

= 200

8 100

Ee other ships

5, 150 66

5 galleys

= 100 and
galliots

Ottomans

Venetians

Zonchio ship numbers

: The disparity in numbers between
the Ottoman and Venetian fleets was
compounded by the refusal of some
Venetian commanders to fight at all.

A further round in the Franco—
Spanish struggle for mastery of
Italy was launched in 1499, when
Louis XII of France (1462-1515)
seized Milan. He then allied with

: Ferdinand of Aragon (1452-1516),
agreeing to divide Naples between
them. With Naples secured, Louis
and Ferdinand fell out. Twice

: defeated by his former ally, Louis

: reluctantly made peace in 1504.

The burst of European
exploration sparked by Columbus

: continued in 1500 when a Spanish
expedition under Vicente Pinzon
and a Portuguese enterprise

: under Pedro Alvares Cabral bound
for India made the coast of Brazil.

: Cabral's sighting of this new land

: the growing realization that this
was indeed a New World.

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This scene from a fresco in Chehel Stun Palace in Isfahan, Iran, depicts

Safavid Emperor Shah Ismail in battle against Uzbek warriors.

THE YEAR 1501 IS CONSIDERED
the date the Safavid Empire was
founded. With the Ottoman
Empire to the west and the
Mughal Empire to the east, it
formed one of a bloc of
sophisticated, centralized, highly
cultured Muslim empires that
dominated West Asia in the 16th
and 17th centuries. It began ina
burst of conquest launched by
Shah Ismail], whose troops
surged westward across Persia,
putting an end to the political
vacuum and infighting that had
followed the death of Timur [see
1386-90) in 1405. Proclaiming
himself Shah of Persia, Ismail |
was a Shi'ite Muslim and
vigorously promoted his faith as
the official state religion. Checked

Safavid Empire

From modest beginnings on the
Caspian Sea, by 1501 the Safavid
Empire extended to occupy a swath
of Western Asia.

to the west by the military
might of the Ottomans, the
Safavids increasingly turned
their focus to the east. In
the process the Safavid
capital was moved
eastward, finally

ending at Isfahan.

The introduction ;
of African slaves by
European settlers to
the New World began
in 1502, hardly 10
years after Columbus's
first Atlantic crossing. In
part, this was a response to
the alarming death rates
of the native populations,
who had been similarly
enslaved. The Portuguese
rapidly followed suit. This
initial phase of the trade,
known as the First
Atlantic system, lasted
until around 1580.

The spread of Islam in East
Africa was reinforced by the

Michelangelo's David
Completed by Michelangelo in
* 1504, this giant marble statue of
s biblical hero David stands at
17 ft (5.2m) tall.

establishment in 1504
of the Funj Sultanate
of Sennar in the north of
Sudan, at the expense of
the previous Christian rulers
of Sennar. The sultanate
rapidly established itself as
a major power in the
region, threatening both
Ethiopia and the
Ottomans in Egypt.
In Europe, the role of
Florence in the early
years of the High
Renaissance (see
pp.204-205) was
highlighted by
two remarkable
' works: Michelangelo's statue of
: David, which he completed in
: 1504; and Leonardo's painting
© Mona Lisa, completed sometime
: around 1505-07.

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46 THE TRUE
WORK OF ART IS
BUT A SHADOW
OF THE DIVINE
PERFECTION. 99

Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian
artist (1475-1564)

MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI
(1475-1564) was one of the
defining figures of the High
Renaissance [see pp.204-05). In
1505, he was invited to Rome by
Pope Julius II to begin work ona
monumental tomb, an association
that would last for 40 years. In
1508, he began work painting a
fresco on the Sistine Chapel ceiling,
which he completed 4 years later.
The pace of Portuguese
expansion across the Indian
Ocean in the early 16th century
was remarkable. From 1505,
the Portuguese established
themselves in a string of ports
along the East African coast. The
goal was simple and ruthlessly
pursued—the domination of the
lucrative spice trade with India
and East Asia. A key player in
this campaign was Afonso de
Albuquerque, who in 1509
became viceroy of the fledgling
Portuguese colony in India. By
1510, he had secured Goa as the
principal Portuguese base in India;
by 1511, he had overseen the
foundation of the first Portuguese
settlement in Southeast Asia,
Malacca. He also sponsored the
first Portuguese voyage to the
Spice Islands, the Moluccas,
which were reached in 1512 by
Francisco Serrao, who had sailed
in company with Antonio de
Abreu and Francisco Rodrigues.

Sistine ceiling

Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican is one of the masterworks
of Michelangelo. It depicts scenes
from the Old Testament.

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This detail shows the coronation of Ottoman Sultan Selim |. The empire
almost trebled during his nine-year reign.

Depiction of the Battléof Agnadello, one of the major battles of the Italian:
Wars, from the tomb of Louis XII and'Anne of Brittany, France.

Where the latter two were forced
to turn back in the Banda Sea,
Serrao was able to continue to the :
Moluccas using native craft. :
However initially unpromising, it
was a measure of the excitement
sparked by Columbus's Atlantic
crossings (see 1492) that within
20 years a variety of Spanish
expeditions had explored and
mapped almost the entire
Caribbean. This included, in
1508-09, the Yucatan Peninsula
on the east coast of Mexico, a
discovery that led directly to the
conquest of Mexico by Hernan
Cortés [see 1519). The European
conquest of the New World was
driven largely by greed and
effected principally by violence.
It nonetheless laid claim to a
Christian imperative, given papal
sanction as early as 1452, by
which “saracens, pagans, and any
other unbelievers” could be
enslaved. It was a view explosively
challenged in 1511 in a sermon by
a Spanish Dominican friar,

@ Bangkok
Saigone poate
Sea
Malacca Borneo

INDIAN
OCEAN

Spice Islands exploration
Portuguese explorer Francisco
Serrao successfully reached the
Moluccas (Spice Islands) after
others had turned back.

Makassar @

22" Sumbewa

46 ARE THEY NOT MEN?

: Antonio de Montesinos, in which,
: to predictable outrage, he

| denounced the “cruelty and

: tyranny” of the settlers.

Similarly aggressive Spanish

i and Portuguese attempts at

colonization in Morocco, where

: both seized coastal strongholds in
© the 15th and early 16th centuries,
: partly helped the rise of anew

Moroccan dynasty after 1511—the

' Sa’dis—who filled the political
» vacuum created by the crumbling
» of Marinid rule in the 1480s.

The Venetian Republic was
diplomatically isolated and

i opposed by almost every major

Western European power when

Philippine ae
Teanga.» Mindanao Bo
Moluccas: New
(Spice Guinea

islands)

Celebes

€ Banda
Sea

Flores Sea,

Timor

‘Sumba

KEY

~» Antonio de Abreu /
Francisco Rodrigues 1512

~» Francisco Serrao 1512

_DOTHEY NOT HAVE
RATIONAL SOULS? 99

: Antonio de Montesinos, Dominican friar, delivering a sermon
| to Spanish colonists, Hispaniola, December 4, 1511

Pope Julius Il established the
League of Cambrai in 1508.
The Republic was quickly
plunged into crisis by its defeat
in May 1509 by Louis XIl's French
army at the Battle of Agnadello,
one of the major battles of the
Italian Wars (1494-1559). The
following year Julius II allied
himself with Venice against
France, anxious that Venetian
territorial designs in northern
Italy had been replaced by
identical French ambitions. This
shuffling of alliances was typical
of the period. It was given a
further twist with the formation
in 1511 of a new Holy League,
including England, now directed
against France. One outcome of
this was a subsequent Franco-
Venetian alliance.

Hemmed in on the west by the
Ottomans and threatened to
the south by the Portuguese,
the Safavids were nonetheless
successful in confronting the
loose Uzbek confederation of
peoples of Central Asia to their
north. In December 1510, with
victory over the Uzbeks outside
the city of Merv, substantial
territories, including Herat,
Bactria, and Kandahar, came
under Safavid rule.

NOLESS SIGNIFICANT than

the Spanish exploration of the
Caribbean in the immediate
aftermath of Columbus's 1492
crossing was the discovery by
Juan Ponce de Leon in April
1513 of the “island” of Florida. It
was the first Spanish contact with
the mainland of North America
and the basis for subsequent
Spanish claims to the region. In
attempting to circumnavigate his
island, Ponce de Leén made a
further discovery almost as
important in the age of sail as
Columbus's discovery of the wind
systems of the central Atlantic—
the Gulf Stream.

Niccolo Machiavelli was a
diplomat in Florence when, in
1513, he wrote the first modern
handbook of political science,

The Prince (published in 1532).

Its central theme—that the
exercise of political power requires
violence and deceit—earned it
lasting notoriety. It offers advice
about the most effective means
of ruling: essentially a pragmatic
determination to use all means
at hand.

Ottoman territorial expansion
was renewed after the civil war
of 1509-12 which saw Selim
emerge as sultan at the expense
of both his father, Bayezid II, who

was forced to abdicate, and Selim's :

older brother, Ahmed, who was
killed in battle. Selim initiated this
burst of growth—directed south
and east against fellow Muslims
rather than north against Christian
Europe—in 1514 when the
Safavids, vastly outnumbered and
with no answer to the Ottoman

<
so"

A go
oh oss
as

» artillery, were overpowered at
: the Battle of Caldiran. His Eastern
: flank secured, Selim swept

into Syria and Mamluk Egypt,

: which instantly crumbled.

Selim | not only dramatically
increased Ottoman territories
but, in securing almost all the

| Muslim holy places of the Near

East, added substantially to
Ottoman prestige {see pp.230-31).

Philosopher and writer,
Niccolo Machiavelli was a
functionary in Florence,
where he witnessed the
power of aggressive rulers
first hand, including, in
1502-03, that of the pope's
illegitimate son, the ruthless
Cesare Borgia. He completed
several diplomatic missions,
but in 1513 was arrested and
tortured. He wrote The Prince
in the same year. He died
aged of 58, impoverished,
before his book enjoyed its
later notoriety.

44 WHY DOES NOT THE POPE...
BUILD... ST. PETER’S WITH HIS OWN
MONEY, RATHER THAN WITH TH!
MONEY... OF POOR BELIEVERS. 99

[ea

Martin Luther, German priest, from 95 Theses, 1517

THE OTTOMAN CONQUESTS IN THE
MIDDLE EAST under Selim I—
who in 1517 also brought Algeria
into the Ottoman orbit—meant
that the Ottoman Turkish state
was now emphatically an empire.
It was also rapidly developing as
a major naval power. Control of
Egypt both consolidated the
Ottoman presence in the eastern
Mediterranean and, crucially, gave
them access to the Red Sea.
Already effectively masters of the
overland trade routes with the
East, the Ottomans were now
poised to dominate the lucrative
“route of spices.” In doing so,
they found themselves in direct
conflict with the Portuguese, who
had been actively probing the Red
Sea since 1513. The stage was set
for another round of conflict
between the Muslim world and
the Christian West.

In October 1517, the priest and
professor of theology Martin
Luther (1483-1546} nailed his
95 Theses to the door of All Saints

The Reformation—the religious
revolt against the Catholic
Church instigated by Martin
Luther (right)—tore the
Western Church apart. Politics
intruded from the start as the
revolt spread across Europe.
The consequence was a legacy
of violent religious division

and confrontation between
Catholics and Protestants that
led to a permanent divide in
European Christendom.

Church in Wittenberg, Saxony,
as part of what was a growing
protest movement against
religious practices and corruption
in the Catholic Church. In 1521,
after being excommunicated by
the pope, his opposition to the
Church hardened. The ready
response to Luther's teachings
and the influence of the printing
press [see pp.154-55) in
disseminating his ideas resulted in
a major force for religious change
known as the Reformation

The arrival of a Portuguese
fleet under Tome Pires in Canton,
China, in August 1517 was the
climax of a campaign to open up
trading routes across the Indian
Ocean, begun when Vasco da Gama
rounded the Cape of Good Hope in
1498. However, the early results
of these encounters were not
promising, as the Chinese regarded
the newcomers as uncouth
barbarians. A Portuguese trade
mission to Peking in 1520 was
treated with similar scorn.

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The fall of Tenochtitlan on August 13, 1521 was the result not just of Spanish

ferocity but of a 20,000-strong native army recruited by Hernan Cortés.

THE ELECTION OF CHARLES V AS
HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR in 1517
appeared pivotal. Charles
(1500-58) was already the

ruler of several territories across
Europe: in Italy, Austria, the Low
Countries, and in Spain. Now, as
Holy Roman Emperor, his status
appeared unassailable. For the
earnest Charles, the imperatives
were clear—to preside over a
prosperous, pan-European
Catholic entity which, properly
mobilized, would then rout the
Ottoman menace. The reality was
painfully different. The size of his
territories made effective control
impossible. Few of his subjects
were prepared to surrender
traditional “liberties” to a distant,
foreign ruler; almost none was
prepared to finance him; and
religious differences persistently
intruded. Simultaneously, the
prospect of Habsburg domination
alarmed every other major
European power, above all France.
The result was a reign of near

; =
Emperor Charles V
Few rulers were more dutiful than
Charles Vor as conscious of their
divine destiny. However, his best

efforts consistently proved in vain.

permanent warfare and dutiful
hopes consistently frustrated.
The daring, ruthlessness, and
single-mindedness Spain brought
to overseas adventuring paid
dividends with Hernan
Cortés’s march on
Tenochtitlan, capital of
the Mexican Aztec
Empire. Beginning
in 1519, in less than .
five years the }
Spanish force,
aided by Tlaxaclan
warriors, had
subjugated an
entire nation. A
minor noble and self-
financing adventurer,
Cortés brought about Spanish
domination of Central America.
A further milestone in the
cementing of Spain's global role
was marked in 1519—the launch

(4 HE KNEW
BETTER THAN

_ANY OTHER THI
TRUE ART OF

NAVIGATION. 99

Antonio Pigafetta, Italian navigator,
: on Ferdinand Magellan, 1521

of the first circumnavigation of
the globe. The expedition leader,
_ Ferdinand Magellan (b. 1480)
was a Portuguese nobleman who,
© despite his nationality, succeeded
© in persuading Charles V to bankroll
his scheme to reach the Spice
Islands in the Pacific by sailing

IRIE]

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west. Five ships set out; one
returned, three years later, and
without Magellan, who had been
killed by islanders in 1521. It was,
nonetheless, perhaps the most
remarkable enterprise of the age
of sail, an epic which for the first
time revealed the immensity of
the Pacific.

1521 saw another round in the
Italian wars (1494-1559), this
time sparked by French fears of
a Habsburg-dominated Europe
after the election of Charles V as
Holy Roman Emperor. France and,
at least initially, Venice joined
forces to oppose Charles, England,
and the papacy. For the French,
the war was as unsatisfactory as
its predecessors, culminating ina
series of defeats.

Portuguese caravel
Magellan's flagship Trinidad was
f\ acaravellike this Portuguese
7 vessel. Typically less than
al 100 ft (30 m} long, they
re were sturdily
seaworthy ships.

THE BELIEF THAT THE LANDS IN
THE WEST discovered by European
explorers from Columbus onward
were unknown Asian coasts, rather
than a new continent, proved
tenacious. It was likewise widely
held that a navigable passage
to the East through these
landmasses must exist. It was
only the voyages between 1524
and 1528 from Florida to Nova
Scotia by Giovanni da Verrazzano
(1485-1528), a Florentine in the
service of Francois | of France,
that revealed the existence of
a continuous coastline. Yet
Verrazzano persisted in the belief
that the Pacific was within reach
The German Peasants’ War of
1524-25 was a sharp reminder
of the way that the language of
Protestant reformation could be
appropriated by groups who
usually lacked a voice in politics.
The revolts were attempts by
huge numbers of the politically
disenfranchised in Germany and
in Austria, by no means all of
them peasants, to end what they
saw as abuses against them—
chiefly taxes and labor services—
by the Church and the nobility. At
the war's height in the spring of
1525, perhaps 300,000 people had

At Pavia in 1525, the French army's siege lines were
army, then the soldiers were cut to pieces by pikemen and gunfire.

broken by a Spanish relief

KEY

Habsburg
possessions 1525

ENGLAND

= Border of Holy

Roman Empire Parise

ATLANTIC

OCEAN FRANCE

AFRICA

Habsburg Empire under Charles V
The very size of Charles V's empire
made it effectively ungovernable.
Whatever its potential power, it was
riven by religious and political strife.

gathered in a variety of loose
groupings and hastily assembled
armies. The uprising was
savagely repressed, with
thousands killed. Luther and
other leaders of the “official”
Reformation vehemently denied
any connection with the rebels,
and the revolt provoked a
brutal clampdown on forms of
Protestant religious radicalism,

THE NUMBER OF REBELS
KILLED IN THE POPULAR
UPRISING IN GERMANY

HOLY
ROMAN

EMPIRE POLAND

OTTOMAN
EMPIRE

WA Naples

such as Anabaptism, which were
considered to challenge both social
hierarchy and Protestant authority.
The Battle of Pavia in 1525 saw
Francois | captured and shipped
to Madrid, where he was obliged
to surrender all claim to Italy. But
it was an agreement the French
king had no intention of honoring.

Anni
pl

8:1
o virtually wiped out at

Pavia on February 24, 1525, with
8,000 casualties compared to 1,000
Imperial casualties.

Battle of Pavia

Babur's Mughal empire could only be
created—and sustained—by force.

46 IF THERE IS

A PARADISE
ON EARTH, IT IS
THIS, IT IS THIS,
ITISTHIS. 99

Inscription on Babur'’s tomb 1530

IN HIS STRUGGLES AGAINST
CHARLES V (see 1521], Francois |
had solicited the help of the
Ottomans in 1525, in the process
initiating a Franco-Ottoman
alliance that lasted 250 years.
The alliance also provided the
Ottomans with further justification
to renew their conflict with
Hungary and, in August 1526, they
obliterated a combined Hungarian—
Bohemian force at Mohacs.

In 1526, the Mughal Empire was
founded in northern India. It was
the creation of Babur (1483-1530),
a descendant of Genghis Khan
(see 1201-05). Babur hailed from
Ferghana in central Asia, from
where he had been expelled. In
1522, however, he captured
Kandahar, an important staging
point on the road to India and, in
1526, defeated the Afghan Sultan
of Dethi, Ibrahim Lodi, and
declared himself emperor. Atits
height at the beginning of the
18th century, the Mughal empire
(“Mughat” is Persian for Mongol)
covered almost the entire
subcontinent. It was a byword
for sophisticated and courtly life,
fattened by trade and conquest,
and, though Islamic, tolerant
of other religions.

1450-1749 |

The development of astronomy has been influenced by two key factors: the

REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

invention of the telescope, which revealed previously undetectable celestial
objects, and advances in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and computing,
which have been crucial to explaining astronomical observations.

Early astronomy was closely linked to mythology,
religion, and prognostication. Celestial
observations were used to measure time, devise
calendars, set the dates of religious festivals, and
for astrological prediction. For millennia, it was
believed that the Earth was the center of
the cosmos. However, this did not fully
explain the observed movements of the

Moon, Sun, and planets.

MODERN ASTRONOMY
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus
published his heliocentric model,
which put the Sun at the center
of the cosmos and is widely

of the gravitational force controlling that movement
by Isaac Newton. In the 19th century, the distance to
the Sun and nearby stars was accurately measured,
spectroscopy was introduced, and advances in
theoretical physics provided explanations for
problems such as how stars generate their energy
(by nuclear reactions in their cores). Prior to 1920,
many thought the Universe consisted of only our
own Milky Way Galaxy. However, Edwin Hubble
measured the speed at which distant nebulae
were receding, and it was realized that these
nebulae were independent galaxies. Not only
were the galaxies moving away, but the speed
they were moving away increased with
distance, implying that the Universe

secondary mirror

primary
(main) mirror

supporting strut

Newton's telescope
(front view)

sodium lines

hydrogen beta line

magnesium lines

considered to mark the birth
of modern astronomy.

Then, after 1609, the newly
invented telescope revealed
a host of new astronomical
objects. The 17th century also
saw the establishment

of the laws of planetary
motion by Johannes
Kepler, and an explanation

had a beginning, when everything was
close together. It was proposed that the
expansion had been caused by a massive
explosion—the Big Bang. Findings from
modern space astronomy have supported
the Big Bang theory, but it has also been
discovered that much of the Universe

Astrolabes show a representation of the ONSIES CGEM IMENEFeIa GETS

night sky and were used until the 17th energy, the nature and origin of
century to estimate time and for navigation. which are still unknown.

Stars and other astronomical objects emit light and
other forms of electromagnetic energy, such as
X-rays and radio waves. Using spectroscopy, these
electromagnetic emissions can be broken up into

a spectrum of colors. A star's spectrum is crossed
by dark absorption lines, each corresponding to

a different chemical element. By investigating

the intensity of these lines, a star’s chemical
composition can be discovered. Further study

can also establish its temperature, relative velocity,
and the pressure and density of its atmosphere.

Persian astrolabe

2000BCE
Solar and lunar calendars
The Babylonians produce the
first calendar by integrating
the 365.25 days of the solar
year with the 29.53 days of
the lunar month. Similar
calendars are used in
ancient Egypt.

c. 90-168CE
Ptolemy's Universe
Greek polymath
Claudius Ptolemy
proposes that the
Earth is the center

of the cosmos, a view
that prevailed until
the 16th century.

1543

The Sun-centered Universe
Nicolaus Copernicus suggests
the Earth orbits the Sun and
not vice versa. This demotes
the Earth to being just one SS

of the six known planets. The Copernican Solar System

Ptolemy’s constellations

c. 1400BCE
Deities and the Zodiac

The ancient Egyptians
produce the earliest known
representation of the Zodiac,
in which stars, planets, and
associated deities appear.
Zodiacs also appear in
Babylonian artifacts.

1420
Ulugh Beg

The Persian Ulugh
Beg builds an
observatory in
Samarkand. He
measures the tilt
of Earth’s axis to
1/100th of a degree.

1608/1668

The first telescopes
German-born Dutch
lensmaker Hans Lippershey
makes the first refracting
telescope in 1608. English
scientist Isaac Newton
makes the first reflecting
telescope in 1668.

Newton's
telescope

Babylonian
boundary
stone

Ulugh Beg
observatory

Zodiac of Senenmut

upper tube covered with
decorative vellum

aperture through
which light enters

Vann telescope
lower tube made
of layers of paper
and cardboard
eae eyepiece lens
magnifies image
35 times
sphere rotates to
point telescope tube
in different directions
30M THE DIAMETER
OF THE OBJECTIVE

a screw that holds

main mirror in

MIRROR IN NEWTON'S TELESCOPE.
TELESCOPES USED BY MODERN
ASTRONOMERS HAVE MIRRORS

position
UP TO 10,400MM IN DIAMETER.
supporting
strut
Newton’s telescope Ne
Isaac Newton made his first SS

reflecting telescope in 1668.
Shortly afterward, he made

a second model (shown here],
which stands about 8in (20cm)
high. Newton's telescope was
the first to use a primary mirror
rather thana lens to collect
light. A secondary mirror then
reflects the light through a
magnifying eyepiece for viewing.

wooden base

plaque recording that this
telescope was presented to
the Royal Society, London,
in January 1672

1780s

William Herschel
Herschel discovers
Uranus (1781) using a
homemade telescope.
He makes over Wig
400 more,

including a ie ee

1.26m reflector. Herschel’s 1.26m telescope

1990-present
Space telescopes
Telescopes are put
into space near
Earth or orbit
around it, from
where they probe
the sky in arange

Hubble Space Telescope of wavelengths.

1920s

Edwin Hubble

Using the US's 2.5m
Hooker telescope,
Hubble shows that the
Universe has more than
100 billion galaxies, and
that it is expanding.

1930s

Radio telescopes

Anew field of astronomy—
radio astronomy—begins
when early radio telescopes
detect radio waves from the
Sun and distant galaxies.

1960s-present
Exploring other worlds
Spacecraft are used

to explore the Solar
System. They fly past,
orbit, and land on
planets, moons,
asteroids, and comets.

The Hooker telescope Grote Reber's radio telescope Mars rover

183

The Sack of Rome in 1527 shocked Europe and devastated the Church. Although it also

deeply embarrassed Charles V, it meant his dominance in Italy was confirmed.

THE MOST SHOCKING EVENT OF
THE ITALIAN WARS was the Sack
of Rome in 1527 by Charles V's

: onhis vast territories. As Holy
Roman Emperor, Charles V was

: the natural ally of the Catholic

Church just as he was the natural

+ enemy of Lutheranism [see 1517). |
Yet not only was Charles now at

Imperial troops. It also highlighted |
the contradictions facing Charles
Vas he struggled to impose order

: war with the papacy’s Holy

i League—assembled to challenge
: his dominance in Italy—some of

: the troaps who had laid waste to

Rome, when his army ran out of

| control in protest at their unpaid
| wages were openly sympathetic to :
: the reformist doctrines of Luther.

But, while Pope Clement VII
cowered in the Castel San’ Angelo

: as churches and palaces were

» ransacked and nuns raped and
: priests murdered, it was clear

: that Charles's control of Italy

was now absolute.

Following their victory at Mohacs |
: in 1526 and the conquest of much =
> of Hungary in 1529, the Ottomans
| feared the Habsburgs would try to

recapture the lost territories and
so laid siege to Vienna. It proved

: too ambitious a task even for the

= formidable Ottoman army, for the
weather proved as arduous a foe

: as the Austrians. A second attempt
: on the city in 1532 also failed.

After his victory at Panipat in

i 1526, Babur consolidated his hold

over north India the following year,
defeating a Rajput army under
Rana Sanga at the Battle of
Khanwa. The final establishment
of Mughal power came in 1529

: with the destruction of an Afghan
: army at Ghagra.

In 1531, the Schmalkadic

» League was formed. This was a
i military alliance, made originally
: between the Lutheran rulers of

Siege of Vienna

The Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529
failed because of the bad weather—
bitter autumn rains and early snow
—and over-extended supply lines.

SULEIMAN 1 (1494-1566)

The 46-year rule of Suleiman
was marked by a succession
of victories in the Balkans,
the Middle East, and North
Africa that left the Ottomans
as the most dynamic and
dominant presence in the
Western Hemisphere. He is
known as “Suleiman the
Magnificent” in the West and
as Kanuri, “The Lawgiver,”

in the Islamic world, and his
reign saw a flowering of
Ottoman art and culture.

Hesse and Saxony in northern
Germany, under which each
promised to aid the other if
Charles V attempted, by force, to
reimpose Catholicism. It rapidly

_ expanded to include other German

Protestant states and gained the

: support of Charles's external

enemies, the Ottomans and
France. It was also an opportunity
for each territory to enrich itself
by taking over church property.

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f
Atahualpa, the last Inca emperor,
leads his army at Caxamalca.

SPANISH EXPLORATION AND
CONQUEST IN THE NEW WORLD,
so decisively reinforced by the
subjection of Mexico in 1521, was
continued on an even more
spectacular scale with the
takeover of the Peruvian Inca
Empire by Francisco Pizarro
(1476-1541) in 1532. In little more
than a year, a force of 188
Spaniards defeated a highly
organized state of five million.
Like Cortés’s invasion of Mexico,
its success depended on internal
divisions within the Inca Empire,
and a combination of religious
zeal, greed, and superior military
means—steel, guns, and armor
against the Incas’ weapons of
sharpened stones and padded
cotton armour—the whole driven
by Pizarro, a man of huge ambition.

On the other side of the continent,
further European penetration of
South America was also taking
place, albeit on a far smaller scale.
In 1532, Portugal established its
first permanent settlement in
Brazil, at Sao Vicente. This was
the nucleus of what by the end of
the century would be a huge
colonial enterprise based on
slavery and sugar plantations.

In 1532, hostilities between
Germany's Schmalkaldic League
and Emperor Charles V ceased
with the signing of a treaty at
Nuremberg. The concessions
made to the Protestants by
Charles, which, most importantly,
included freedom of worship,
were welcomed by Martin Luther
and enabled German Protestants
to spread throughout the country
in the following decade.

WP) 66. THE SCANDAL
AY OF CHRISTENDOM AND
Kat, A DISGRACE TO YOU. 99

sy
4, Catherine of Aragon to Henry VIII about Anne Boleyn, 1533

HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND had been
awarded the title Fidei Defensor—
Defender of the Faith—by Pope
Leo X in 1521 in recognition of his
vehement defense of the Catholic
Church against Protestant
attacks. Henry would remain

a devout Catholic to the end of
his life, opposed to all attempts
to reform Catholic practice.

And yet by 1533 he had been
excommunicated from the
Roman Church. The following
year, he completed the rupture,
establishing a national church,
totally independent from Rome,
with himself as its “supreme
head.” The reasons for this
improbable split were simple.
Initially, Henry wanted a divorce
from his aging Spanish wife,
Catherine of Aragon, who after
24 years of marriage had yet to
give birth to ason. Henry had

Anne Boleyn

Henry VIll married Anne Boleyn in
secret in January 1533, four months
before he divorced Catherine of
Aragon. She was crowned in June.

Charles V's seizure of Tunis in June 1935 was almost the only

of his reign. Briefly, the prospect of a resurgent Christendom loomed.

The initial Catholic response to
the Reformation was hesitant
and uncoordinated, and was
led by a series of individuals
rather than the Church itself.
The Jesuits, the Society of
Jesus, were established in
1534 by a Basque nobleman,
Ignatius of Loyola. Loyola’s
goal was to produce a new
generation of highly educated
priests to spread a new
militantly Catholic faith. Given
papal sanction in 1540, the
Jesuits spearheaded the
Catholic revival.

convinced himself this was divine
punishment for marrying his
brother's widow—in 1501,
Catherine had married Henry's

i elder brother Arthur, who died
: the following year; Henry and
: Catherine married in 1509.

The pope, under pressure from

: Catherine’s nephew, Charles V,
: refused to grant a divorce. Henry's
: response, formulated over several

years, was in effect to become his
own pope, able to authorize his

by the knowledge that, as
elsewhere in Europe, any ruler
asserting control of the Church in
his own country would necessarily
increase his own authority, in 1534
the Church of England was
brought into being under the Act
of Supremacy. In pursuit of Henry's

: personal interests, Roman

Catholicism was abolished.

HAVING BROKEN WITH ROME,

it followed that all the structures
of the Catholic Church in England
should be taken over by the state.
This was not just a question of
wanting to eradicate papal
authority in England. The Catholic
Church in England was immensely
wealthy, and this was money that
Henry VIII, permanently strapped
for cash, was determined to have.
In 1535, the king’s secretary,
Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485-
1540}, took charge of the two-part
dissolution of the country’s
monasteries. Starting in 1536
and culminating with all the great
monasteries in 1539, the
dissolution involved systematic
vandalism and saw the greatest
transfer of land ownership in
England since the Norman
Conquest in 1066. Every one of the
560 monasteries in England was

suppressed, yielding the crown
an additional income of around
£200,000 per annum. However,
within years the money was gone,
squandered by the king.

Henry VIII's divorce from
Catherine of Aragon in 1533 had
been necessary to allow him to
marry Anne Boleyn. When she,

too, failed to produce a son, Henry :

had her executed on charges of
adultery in 1536. In the same
year, tensions at the pace and
extent of religious change, and the
sincere concerns of many that the
break with Rome signaled larger
changes in the fabric of the
traditional Church, had reached
the boiling point in the North of
England. The Pilgrimage of
Grace saw the largest uprisings
in England since the Peasants

shown little or no dissatisfaction
with the Catholic church and were

unprepared to see centuries of

protest on this scale, the king

58% of eligible
monasteries
dissolved

Dissolution of monasteries
Under the Dissolution of Lesser
Monasteries Act of 1536, 243 of
the 419 eligible monasteries were
suppressed or dissolved.

eid A
unequivocal success

1,175
people burned

PORTUGUESE
INQUISITION

646
effigies burned

: Portuguese Inquisition

Between 1540 and 1794, tribunals

: held in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and
: Evora led to the death by burning of
: 1,175 people, most of them Jews.

: conceded to the movement's

demands. But when the crisis

i was over, he had the rebellion’s
: leaders executed.
Revolt in 1381. Those involved had =

Distracted by events in Europe,

Charles V was rarely able to

: pursue his goal of driving the

: Ottomans back to their Turkish
settled faith discarded. Faced with =

heartlands. In 1535, however, he

: achieved a rare success with the

conquest of Tunis in North Africa.
It proved to be a costly victory,

: provoking an Ottoman raid on
: Majorca that captured 6,000
: Christians and encouraged the

French monarch to cooperate

: more closely with the Ottomans.

While it never achieved the

» notoriety of its Spanish equivalent
| (see 1480), the Portuguese

| Inquisition, founded in 1536, was
| nonetheless vigorous in rooting

: out heresy in Portugal and, from

: 1560, in its colonies, such as Goa.
: Its chief target was Jews, many

originally Spanish, who were

: forcibly converted to Catholicism.

This illustration from the Vallard Atlas

of 1547 depicts Jacques Cartier and

members of the abortive French-Canadian colony of 1541-42.

464 TAMINC

BELIEVE THAT THIS IS

THE LAND

GAVE TO CAIN. 99

LINED TO

: suppression of the revolt and the
i city’s notables were forced to

| parade barefoot. The underlying

GOD

Jacques Cartier, French explorer, about Canada, 1536

THE BATTLE OF PREVEZA, fought
off western Greece in September

1538, further underlined the reach :

of Ottoman naval power. It pitched
the Ottomans against a combined
Papal, Venetian, Genoese, and
Spanish fleet brought together

by Pope Paul Ill. The Ottoman
victory highlighted the difficulty
the Christians faced in welding
together disparate, uneasily
allied forces.

tension, however, remained.
Despite concerted efforts, the
Spanish exploration of North

: America in the 16th century

i proved discouraging. The myths
| that drove it—a waterway linking
: the Atlantic and Pacific, the

“Seven Cities of Gold”—proved to

: be just that. The reality was vast

: In August 1539, Ghent, the

: birthplace of Charles V, rose in

revolt against him. The issue was

= tax, demanded by Charles to

| finance his Italian wars. It revealed =
the difficulties faced by Charles V
in imposing authority over

» autonomous cities determined
to guard their “liberties” by

: refusing to pay a distant ruler for

: an equally distant campaign.

: Charles personally oversaw the

| territories that proved hostile and
: unrewarding. Nonetheless, from

1539, Hernando de Soto leda

: four-year expedition across much

of the southern territories of

: today’s US. Similarly, in 1540-42,

: Francisco Vazquez de Coronado
: headed a still larger force north

: from Mexico, penetrating as far

_ as Kansas. And in 1542-43, Juan

Rodriguez Cabrillo led a fleet

: north along the unknown Pacific

coast, discovering
San Diego harbor.
But none of these
ventures would
be followed up
until the end of
the century.
French attempts
at settlement in
North America,
promoted in part

Battle of Préveza
Despite the size of
the Christian fleet at
the Battle of Préveza
in September 1538,
it proved no match
for the Ottoman fleet
led by Khair ed-Din

by nervousness of being beaten
to it by Spain (just as Spain was
anxious not to be outflanked by
France], proved no more fruitful
Initial efforts had been made in

1534 and then in 1535-36 by
Jacques Cartier (1491-1557), in
the course of which the Gulf

of St. Lawrence and then the

St. Lawrence River in present-day
Canada were reached and claimed
for France. In 1541, by now
thoroughly alarmed by Spanish
intentions, France launched a
more substantial expedition to
Canada with the explicit goal

of establishing a permanent
settlement. It was led by
Jean-Francois de la Rocque de
Roberval, with Cartier his deputy,
and was a dismal failure. Cartier
returned, unauthorized, to France
in 1542 with “gold and diamonds”
that proved worthless. Roberval
abandoned the colony the
following year after a winter of
near starvation. French efforts in
North America would not be
renewed for half a century.

A consequence of the Catholic
response to the Reformation was
the missionary work undertaken

: between 1541 and 1552 by Francis

| Xavier (1506-52), a cofounder of
the Jesuits in 1534. Conceived
ona heroic scale, its aim was to
spread Christianity to East Asia.
Xavier traveled via Mozambique
to Goa, then to the Spice Islands
between 1545 and 1547, and then
to Canton and Japan before
returning to China, where he died
in 1552. His Christian conversions
are said to have been exceeded

(Barbarossa). only by St. Paul.
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THE FIRST CONTACT BETWEEN
EUROPE AND JAPAN WAS IN 1543.
According to the Portuguese
writer and explorer Fernao
Mendes Pinto, it occurred on the
island of Tanegashima, to the
south of the main Japanese
archipelago, Not only did the
Portuguese introduce firearms
to Japan, but they became
intermediaries between China
and Japan, whose merchants had
been forbidden to trade with the
Chinese as a result of persistent
raids by Japanese pirates.

In 1543, the Polish mathematician
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
published On the Revolution of the
Heavenly Bodies. It was based not
on Copernicus’s own observations
of the heavens so much as on
those of Greek and Arab
astronomers. Nonetheless, he
was able to demonstrate that
these much older observations
were more readily explained by
the Earth orbiting the Sun rather

Copernicus’s Universe

This painting by Andreas Cellarius
from 1660 shows “The system of the
entire created Universe according
to Copernicus.”

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204
tons of gold

Gold and silver shipped to Seville
The silver mountain at Potosi meant
it dominated the exports of precious
metals shipped to Spain from Chile
and Mexico from 1503 to 1660.

than the other way around. It
took others, notably the Danish
astronomer Tycho Brahe in the
1570s, to show by direct
observation that Copernicus
was right. But a major breach in
the geocentric universe theory
had been made.

Also published in 1543 was
Vesalius’s On the Fabric of the
Human Body. Like Copernicus,
Andreas Vesalius (1514-64)
looked to ancient Greek learning.
Unlike Copernicus, he made his
own direct observations, based on
dissections of human bodies. If
any moment can be pinpointed as
initiating a scientific revolution in
the West—the belief the world is
best understood by empirical
observation—it was perhaps this.

Ever since the formation of the
Protestant Schmalkaldic League
in 1531, Charles V had been forced
to skirt its threat to his authority as

Natives and llamas were pressed into service to transport silver from Potosi,
Bolivia. The sprawling shanty town became the largest in the New World.

: Holy Roman Emperor. Persistently

Ottomans, he had had little option

: consequences were mixed.

: Italian Alps, the Catholic Church

' The Portuguese arrive in Japan

distracted by the French and the

but to appease the league [see
1532) and only in 1546, with
France temporarily sidelined after
the Treaty of Crépy of 1544, did
he feel able to confront it directly.
The result, decided at the Battle

an overwhelming military success
for Charles. The longer-term

In 1545, Spanish colonists
discovered at Potosi, in present-
day Bolivia, the biggest single
concentration of silver ever found
—in effect, an entire mountain of
silver. Together with silver found
in northern Mexico, it would prove
to be the motor of the cash-hungry
Spanish Empire, for itwas New
World silver from Potosi that drove
Spanish trade with China just as
it financed Spain’s attempts at
European dominance.

In the same year, at Trent in the

set out to challenge the Protestant
Reformation by reforming and
remodeling itself. The Council

of Trent aimed to eradicate
corruption, make the Church's
teachings more coherent, and to
project itself as a dynamic and
competitive religious force. It gave
rise to a series of new Catholic
orders and met twice more, in
1551-52 and 1559-63.

Portuguese merchants display some
of their wares to the intrigue of the
locals on their arrival on Japanese
shores in 1543.

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44 ART OWES [ITS ORIGIN TO

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SUPPLIED THE FIRST MODEL, WHIL

THE ORIGINAL TEACHER WAS THAT
DIVINE INTELLIGENCE... 99

Giorgio Vasari, from Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Painters... 1550

THE ACCESSION OF THE NINE-
YEAR-OLD EDWARD VI (1537-53) to
the English throne in 1547 marked
a violent break with his father's
religious settlement. Henry VIII's
Church of England [see 1534) was
Protestant only in its rejection of
papal authority. Edward VI, guided
by the actively Protestant Lord

Book of Common Prayer

The Book of Common Prayer made
English the language of the English
Church for the first time. It also
provoked bitter protests and uprisings.

Protector, the Duke of Somerset,
acting head of the government, and
Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556),
the Archbishop of Canterbury,
introduced a new, vehemently
Protestant church, given legal force
in 1549 by the Act of Uniformity.
Many of the outward forms of
Catholic worship, including
bell-ringing, were forbidden. It
was reinforced by the publication

of Cranmer’s Book of Common
Prayer—its use was compulsory.
When the first Portuguese

: Governor-General, Tomé de

| Sousa, arrived in Brazilin 1549 he

: was accompanied by five Jesuits,

: sent at the express wish of the
Portuguese king, Joao III, and led
by Manuel de Nobrega (1517-70).
The Jesuits (see 1533-34), in

: other words, were central to the

: Portuguese colonization of Brazil

: only celebrated the first mass in
Brazil, at Salvador, first capital of
the new colony, he established the
first Jesuit College in the New

establishing schools and chapels
and, importantly, concentrating
their efforts among the natives’
children. He was a consistent
champion of the Indians in the
face of routine brutality by the
Portuguese colonizers.
Throughout the 16th century,
the North African coast was one
| of the key battlegrounds between
i the Christian West, chiefly Spain,
and the Ottomans for control of
the Mediterranean. Spain needed
to eradicate the devastating raids
by Barbary pirates—actively
encouraged by the Ottomans—that
| permanently threatened to disrupt
- Habsburg communications with
its Italian lands. The fall of Tripoli
to the Ottomans in 1551, with
some assistance from French
ships, was a striking blow to
Habsburg strategic hopes, just as
it marked a significant victory for
| the Turks. The city withstood
repeated efforts to retake it.

The only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary | was the
first queen of England to rule in her own right.

IN 1552, THE LAST CHAPTER of the
60-plus years of the Italian Wars
{see 1505-12] was opened. It saw
France allied with the Ottomans
in the Mediterranean, and with

a series of German Protestant
princes, notably Maurice of
Saxony, in Germany. England
would make a late and disastrous
contribution to the Spanish cause
in 1557. This came about because
Henry VIII's daughter, Mary,
became queen in 1553 and
married Charles V's son, the
future Philip Il of Spain, in 1554.
That the ruler of an England that
had been Protestant since 1534
should be married to the son of
the most militantly Catholic ruler
in Europe is easily explained.
Where her brother, Edward VI, had
been aggressively Protestant [see
1549-51), Mary | was no less
aggressively Catholic, determined
on the full restoration of Catholic
—and papal—supremacy. In the

Burned at the stake

Michael Servetus died in Geneva, a
copy of his book chained to his leg,
uttering the words: “Jesus, Son of
the Eternal God, have mercy on me.”

Heretics put to death

S @ ©
\ in i
\ . I ‘
During her five-year

4:1
s rule, Mary | had 283

Protestants burned at the stake for
heresy—227 of them were men
and 56 were women.

space of less than a year, England
was wrenched from one religious
extreme to another. From 1555, she
began the systematic persecution
of leading Protestant figures, 283
of whom she had burned alive
—hence her later demonization
as Bloody Mary.

The execution in Geneva in
October 1553 of the Spanish
theologian and radical humanist,
Michael Servetus, burned at the
stake at the express command
of the French religious reformer
John Calvin (1509-64), marked
acritical moment in the
Reformation (see 1516-18).
Servetus was a keen exponent,
guilty in Calvin's view of “execrable
blasphemies” because he rejected
Calvin's belief in predestination—
that all events are “willed by God,”
with eternal salvation available
only to those who submit to God's
will (largely as defined by Calvin).
What was significant about the
death of Servetus was that for the
first time Protestantism was seen
to be as intolerant of heresy as
Catholicism. The implications
were bleakly ominous.

Ps,
This copper engraving depicts the
Peace of Augsburg of 1555.

THE FINAL PHASE OF THE ITALIAN
WARS made plain that Charles V
could never impose himself
militarily on those of his nominal
subjects within the Holy Roman
Empire who had embraced
Protestantism. Charles accordingly,
and reluctantly, allowed his
brother Archduke Ferdinand, Holy
Roman Emperor designate, to
negotiate a compromise, the
Peace of Augsburg, agreed in
September 1555. At its heart was
a formula—culus regio eius religio
(“whose realm, his religion”]—
that allowed each ruler to impose
his own religion on his territory.
Tolerance of this sort suggested
a major breakthrough. But the
choice was between Catholicism
and Lutheranism only—Calvinism
(see 1552-54) was not included.

The accession of the 14-year-old
Akbar to the Mughal throne in
1556 marked a decisive moment
in the dynasty’s fortunes. His
father, Humayun, had seen a
substantial erosion of Mughal
power in the face of Afghan and
Hindu advances. Having fought
off a determined Hindu attempt on
his throne at the Second Battle
of Panipat in November 1556,
Akbar presided over an enormous
expansion of Mughal power.

The claims of Russia’s czars
to be the sole legitimate heirs of
Rome and, therefore, the only
guardians of Christianity led
naturally to a belief that the
expansion of Russia by conquest
was not just desirable but
inevitable. Under Ivan IV, known
as “the Terrible” (1530-84),
such ambitious assertions were

significantly boosted. Although his
efforts in the west were thwarted
by Lithuanian arms, those to the
south were strikingly successful.
He had already conquered the
Khanate of Kazan in 1552. In 1556,
he achieved an even more notable
breakthrough, destroying the
enfeebled Khanate of Astrakhan.

Akbar the Great in procession
During the 46-year reign of Akbar,
Mughal India enjoyed expansion
of territory, prosperity, religious
tolerance, and cultural richness.

: Russia now found itself not only in

control of the trade routes to
Central Asia, it was also poised
to sweep eastward across Siberia.

This oil painting shows Henri II of France and Philip Il of Spain meeting at Cateau-Cambrésis
on April 3, 1559 to sign the peace treaty. In reality, it was signed by their ambassadors.

THE TENSE RELATIONS BETWEEN
the Portuguese, who had been
attempting to establish trading
posts in China since 1513, and
the Chinese, always suspicious
of Portuguese intentions, had
thawed during the 1540s to the
point that by 1552 China agreed
to allow Portugal a trading post
in Macau on the south coast of
China. It was the key foothold the
Portuguese had been seeking. By
1557, this temporary settlement
had become permanent. It would,
in turn, prove a crucial link in the
Portuguese, later Spanish, global
trading system. Macau remained
Portuguese until 1999.

In 1557, Mary | of England (see
1552-54) was persuaded by her
husband Philip II to join Spain in its
renewed war with France. This
proved disastrous, leading directly
to the loss of Calais tothe
French in January 1558; Calais
had been English since 1360 and
was the country's last foothold in
continental Europe. Mary had
been unable to have children and
when she died in November
1558, she was succeeded
by her Protestant
half-sister Elizabeth |,
the daughter of
Anne Boleyn.

Capture of Calais
This enamel plaque
by French artist
Leonard Limosin
celebrates the
capture of Calais by
French forces led by
Francis, Duke of Guise
on January 7, 1558.

KEY

Territory of
Moscow 1300-1505

Expansion of

Barents Sea

Moscow 1505-1584 yw
eS 2 fe
x = @ Arkhangelsk 3
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; o@ 2

Expansion of < ae or
ESTONIA 2
Moscow cf Riga @Pskov Nizhny &
In 1547, Ivan IV Bat “LATVIA Moscowg eykarazn @ SIBERIA
transformed the LITHUANIA @ OR
Grand Duchy of Smolensk Samara
Moscow into the (DA) Saratov
Czardom of Russia. one ce Medals
saritsyn
In the 1550s, he Aral
‘ @Rostov Sea
began the expansion HUNGARY @Astrakhan
of its boundaries, g
and its territory and Black Sea
population doubled ‘Constantinople
during his reign.
The Treaty of Cateau- predictable consequence was the

Cambrésis of April 1559 marked
the definitive end of the Italian
Wars. It proved a short-lived
success. Habsburg Spain was the
clear victor, its dominance in Italy
absolute (at the expense of the
papacy as much as of France]. For :
its part, France kept Calais as well i
as Metz, Toul, and Verdun. By the
terms of the treaty, Philip II
was tacitly making plain
that the military
and financial
contributions of
the Netherlands
to the conflict
had been
principally to
advance Spain’s
Italian goals.
Future conflict
in the Spanish
Netherlands was
more or less
guaranteed. A less

death of the French king, Henry

© IIb. 1519) three months later ina
: tournament held to celebrate the
: treaty. The succession of boy-kings
: that followed led France to 40

: years of bitter civil war (see 1572).

In 1558, Czar Ivan IV continued
his policy of Russian expansion
with the beginning of the

: settlement of the Khanate of Sibir
: (western Siberia]. Ivan’s conquest

of Kazan in 1552 had opened up
the way to the Urals and Siberia

: to the east. Colonization was led

by rich merchants, such as the

| Stroganovs, who had been
: granted estates and tax privileges
: by Ivan in the lands they took.

Protected by Cossacks, large-

: scale migration into Siberia

followed in the 1570s, establishing

» trade links with local tribes. The

Khanate of Sibir was eventually

: conquered in 1582, greatly
: increasing the size of Russia.

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190

1450-1749 REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

gold surface

Tea jar
{ 17th century
\ CA rend
ahd AN ay | 4 This formerly lidded jar is

Agano stoneware. Its shape,
black body, and blue glaze
imitate wares imported from
China for the tea ceremony.

Re Lh aE

netsuke stops
inro from slipping
off belt

Lacquer inro

1750-1799

Inros were small boxes hung from
the belt and secured by a netsuke.
This lacquer and gold example is
decorated with scenes around Kyoto.

typical floral

human ‘figures_# / ——_ decoration

connecting

cord Porcelain tea bowl Imari charger
Wrestler’s netsuke 1700-1750 Edo period
1800-1850 Used as a delicate cup, this Vast quantities of Imari porcelain,
In the Edo period much ingenuity went example of blue-and-white Arita named after its principal port of
into the designs of carved toggles called ware, decorated with figures, distribution, have featured this
netsuke. This example, depicting a snail imitates a design of the Chinese charger’s palette, dominated by
on a mushroom, is made of boxwood. Kangxi dynasty period (1662-1722). blue, pink, and orange shades.

bamboo

mount gives
fan rigidity _

EDO PERIOD

JAPANESE ARTS FLOURISHED UNDER THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNS’ RULE

The Edo period (1603-1868) was one of peace. The Mount Fuji
merchant class grew wealthier and better educated, and
began to enjoy arts that were previously the preserve of

the landowning elites and the samurai warrior class.

a ‘
\__ top piece

emphasizes

height

Japanese craftsmen were inspired by the culture of ukiyo (Floating
World}, itself inspired by the Buddhist idea that allis illusion. In Edo
Japan ukiyo became associated with fleeting pleasures—from dallying
with courtesans to attending kabuki dance dramas. Craftsmen strove
for an esthetic of otherworldly elegance. Surrounded by beauty, their
clients set about their pursuits, from writing to prayer, as though they
too were part of the illusory Floating World

Printed fan
1858

This late Edo artifact is made of split
bamboo and paper. On each side is a
different silkscreen-printed scene by
Hiroshige II (1826-69).

decorative
straw hat

lacquered

surface finely carved

detail

Zen ink
decoration

separable

Lotus component

throne

Wooden Buddha figure Ivory figure Brass lantern

18th century 18th century 18th century Folding screen

Buddhism lay at the heart of This delicately carved ivory figure Intended for exterior use, Edo period

Tokugawa ideas of a coherent of an old woman carrying a probably at an entrance approach, Sliding panels (fusuma) and folding
society. This small figure was bundle of faggots carries the this monumental brass lantern screens served as movable interior
kept as areminder of Buddha. inscription of Gyokusen. disassembles into five parts. walls in Edo Japan.

horns confirm
demonic identity

\_ hair accentuates
wild movement

Brocade picture

18th century

Entitled Truth-Sincerity,

this is one of the nishiki-e
(brocade pictures) of Suzuki
Harunobu (c. 1725-70), made
by superimposing printings
of woodblocks inked with a
range of colors.

water pot seal block

Writing tools

1800-1899

Calligraphy was widely practiced by

the well-to-do as a leisure pursuit. The
compartments of this box contain brushes
and other paraphernalia of the art.

grinding ink block
block

light coloring
denotes an
aristocrat

aping mouth and
monic teeth

his mask represents Hannya,
fale Noh character turned
a demon by jealousy and
iger. Noh theater coexisted with
other forms, such as Kabuki

detail drawn from
bamboo — nature
brush

wooden cube
contains
penknife and
a needle

three
volumes.
bound
together

Bound woodblock prints

1779

Amonochrome print consists of a single
impression from a carved woodblock.
Some later examples were hand-colored,
in anticipation of color printing.

191

Oda Nobunaga (1534-82)

BY ABOUT 1560, ODA NOBUNAGA,
LEADER OF THE ODA CLAN in
central Japan, was emerging as
the greatest of the country's
regional warlords, or daimyo.
Since the calamitous Onin War,
which began in 1466, Japan had
been effectively ungovernable—
the daimyo brutally vying for
supremacy. The arrival of the
Portuguese in the mid-15th
century, bringing with them
firearms, added to the chaos—
the Japanese proved to be ready
students of the possibilities
of Western-style artillery
bombardments {see 1574-77].
From 1561, the substantial
Baltic territories of the Livonian
Order (see 1236-40), which had
already lost East Prussia in 1525
when the Teutonic Grand Master,
Albrecht von Hohenzollern,
converted to Protestantism, were
progressively dismembered by
Russia, Sweden, Poland, and
Denmark. Originally a Crusading
{that is, Christian) frontier entity,
Livonia was a victim in part of the
Reformation, but more of Polish-
Russian rivalries—neither willing
to see the other strengthened in
the region at its own expense.
Few conflicts were more
destablizing than the French
Wars of Religion, which began in

44 WITHOUT DESTRUCTION,
THERE IS NO CREATION...
THERE IS NO CHANGE. 99

Oda Nobunaga ruthlessly broke the military power of Japan's leading regional
warlords in a drive for control that eventually united Japan.

: 1562 and dragged on until 1598.

There were, technically, eight

| separate wars; in reality, it was a
: single, long-drawn-out struggle.
© On one level, it was a purely

: religious conflict—was France to
: be Catholic or Protestant?

: Inevitably, this meant that the

| principal Catholic and Protestant -
| rulers of Europe were periodically
: dragged into the conflict, neither :
: the pope nor Philip Il of Spain

: wanting a Protestant triumph any

more than the Protestant rulers

: wanted a Catholic one. Yet it was

_ also a matter of determining who

: exercised authority in France—the :
: instability in its wake (see 1557-59),
: but from 1560 it was compounded

THE NUMBER OF

KNIGHTS WHO

__ SERVED AS GRAND

| MASTER OF THE
LIVONIAN ORDER

Massacre of Huguenots

: The killing of 80 Huguenots at Vassy
: in northeast France in March 1562

= was the spark that began the French
: Wars of Religion.

: crown or the nobles, whether
» Catholic or Huguenot. The French
: Protestants were known as

Huguenots, from the Swiss-
German Eidgenossen or “oath
companions.” The Catholics were

i in the majority, but the Huguenots
: were exceptionally well organized.
i Both parties had powerful

"aristocratic leaders for whom the
' struggle was also political. A royal

minority always brought political

: by three successive kings who had
: very limited ability to manage the
: nobles. As none produced an heir
» and civil war intensified, what was
» at stake by the end was not just

: the country’s religious destiny but
: royal authority itself.

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Construction of the austere yet vast royal residence, El Escorial

, began in 1563.

It was intended to underline the piety as well as the majesty of Spain’s rulers.

IN 1563, SWEDEN AND DENMARK
CLASHED FOR SUPREMACY in the
Baltic. The first modern naval
war ensued—that is, with sailing
ships, rather than galleys {as was

still common in the Mediterranean], =
: Caroline, it was the first French
: colony in what would become the
: US. It lasted little more than a

© year before it was destroyed bya
| Spanish force determined not to
city of Liibeck. Seven major naval -
battles were fought between 1563
: a territory where they enjoyed

i superiority. All the settlers and

: killed. In revenge, in 1568, a

| French force destroyeda

: Spanish colony, Fort Matanzas,
© built after the destruction

: of Fort Caroline.

heavily armed with cannon. Both
countries were competing for
control of the maritime invasion
routes, the Danes supported by
the semi-independent German

and 1570, by which point both
sides were effectively bankrupt.
As other countries would discover,
custom-built men-of-war may
have been the most formidably
powerful weapons of the period
but the ships were prodigiously
expensive. The war ended with no
territorial gain for either side.

Battle of Oland

Escaping persecution at home,

i in 1564 a group of Huguenot

: John’s River on the site of what

today is Jacksonville. Called Fort

allow French settlers, especially
Protestant ones, to encroach on

4th

The Danes were victorious at the Battle of Oland
on May 30-31, 1564, during which the Swedes |

lost their new royal flagship, Mars.

.
Although Breugel’s Massacre of the Innocents has a Biblical subject, in reality

it is a commentary on Spanish brutality during the Dutch Revolt.

IN ESTABLISHING HIS OWN BRAND
of divinely sanctioned Orthodox
absolutism, Ivan IV (see panel,
right) never had to contend with
the substantial vested interests—
mercantile, aristocratic, or
clerical—that frustrated his
counterparts in Western Europe.
His principal opponents were the
Cossacks—free-ranging
frontiersmen—and the boyars, the

Spanish settlement

St. Augustine in Florida, founded by
Spain in August 1565, is the oldest
continuously inhabited European
settlement in North America.

hereditary nobility. The Cossacks
were co-opted as allies by the
obvious strategy of bribing them,
while, from 1565, the boyars were
dispossessed, and in most cases
slaughtered. Their former estates
became lvan’s “private domain,”
the oprichina—a vast area of
central Russia—parceled out
among a new nobility, the dvoriane,
loyal to the czar.

The key maritime challenge
confronting Spain after its
conquests in Mexico and Peru

(see 1532) was to link them with
the Philippines and the Spice
Islands on the western extremity
of the Pacific, which, in 1564,
Spain determined to colonize.

A westward route across the
Pacific had been pioneered in
1527, but no return route was
known. Between June and
October 1565, Spanish navigator
Andrés de Urdaneta made the
critical breakthrough,
sailing far to the north to
find favorable winds in
the longest nonstop
voyage yet made—
11,600 miles (18,700km].
It completed a vital trade
network.

In much the same way
that religious conflict and
power politics in the
French Wars of Religion
produced a savage
conflict, so the Dutch
Revolt—which began in
1566 and lasted until 1648—was
the product of a toxic mix of
religious intolerance and a drive
for political domination. In 1566,

: Philip Il of Spain, Catholic ruler

of the Netherlands, asserted:

“| do not propose nor desire to be
the ruler of heretics.” Given that
there was considerable support
for a growing Protestant minority

: inthe Netherlands, his divine

obligation to eradicate these
heresies was inescapable. But
there was a further complication.
The Netherlands, whether
Protestant or Catholic, had no
desire to submit to Philip’s rule
given that this would mean
surrendering its own “liberties” —

IVAN THE TERRIBLE
(1530-84)

Though capable of bouts of
remorse—as when, in 1581,
he killed his eldest son and
heir by staving in his head
with a staff—Ivan IV applied a
ruthless brutality to his rule.
Hence Ivan “the Terrible”.
One key consequence was
that vast numbers fled
Russia during his reign from
1547 to 1584, depopulating
the country to the point

that serfdom (bonded
peasantry] was the only
means of retaining an
agricultural workforce.

its right to govern itself even while
acknowledging Philip as its
overall ruler. In particular, it saw
no reason why it should pay taxes
to finance the Spanish king’s
campaigns elsewhere. While this
was a problem that could never be
resolved peacefully, even by the
standards of the period, the
resulting conflict was shockin in
its violence (see 1572-73).

A priest blesses two soldiers in the Northern Rising of 1549, the last sustained
attempt by Catholics in England to protest against the Reformation.

IN 1568, OMURA SUMIDATA , a
Japanese daimyo who in 1563 had
converted to Christianity, gave
permission for Portuguese
traders and missionaries to
establish a port at a fishing village
at the southern tip of Japan—
Nagasaki. Until the suppression
of Christianity in Japan in 1614,
Nagasaki, a Jesuit colony, was not
only almost entirely Catholic—or
“kirishitan”—it was Portugal's
most important trading center in
East Asia.

The most urgent task facing
Akbar in his consolidation of
Mughal power in India {see
1555-56] was the defeat of the
Hindu Rajputs of the northwest.

This was a decade-long campaign, :

which climaxed in 1569 with the
fall of the fortresses of Mewar
and Ranthambore. Having
secured the submission of the
principal Rajput rulers, Akbar
married a series of Hindu
princesses (he had 36 wives in
all), tying his defeated enemies to
him in matrimonial alliances.

In 1659, the failure of Sigismund ©

II, last of the Jagiellonian rulers of
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and
of Poland, to produce an heir led
to a formal union between the
two states. This new Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth
became the largest territorial
state in Europe. The move was
prompted by Sigismund's desire
to ensure that his dynasty’s
territories were preserved, and
the need to protect Lithuania from
the Ottomans and the Russians.
The nobles of both territories
quarreled over the new

£ constitutional arrangement,

: anxious it should not be to their
disadvantage. For the Poles, the
clinching factor was the transfer

* to them of immense territories,
among them the Ukraine.

> The Northern Rising of

» November 1569 was the most

serious threat to Elizabeth I's
pragmatic Protestantism. Led by
the Catholic earls of Westmorland
and Northumberland, it swept
across northern England before

' being savagely repressed.

| In 1569, the Flemish cartographer

| Gerardus Mercator (1512-94)
devised a world map that for the

bearing of every landmass. The

Mercator projection remains the

» most familiar map of the world.

Gerardus Mercator

Mercator was an engraver anda
mathematician as well as a skilled
cartographer. He devised his world
map of 1569 for marine navigation.

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44 BEAUTY WILL RESULT
FROM THE FORM AND THE
CORRESPONDENCE OF
THE WHOLE... 99

Andrea Palladio, from Four Books of Architecture, 1570

THE MANILA GALLEON was one of
the most distinctive elements

of Spain’s New World trading
system. From the 1570s, three
galleons (two after 1593] made
an annual round-trip between
Acapulco in Mexico and Manila in
the Philippines. In return for New
World silver, Spain imported silks,
spices, porcelain, lacquerware,
and ivory. It is estimated that by
1600 the value of a single cargo
of these ships—the largest in the
world—exceeded the entire annual
revenue of the English crown.

In 1571, the Portuguese

: but the Kimbundu people proved

: impossible to subdue, the soil of

: the coast was too poor to cultivate,
: and the salt trade could not be

: wrested from African control.

They did establish trading forts at

_ Luanda and Benguela in 1575 and
| 1587, boosting their slave trade.

The Battle of Lepanto, fought

: off the coast of western Greece in
: October 1571, was the last major

engagement between galleys—

: with 208 Christian galleys against

Andrea Palladio, the most influential
architect of the later Renaissance.

: 251 Ottoman. The Christian fleet,
H commanded by Don Juan of
_ Austria, illegitimate son of

Charles V, triumphed, largely

: through its artillery. Although the
: Christians failed in the wider goal
: to retake Cyprus, the threat of

i Ottoman expansion in the western
| Mediterranean was ended.

| Battle of Lepanto

: An estimated 20,000 Ottomans and

: 7,500 Christians died at the Battle of
: Lepanto. The ramming tactics of the
: Ottoman galleys proved ineffective.

lint

In the background of this painting of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre by
the Huguenot Francois Dubois, Catherine de Medici inspects a pile of corpses.

DESPITE THE SPANISH CONQUEST

Inca state was set up in the Upper
Amazon in 1539 under a minor
Inca noble, Manco Inca Yupanqui,
in asmall settlement, Vilcabamba.

waged an intermittent, generally
ineffective campaign against the
Spanish. In 1572, Vilcabamba was
overrun and the last Inca leader,
Tupac Amaru, was executed.

In 1566, a delegation of Dutch
nobles appeared before Margaret
of Parma (1522-86], half-sister of
Philip Il and governor-general of
the Netherlands, objecting to
Philip's drive against heresy in the
Netherlands. They were referred
to contemptuously by one of
Margaret's counselors as
“queux” —“beggars.” The name
was enthusiastically taken up by
the protesting Dutch, particularly
the Sea Beggars, privateers (or
pirates) whose raids on Spanish
shipping from 1568 significantly
hampered Spain's military efforts.
The Sea Beggars depended toa
considerable extent on support
from England, discreetly doing
what it could to disrupt the

Spanish. But in the spring of 1572,
Elizabeth I [see 1586-89), anxious

not to offend Spain too obviously,
closed English harbors to them.

: significant figure in the Revolt,
of Inca Peru (see 1532), a remnant
: Rebellion had turned to open war.

agreed to take command of them.

The massacre of Huguenots

i in Paris on August 24, 1572,
: St. Bartholomew's Day, was the
From here, he and his descendants :

worst atrocity of the French Wars

_ of Religion. It stemmed from an
: attempt to resolve the wars by a
: marriage. Henry of Navarre, a

: leading Huguenot close to the

: succession of the French throne,
: was to wed Marguerite of Valois,
i sister of the young French king,
: Charles IX. This was largely

_ Catherine de Medici (see panel,
© right) who, as fearful for her son’s
© throne as she was alarmed by
growing Huguenot power, had

: nonetheless persistently sought
© to bring the warring factions

: Huguenots descended on Paris

: forthe marriage. However, there
i was a plot to assassinate the

| Huguenot's dominant figure,

i Gaspard de Coligny. Who was

12-15

In response, in a more or less i MILLION, 15
desperate gamble, on April 1, 1572 = MILLION
the Sea Beggars seized Brill, H

Holland. Within three months they | 1492 1572

had taken practically every town © Inca population

: The European conquest of the Incas
was devastating. Imported European
) diseases, rather than deliberate

: genocide, were the chief culprit.

in Zeeland and Holland, purging
them of royalists and Catholics.
William of Orange (1533-84),
politically and military the most

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CATHERINE DE MEDICI
(1519-89)

The Italian-born Catherine
married Henry II of France in
1533. On his death in 1559,
she became monarch in all
but name as France fell into
turmoil, with her first two
sons, Francis I] and Charles
IX, proving too young and
inexperienced, and Henry III
facing a deteriorating political
situation. Her goal to preserve
the Valois monarchy was a
spectacular failure.

any case, the plot failed—Coligny,
though wounded, survived—but
the mood in Paris became
explosive. Catherine may then
have persuaded the king that a
Huguenot takeover was in the
offing and could be forestalled
only by killing all the principal
Huguenots in the city. Equally, the
subsequent bloodletting may have
been spontaneous. At all events,
not only was Coligny murdered, but
more than 3,000 Huguenots were
killed. Across France, 20,000 may
have died in the following weeks.

44 SOVEREIGNTY IS THE ABSOLUTE

AND PERPETUAL POWER OF A
COMMONWEALTH... THE HIGHEST
POWER OF COMMAND... 99

Jean Bodin, French political philosopher, 1576

THE NORTH AFRICAN COAST of the
western Mediterranean was a key
focus of Ottoman-Christian
rivalry, with Spain, in particular,
seeking to prevent Muslim raids
on its shipping. Yet, gradually, the
handful of North African cities in
Spanish hands were lost—Algiers
in 1529, Tripoli in 1551, and Bugia
in 1555. By 1574, only Tunis
remained. Its final fallin August
1574 to an overwhelming Ottoman
fleet marked the end of Habsburg
ambitions in North Africa, which
from now was to remain firmly
within the Ottoman orbit.

The Battle of Nagashino, fought
in June 1575 between the forces
of Takeda Katsuyori (1546-82)
and an alliance led by the warlord
Oda Nobunaga (see 1560-62),
marked a decisive moment in the
evolution of warfare in Japan—the
first effective use of firearms. The
arquebus muskets introduced by

6,000

casualties
40

30
10,000
casualties

TROOPS [IN THOUSANDS)

Takeda
forces

Nobunaga
forces

Battle of Nagashino

Nobunaga's men outnumbered the
Takeda troops by more than 2:1, but
it was Nobunaga's skillful use of
firearms that won the day for them.

Selimiye Mosque

Built by Mimar Sinan for Selim Hin
Edirne and completed in 1575, this
mosque is the supreme statement
of Ottoman Islamic architecture.

the Portuguese in the 1540s had
been eagerly imitated by the
Japanese despite being very slow
to load. Nobunaga's solution was
to have three guns for each man
firing them, supported by teams
of loaders. The result was a near
continuous fire against which the
Takeda clan’s conventional cavalry
and infantry were helpless.
Spain's efforts to suppress the
Dutch Revolt (see 1572-73)
foundered in 1575. Unable to levy
taxes in the Netherlands, Philip II
could not pay his troops and they
mutinied, looting and murdering
indiscriminately. Philip's authority
in the Netherlands disintegrated.
The vacuum was filled by the
Dutch themselves—Catholics and
royalists as well as the rebellious
Protestants. Their agreement was
sealed by the Pacification of
Ghent, signed in November 1576.

y
, on ,

Hopelessly outnumbered, the Portuguese were in effect exterminated at the
Battle of Alcacer Quibir. Portugal lost not only its king but most of its nobles.

JUST AS PHILIP II'S ATTEMPTS TO
REASSERT HIS AUTHORITY over
the heretical Netherlands were

derailed by his simultaneous need |

to confront the Ottomans in the
Mediterranean, so the Ottomans’
attempts to confront the heretical
Safavids in Persia were distracted
by their conflicts with Spain. The
pause in the conflict after the fall
of Tunis in 1574, confirmed by a
peace treaty in 1580, freed both
states to pursue their goals
elsewhere. The benefits for the
Ottomans were immediate—a
string of conquests in Georgia
and Azerbaijan that, by the fall
of Tabriz in 1585, saw both
incorporated within their empire.
In August 1578, the king of
Portugal, Sebastian, was killed at
the Battle of Alcacer Quibir in
northern Morocco. The battle had
two consequences. One was to
confirm Ahmad al-Mansur
(1549-1603) as the new sultan of

an Ottoman-backed Morocco. The i

other was a succession crisis in
Portugal. Sebastian's heir was
his 66-year-old great-uncle,
Henry, a cardinal. He died,
childless, 17 months later.
Among the claimants to the
throne was Philip II (see 1580).
After the Pacification of
Ghent [see 1576), Philip II
was forced to agree not just
to pull out his troops but to
restore traditional privileges
across the provinces. But
on the question of religion,
he remained adamant—
Catholicism must be restored
everywhere. The violence flared
again. Philip's envoy, Don Juan,

Chichak helmet
: The Ottoman rawhide
: helmet with copper

: gilt was so effective it
| was widely imitated
: in Europe in the

: 17th century.

: stormed the city of Namur; in

: retaliation, Calvinist dissenters

: established themselves in cities
across the south. In January 1579,
© the Catholic nobility of the south

: reaffirmed their loyalty to Philip,

: forming the Union of Arras. The

: northern provinces formed the

: Union of Utrecht. To the miseries
: of the Netherlands were added

» the horrors of civil war.

is weak—

while an army advanced on Lisbon, the Spanish fleet assaulted it from the sea.

THE PUBLICATION IN DRESDEN
of the Book of Concord in 1580
was a pivotal moment in the
development of Lutheranism (see
1516-18}. While reaffirming the
supreme importance of the Holy
Scriptures—the Bible—it set out a
strict interpretation of them “as
the unanimous consensus and
exposition of our Christian faith.”
It remains the basis of Lutheran
beliefs today.

Philip II of Spain’s claim to
the Portuguese crown after the
throne became vacant [see
1578-79] was made good in
August 1580 by a combination
of military force and bribery.

464 NOTHING

IS SO FIRMLY
BELIEVED

AS THAT
WHICH LEAST
IS KNOWN. 99

Michel de Montaigne, French
Renaissance writer, Essais Book I

In July 1581, the northern

provinces of the Netherlands—the |
United Provinces—declared their —

independence by the Act of
Abjuration, renouncing their
oaths of loyalty to Philip Il. With
the Spanish king now technically
deposed, a new throne, that of the
Netherlands, was created and
accepted by the Duke of Anjou
(1555-84), brother of Henry III

of France. The south remained

broadly loyal to Philip, but the Act's =

Francis, Duke of Anjou
! Foreign support—English or
: French—was essential to defeat the
: Spanish, so the Dutch Protestants
i made the Duke of Anjou their ruler.

: assertion that a legal king could
be legally overthrown would
have significant consequences.

| The impact of the Single Whip

_ Reform, or “simple rule,” in 1581

= reform meant that not only would

: all taxes be based on property—

census—but they would be paid in

silver. It was introduced to
simplify China's tax system and to

' avoid problems of inflation created

: bya paper currency and debased

: coinage. It was made possible by
the inflow of Spanish and Japanese
silver. The new tax system created

: even greater demand for bullion,

: further, and in the long term

contributed to destabilizing the

entire Ming economy.

(Tom

Toyotomi Hideyoshi's victory at Shizugatake in May 1583 was typical of his

ruthless deployment of overwhelming force against his enemies.

THE RITUAL SUICIDE OF ODA
NOBUNAGA (see 1560-62) in 1582

Songhay Empire
The death of Askia
Daud in 1582

brought to power his most able Sy
general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi dopa by the 3 “ap,
{c, 1536/37-98]. Within adecade, oo reer) were ;

he had succeeded in unifying KoumbiSalch MiammE \eGz0

almost the whole of Japan under
his rule. It was a remarkable
achievement for one born a
peasant. All non-samurai were

key factors in
the Songhay
Empire's decline.

" KEY
disarmed to ensure that 5
Songhay territory
commoners could not challenge in 1500 at
his authority, while his Songhay territory “2%
reorganization of the tax system in 1625

and redistribution of land
guaranteed the revenues needed
to complete his conquests.

On February 24, 1582, Pope
Gregory XIll (1502-85) decreed a
revision to the Julian Calendar,
introduced in 46 BceE, which
underestimated the length of
every year by 11 minutes. By the
late 16th century, the Julian date
was 10 days adrift from the actual
date, meaning that the spring
equinox, from which the date of

Easter was calculated, fell on

March 11 rather than March 21.
Thus, for doctrinal reasons, the
pope's modest adjustment was

: made. The change was introduced

in October—Thursday the 4th
being followed by Friday the 15th—
but only in Spain, Portugal, Italy,
and Poland-Lithuania. The rest of
Europe, especially Protestant
Europe, scenting a popish plot,
was much slower to follow suit.

SONGHAY EMPIRE
Jenne®

Sir Francis Drake (1540-96)
became the first English captain

» interest in the New World. Sir

» Humphrey Gilbert had already
© voyaged to Newfoundland in

+ 1578-79. In 1583, he returned,
: with Elizabeth I’s backing, and
: claimed it for England. In 1584,
» again with royal approval, Sir

| Walter Raleigh (c. 1552-1618)
: sent an expedition to found the

irginia Colony, named for the
Virgin Queen.” It was established

} i the following year at Roanoke
© Island, today in North Carolina,
: but, by 1590, it had disappeared.

The surrender of Antwerp on

: August 17, 1585, to the Duke of

i Parma was not merely a striking

» military triumph for Spain, but it
© also brought the city's commercial
: preeminence to an abrupt end.

Siege of Antwerp

The 13-month siege reduced the
city’s population from 100,000 to
40,000, but it returned the southern
Netherlands to Spanish control.

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\ Soot

After keeping her in custody for 19 years, Elizabeth | finally had Mary, Queen

of Scots tried and executed for treason in February 1587.

ENGLAND'S INTERVENTION IN THE
DUTCH REVOLT (see 1572-73) was
characterized by the Battle of
Zutphen in September 1586—it
was a comprehensive defeat of
the combined Anglo-Dutch forces
by the Spanish. Elizabeth I had
better luck with her attempts to
destabilize Spain. In a series of
plundering voyages to the
Caribbean, Drake had highlighted
how Spain's lucrative New World
trade could be disrupted. In April
1587, Elizabeth despatched him
on a mission to Spain with a goal
of further raiding and destruction.
Characteristically, she almost
immediately changed her mind,
but her message recalling Drake
never reached him. It was a
spectacular success—Spanish
and Portuguese vessels and ports
were attacked with audacious

30
4,500

casualties
25

6,000

a casualties

ARMY (IN THOUSANDS)
a

10
5
0
Anglo-Dutch Spanish
army army
Battle of Zutphen

The Anglo-Dutch forces suffered
huge losses in the Battle of Zutphen
in 1586, which resulted in the city
being handed over to the Spanish.

abandon. The highlight was a

: three-day assault on Cadiz in

southern Spain, in which 23

: Spanish ships were sunk
© [according to Spanish sources;

Drake claimed 33) and four were
captured. The raid delayed Philip

Plots and rebellions plagued

: Elizabeth's reign and she had her
: Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of

Scots, executed in 1587 as a
dangerous claimant to her throne.
Christianity in Japan thrived
when first introduced by the
Portuguese in the mid-16th

: century. By about 1580, there

were an estimated 130,000
Japanese Christians, most in and
around Nagasaki. For Toyotomi
Hideyoshi [see 1582-85) they
represented an organized and
armed force around which

| opposition to him could be rallied.

A prime motive for the conversion
of many warlords had been that it

: would make it easier for them to

obtain gunpowder, since its trade
was still largely controlled by the
Portuguese. At the same time,
Hideyoshi was anxious not to

| jeopardize the trading links the

Portuguese had established.
His response was typically
hardheaded—trade was still to
be encouraged but Christianity

would be banned. In July 1587,

: a Purge Directive Order to the

: Jesuits was issued. In addition,

| Nagasaki was brought under his
: direct rule. Though the Order

was not fully enforced for a
decade or more, Christianity

: in Japan would in future be

forced underground.

44 | HAVE THE BODY BUT OF A WEAK AND

‘ FEEBLE WOMAN, BUT I HAVE THE HEART
* AND STOMACH OF A KING... 99

Elizabeth I, Queen of England, addressing the troops at Tilbury, August 19, 1588

THE SPANISH ARMADA was Philip
II's most obvious military
gamble—a massive deployment of
Spanish naval might meant first to
overthrow England, then to crush
the Protestant provinces of the
Netherlands. It failed entirely.

It showed how outright military
success was elusive, and that
logistical difficulties confronted
any long-range military operation.
Launched on May 30, 1588, the
Armada was the victim of English
seamanship, of lengthening lines
of supply, and of the weather—the
gale-wracked Spanish fleet was
forced home in disarray. Spanish
hopes of exterminating Protestant
heresies were decisively checked.

Spanish Armada

Severe storms and the English fleet
caused heavy losses to the Armada,
which numbered around 150 ships
when it left Lisbon.

ELIZABETH I (1533-1603)

Elizabeth faced many
problems on her accession to
the English throne in 1558—
religious division, economic
hardship, and threats from
Scotland, France, and Spain.
She overcame them with a
combination of guile and
intelligence and presided
over a reinvention of England
as a defiantly self-confident
Protestant nation.

The death in 1589 of Henry III of
France, stabbed by a Dominican
monk, brought Henry of Navarre
(1533-1610) to the throne and
plunged France into crisis. Henry
IV's claims to the crown were
clear, yet he was a Protestant.

To the powerful Catholic League

: of France, and to Philip Il in Spain,
i the prospect of a Protestant

: as king came only in 1593, after

: aseries of debilitating wars,

: when he—conveniently—

» converted to Catholicism.

elbow
protector

Dastana forearm guard

Date unknown

Forearm guards [dastanas] were worn
by Mughal warriors to shield limbs
from glancing blows. The hinged plate
also protected the inner arm surface.

Iron mace
18th century
Solid weapons, like this mace, could crush
enemy skulls, even through plate armor,
and were used by Mughal foot soldiers.

For over two centuries (1526-

dominated most of India. Through military might ,
inistrati ,they integrated Hindus a .

and administrative prowess

and Muslims into a rich culture of imperial splendor. a

With their roots in Mongol and Turkish cultures, seven generations of ™~ ail

Mughal kings, beginning with Babur (r.

sliding bar for
nose protection

stylized blade

Battle-ax
17th century elaborate
Mughal ideals of beauty extended even to tip

weapons, such as this ornate but formidable
cavalryman's ax from India’s Deccan region.

1761), Mughal rulers

antelope features
carved in ivory

1526-30), blended Persian and Islamic Ivory priming powder horn

military and artistic influences into India’s indigenous Hindu culture. The Date unknown

result was one of the most impressive

(1556-1707), commanded vast wealth, assimilated Hindus into its ruling elite,

medieval empires, which, at its height Wvory carving had an ancient history
in India, and it became equally revered
in Mughal courts. This powder horn,

expanded education, and provided patronage in the arts and literature. used on hunts, has an antelope shape.

Early

silk embroidery

» Satin hunting jacket

The sport of kings required
beautifully adorned clothing—
this coat is lavishly
embroidered with typically

Hunt painting

17th century

Hunting and horsemanship
were favorite pastimes of
Mughal rulers, who created
huge hunting parks. A prince
is seen here on horseback
with a servant and hound.

-— in chain stitches fleeing
antelope
i servant
seco with hound
hunted

17th century

Persian floral patterns.

Metal turban helmet Spiked parrying shield

Date unknown 18th century

The warriors of early Mughal armies With its five spikes and central plate, this
wore lightweight but effective turban Mughal device served as an elaborate and
helmets with nose and neck guards dangerously impressive weapon, as well
to deflect enemy arrows and blades. as vital protection for its bearer.

with battle spikes

each blade is 7in
(17.7.cm] long

central __/“

plate

Mughal miniature

Date unknown

Arts and architecture flourished under the
patronage of Mughal kings such as Akbar
(r, 1542-1605). Miniature painting, introduced
as manuscript illustration, was most prized.

Sarpech

Date unknown

The extraordinary wealth of the
Mughals was evident in their love of
jeweled objects. This sarpech, made
of gold, emeralds, diamonds, rubies,
and a pearl, adorned a royal turban.

large ruby
at center __~

\
\

solid jade
pestle

spike can be
used as weapon

Mortar and pestle

17th century

Jade could only be worked using
diamond dust, so it was highly prized
in Mughal society. This mortar and
pestle was carved from one block.

Mughal court painting

17th century

The splendor of the Mughal court is clear
from this painting of the emperor Jahan
(r, 1628-58) among his nobles, grouped in
strict hierarchical order around the throne

Jahan, fifth
Mughal emperor

Hansli necklace
18th century
Cast in gold and heavily encrusted
with precious stones, this rigid torque
or necklace was known as a hansli,
because it was designed to rest on the
wearer's collarbone—or hansli in Urdu.

floral pattern
shows through

Bowl inlaid with jade

18th century

Parchin kari, or inlay, reached

its peak during the reign of Jahan
(1628-58). This bowl is inlaid with
jade and precious stones.

Enameled gold wine goblet

17th century

Records of Mughal courtly life describe
kings sipping their wine from enameled
gold or silver goblets, and dozens of
dishes served on gold and silver plates.

engraving of
a dancing girl

bowl for
holding tobacco

. water jar
or bowl

Hookahs

18th century

The Mughals brought the Persian tradition
of hookah-smoking to India. Both men and
women used hookahs, in which tobacco
smoke is cooled with water.

enameled
floral motif —__

silver incised
hookah bowl

MUGHAL EMPIRE

Talisman

Date unknown

Mughal craftsmen were famed for
the intricacy of their work. This
talisman, or tabeez, is decorated
with verses from the Qur’an.

A eee
ee

=
An estimated 40,001

|-50,000 people died in Paris in 1590 until the Spanish

army led by the Duke of Parma broke the four-month siege in September.

BY 1590, TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI
(see 1582-87) had effectively
completed the unification of
Japan, and the distinctive
character of the regime that was
to dominate the country for over
250 years was established.
Though it was not the capital, from
1590 Hideyoshi based himself at
Edo, where the feudal nobility,
now entirely subservient to him,

year. It proved a highly effective
elaborate social structure was

who had to pay heavy taxes.

Attempting to impose himself on
France as king, Henry of Navarre
(see 1588-89] besieged Paris in
May 1590. The siege was broken
in September by Spanish troops
under the Duke of Parma.

In 1591, the Sultan of Morocco,
Ahmad al-Mansur, (see

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: 1578-79), launched an invasion of
: the troubled Songhay Empire

| (see 1582-85]. Al-Mansur's goal

» was the trans-Saharan gold

: perilous four-month crossing of

: the Sahara by a fighting force

_ of 4,000 men sustained by 8,000

© camels. In March 1592, a Songhay
: army over 40,000 strong was
routed at the Battle of Tondibi by
were required to spend every other :
| firepower, which included
means of preventing rebellion. This :
© English cannons.
largely supported by the peasantry, :

the Moroccans’ vastly superior

numerous arquebuses and eight

: Castle complex

= Himeji, or "White Egret," Castle is

: one of 200 massive castles built on
: the orders of Toyotomi Hideyoshi to
: ensure his power across Japan.

£900,000

THE GREATEST PRIZE EVER
TAKEN BY ENGLISH PRIVATEERS,
FROM THE MADRE DE DEUS

THE SEVEN YEAR WAR began

in the spring of 1592 when
Japanese forces mounted a
sustained invasion of Korea.
Partly an attempt by Toyotomi
Hideyoshi to unite the Japanese
in acommon cause, it was more
particularly the fulfillment of his
predecessor Oda Nobunaga's
ambitious goal of a conquest of
Ming China itself. The campaign
met with mixed results. Japanese
land victories in Korea were
matched by Korean naval
victories—the heavily armed and
protected Korean turtle ships
proving decisive against Japan's
progressively weakened fleets.
Chinese intervention late in the
year tipped the balance against
Japan. By the spring of 1593, the
Japanese were forced to sue for
peace. By the middle of the year,
they had begun to pull out. In 1597,
the aging Hideyoshi renewed the
campaign, sending larger forces.
The result was a further defeat
for Japan in 1598, but the savage
fighting devastated Korea.
Though the war did not formally

Rialto Bridge
The Rialto Bridge over the Grand
: Canalin Venice was completed in
: 1592. It was the fifth bridge built at
: the site, and the first made of stone.

end until 1608, by 1599 it was
| effectively over. Paradoxically, it
was Japan that benefited most.
: The defeat had a significant
: influence on its subsequent, if

never absolute, isolation from the

: wider world. Korea, by contrast,

took years to recover, while the

: against the extra taxes levied but
» weakened its military capacity on

its vulnerable northeastern frontier.
From 1592, Akbar (see 1555-56)

launched a further round of
: conquests that saw the Mughal
: Empire's frontiers reach their
: greatest extent during his reign.

In the east, Orissa was annexed. In

: 1594, Baluchistan and the coastal
: strip of Makran on the Safavid
' Persian border were conquered.

And in 1596, the key Afghan city

: of Kandahar, lost by Akbar's

father Humayan, was retaken.

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In this Portuguese map of Mombasa,
Fort Jesus is depicted bottom right.

THE OTTOMAN-HABSBURG
FRONTIER, generally stable after
the renewed Ottoman attempt on
Vienna in 1529, was a key focus
of Ottoman-Christian conflict. It
came center-stage again in 1593
with the Long War. A series of
inconclusive campaigns followed
in Hungary and the Balkans, with
the nominal Ottoman vassals of
Transylvania, Wallachia, and
Moldavia supporting the
Habsburgs. The net result of the
eventual peace settlement—the
Treaty of Zsitvatorok of 14606—
was to leave the frontier in a state
of simmering uncertainty.

On June 10, 1594, in the Spanish
settlement of St. Augustine,
Florida, Father Diego Escobar
de Zambrana baptized Maria,
daughter of Juan Jimenez de la
Cueva and Maria Melendez. The
event was recorded in the oldest
public document in what would
become the US and is the first
authentic record of a child born
to European settlers there.

Fort Jesus in Mombasa, East
Africa was built at the command of
Philip Il and completed in 1593. It
proved to be crucial to Portuguese
endeavors in the Indian Ocean
throughout the 17th century.

44 PARIS
ISWORTHA
MASS. 99

Henry IV of France, 1593

ey ae
PP GF OF”
AO WP

Despite the perils of the venture, all four Dutch ships that set out for the East
Indies in 1595 made it back safely to Amsterdam with their cargo in 1599.

THE FINAL CONVULSIONS OF THE
FRENCH WARS OF RELIGION
(1562-98) were played out after
1595. Henry IV (see 1588-89), by
his conversion to Catholicism in
1593, succeeded in winning broad
acceptance as king. Yet his

conversion aroused the suspicions
of the Huguenots—fearful he now |

intended to turn against them—
and did nothing to appease the
ambitions of the leaders of the

Catholic League, whose goal was :

not merely the extermination of
Protestantism in France but the
seizure of the throne. Henry's
response, in January 1595, was to
declare war on Spain. His aim
was both to eradicate the Catholic

League, supported by Spain, while :
: Spanish-Catholic League force
: in Burgundy was followed the
: following spring by a renewed

demonstrating to the Huguenots
that, Catholic or not, he was no
puppet of the Spanish monarchy.
An early French victory in June

Anglo-Dutch ships
Spanish ships

10 132
Anglo-Dutch Spanish
ships lost ships lost
Raid on Cadiz

The Spanish lost 80 percent of the
fleet anchored at Cadiz. They set
many of their ships on fire to deny
the Anglo-Dutch raiders their prize.

1595 against a combined

Spanish offensive that saw the
capture of Calais and Amiens.

| The inevitable sieges by Henry
: followed, and the capitulation

of Amiens in September 1597

Until the beginning of the Dutch

| Revolt in 1566, the Netherlands

"and Portugal and northern

» Europe—it was Dutch ships that
© carried spices and other New

: World goods from Iberia to the

: north. Thereafter, forbidden to

trade with Iberian ports and

"conscious of the failings of Spain’s
: maritime reach highlighted by the

Armada, the Dutch determined

: to break into the spice trade. In
3 1595, four Dutch ships under
: Cornelius van Houten sailed for

Anglo-Dutch fleet attacks Cadiz
Nominally a joint Anglo-Dutch
operation, in reality, of the 150 ships
in the fleet that attacked Cadiz in
1596, 130 were English.

the East Indies. The crews
endured scurvy and repeated
clashes with local rulers and the
Portuguese, and van Houten was
killed in Sumatra. When, in 1599,
the beleaguered fleet returned to
Amsterdam, it brought with it an
apparently meager quantity of
spices, yet this was enough to
secure a huge profit. The stage for
Dutch domination of the East India
trade was set (see 1602-03).

One of England's few successes
inits participation in the Dutch
Revolt was a raid on Cadiz in
southern Spain in July 1596.

Much like Drake's raid in 1587, it
caused enormous devastation,
with most of the city destroyed,
and contributed to the bankruptcy
of the Spanish crown in 1597.

ee aes
4

.
7

This ceiling fresco at Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan, Iran, shows Shah Abbas I,
seated on the right, playing host to Vali Muhammad Khan of Bukara.

ALTHOUGH THE BANNING OF
CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN had been
enforced only partially since 1587,
in December 1596, certain that
Spain and Portugal were using

Christian penetration asa prelude -

to conquest, Toyotomi ordered the
deaths of 26 Christians—six
Franciscan missionaries and 20
Japanese. On February 5, 1597, in
Nagasaki, they were strapped to

crosses and speared to death. The :

significance of their deaths was
less that Christianity would not be
tolerated in Japan, and more that
any challenge to the central
authority would not be allowed.
The uneasy compromise
brokered by Henry IV in France
after 1597 was symbolized by the
Edict of Nantes of April 1598.
Under it, Protestants in France

were granted the right to organize |

a quasi-independent state within
France. Not only could they
practice their religion freely—
other than in Paris—but the
Crown guaranteed their security,
paying them to garrison their
towns. Nothing if not pragmatic—
and effective enough in the short
term in ending the French Wars
of Religion—inevitably it satisfied
no one. The Huguenots still felt
themselves unequally treated
compared to the Catholics, while
the latter were horrified that the
Huguenots should be tolerated at
all, let alone protected.

The accession in 1587 of the
16-year-old Abbas | as the shah
of Safavid Persia rejuvenated its
fortunes. Under his father Shah
Mohammed, Persia had been ina
state of near civil war created by

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
(1564-1616)

William Shakespeare exerted
more influence on English
literature and European
drama than any other writer.
The son of a Stratford-upon-
Avon wool dealer, he was an
actor turned author, and
wrote at least 37 plays and
154 sonnets. He is believed
to have written the tragedy
Hamlet around 1599-1602.
He also excelled at comedy.

= army and had lost substantial

| territories to the Ottomans and

: Uzbeks. Abbas set about a major
| reform of his rebellious army,

| drafting in new troops, principally
© from the Caucasus, who were

: directly loyal to him. He rearmed

: them with muskets supplied by

: an English diplomat, Sir Anthony

: Shirley, who was negotiating an

: Anglo-Persian anti-Ottoman

» treaty. Between April and August

» campaign against the Uzbeks,

: driving them from the northwest

: of Persia.

BY ABOUT 1600, THE POLYNESIAN
PEOPLES OF NEW ZEALAND, the
Maori, had become progressively
better established in their new
lands (see 1276-85]. Although
theirs was still a Stone Age
society—and would remain so
until the arrival of Europeans and
the introduction of metal—it was
remarkably well adapted to the
new environment. Known as the
Classic Maori phase,

the culture was

distinguished by

elaborate wood 2
carving, precisely

patterned bone tools
and weapons, and
substantial earthwork
settlements.

The establishment, with royal
approval, on December 31, 1600
of the English East India
Company was a clear statement
of English intent that Spain and
Portugal could not expect
exclusive domination of trade with

THE VOLUME OF
MATERIAL
EJECTED FROM

HUAYNAPUTINA
VOLCANO, PERU

The English East India Company began trading with Surat, a key center of
Indian Ocean trade, in 1608. By 1615, it had ousted the Portuguese.

i East Asia. That said, from the
: start the East India Company was

: Maori weapon

The wehaika, a short
wooden club held by a
dog-skin thong looped
around the thumb
and wrist, was
used for close
combat.

a speculative venture at best. It
depended not merely on an

: uncertain ability to reach these
: distant lands but, once there, to
: present itself—militarily and

diplomatically—as a credible

» alternative to its European rivals.
| It called for a combination of
= seamanship, commercial

intuition, and force—the last a
permanent necessity. Eventually,
it would establish itself almost as

i anarm of the English, later the

: British, state. But it was never

: intended as a means of conquest
» or colonization—enrichment for
: its shareholders was its sole

: goal. Ironically, its penetration of

these new markets coincided with
that of another latecomer, the

: Dutch. European domination for
: the riches of the East Indies would
' be contested not between England
: and Iberia but between England

and the Dutch.

Tokugawa leyasu was 60 years old when he received the title of shogun from
Emperor Go-Yozei. He remained the effective ruler of Japan until his death.

FOR AROUND 100 YEARS, THE
DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY,
established in 1602 and exact
equivalent of its English rival, was
the most successful commercial
venture in the world. Its
navigators not only outflanked
the Portuguese in the Indian
Ocean—pioneering new
routes deep into the Southern
Ocean as a means of access to
the East Indies—but, having
reached their lucrative goals,
they exploited them with a
single-mindedness that left
their predecessors floundering.
In 1602, the Dutch had laid claim
to Guiana in South America. More
importantly, by 1605 they had
ousted the Portuguese from the
Moluccas (Spice Islands]. The

French exploration in the New
World was resumed by Samuel
de Champlain in 1603. Over the
following 12 years, he made
a series of pioneering journeys
along the St. Lawrence River
toward the Great Lakes. In 1605,
he also established a short-lived

: French colony, Port Royal, in Novia

: Scotia and, in 1608, a permanent
French base at Québec. Although
partly motivated by a search for
ariver passage to the Pacific,
Champlain recognized that this
rugged land was valuable in
itself, above all for its furs. He
subsequently sponsored a series
of westward explorations beyond
the Great Lakes, championing the
potential of Nouvelle France.

foundations of a Dutch East Asian Ships of Dutch trade
trading empire had been laid. Dutch East goods in
When James I (1566-1625) India Company million tons

became King of England in 1603
on the death of Elizabeth I, he had
already been King of Scotland, as ©
James VI, for 36 years. Although
they remained two quite clearly
separate countries, sharing only
acommon monarch, James did
manage to drive through the
repeal of mutually hostile laws.
Otherwise, the closest he came

to the union he sought was an
Anglo-Scots flag, the Union Jack,
known for his preferred French

Ships of

English

name, Jacques. English trade goods
On the very same day as James's East India in million
accession, Tokugawa leyasu Company tons

(1543-1616] became shogun of
the Tokugawa shogunate of
Japan. He presided over a rigidly
stratified, inward-looking society
that endured for 250 years.

Trade in East Asia

The Dutch East India Company was
five times as successful as its
English equivalent throughout the
17th and 18th centuries.

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a nf OP ste
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Guy Fawkes [third from the right) and
his fellow Catholic conspirators.

44 THE SPANISH
ASSAILED THE
UNASSAILABLE;
THE DUTCH
DEFENDED THE
INDEFENSIBLE. 99

Anonymous, Siege of Ostend

WHEN SPANISH FORCES UNDER
GENERAL SPINOLA TOOK OSTEND
from a combined Anglo-Dutch
force on September 16, 1604, it
ended a siege that had lasted
three years, two months, and 17
days. Even by the standards of
17th-century Europe—a century
that saw only four years of
peace—it was an extraordinarily
brutal business. Siege warfare
developed in response to artillery,
to which the medieval castle, with
high, thin walls, was vulnerable.
Instead, fortifications became
lower, thicker, and very much
larger. So much so that many
fortified towns were beyond the
range of contemporary guns, and
a blockade was the only practical
means of taking them.

The death of Czar Boris
Godunov in 1605 brought toa
head a political crisis rapidly
engulfing Russia, one heightened
by a terrible famine that killed
two million people—a third of the
population—in 1601-03. Hoping
to exploit Russia's divisions to its
own advantage, and supported by
disaffected Russian nobles, an
unofficial Polish-Lithuanian
force had already invaded the

%
%
ae)
%
©,
Be

country, its aim in part to claim
Orthodox Russia for the Catholic
church. With Godunov's death, the
interlopers placed on the Russian
throne a man claiming to be Ivan
the Terrible's youngest son. After
less than a year, this False Dimitri
was overthrown by VasililV
(1552-1612), who slaughtered the
Poles in Moscow, perhaps 2,000.
Seeking to strengthen himself
against continuing Polish
agitation, in 1609 Vasili allied with
Sweden, provoking an official
Polish declaration of war against
Russia. The following year, the
Poles had taken Moscow and

their king, Sigismund Ill, asserted :

First newspaper on sale

The appearance of the Relation in
Europe in 1605 was early evidence of
a growing demand for information

in a fast-changing world.

: his own right to the Russian
: throne. Alarmed at the prospect

of Poland-Lithuania taking over

: Russia, the Swedes invaded and

captured Novgorod. In 1612,

: Russia was saved when a

patriotic rising under Prince
Pozharsky forced the Poles out of
Moscow and elected the first
Romanov czar, Mikhail (1596-

| 1645). Though unable to oust the

Swedes, Russia came to terms
with Sweden in 1617 at the cost of

i giving up its access to the Baltic.

In 1619, the Polish-Russian
conflict was ended by Russia
ceding substantial territories on
its western border.

In Strasbourg in 1605, Johann
Carolus (1575-1634) published
what is generally acknowledged
as the world’s first newspaper,
Relation aller Fiirnemmen und
gedenckwiirdigen Historien—

“Collection of all

Distinguished and
Commemorable
News.” Carolus already
produced a hand-written
news-sheet. He realized,

———— however, that a printed

version, sold more

cheaply and to a wider audience,
would be more profitable. By
1617, there were a further four
German newspapers.

The hopes of James | of England
for religious toleration were dashed
with the discovery on November 9,

: 1605 of a Catholic plot to blow
: up the Houses of Parliament.

It is possible that the plotters
were encouraged by Robert Cecil,
chief minister of James |, in order
to stoke anti-Catholic opinion.

Areconstruction of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North
America, established in 1607 on the James River in what is now Virginia.

46 THE FIFTEENTH DAY OF JUNE,

WE HAD BUILT AND FINISHED

OUR FORT... THIS COUNTRY

IS A FRUITFUL SOIL, BEARING
TY GOODLY AND

FRUITFUL TREES... 99

George Percy, English colonist, from Jamestown Narratives

IN DECEMBER 1605, PORTUGUESE
NAVIGATOR Pedro Fernandez de
Quiros received royal approval for
a second voyage across the Pacific
in search of the presumed
southern continent, Jerra
Australis Incognita. After sailing
through the Tuamotu Archipelago
in February 1606, he reached the
New Hebrides in May, but was

swept out to sea by the trade years were
winds and forced to return to New _: unpromising.
Spain. The expedition had a The site, chosen
second ship, under the command principally

of Luis Vaez de Torres. Continuing
to the west, he discovered the
strait that bears his name
between New Guinea and
Australia, sighting the continent
in the process. In the event, his
discoveries, meticulously noted
but never published, would not be
followed up by Spain. It was left to
the Dutch to confirm the existence
of Australia.

On May 4, 1607, the first
permanent English settlement
was established in North
America. Jamestown, in
present-day Virginia, was a highly
speculative venture, financed by
the London Company (later the
Virginia Company). It was intended

partly to forestall
Spanish, French, and
Dutch attempts at
settlement, and more
particularly to locate a
sea passage to East
Asia, as well as to
prospect for gold and
other precious
metals. Its early

because it was
easily defended,
was swampy,
malarial, and had
little arable land. The
colonists succumbed to
disease and starvation, and
relations with the Powhatan
Indians were tense as well. It
was only in 1612, when the first
tobacco crop was exported, that
the colony looked to have any
prospects of survival

Torres Strait Islanders mask
The sea-faring Torres Strait
Islanders had a range of masks for
ritual occasions, many of the most
elaborate made from turtle shells. c

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a 203

204

1450-1749

REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

sumptuous clothing
identifies the artist's
patron

facial expression
intended to elicit
sympathy

Venetian gold ducat

16th century « ITALY

This gold coin depicts the Doge of Venice
(right) receiving the city’s banner from

a dominating St. Mark the Evangelist.

The Descent from the Cross

c. 1435 © NETHERLANDS.

This painting by Rogier van der
Weyden [c, 1399-1464] exemplifies
Flemish assimilation of the
Renaissance move toward
idealization of faces and figures.

Processional cross

15th century e ITALY

The wealth of the Italian
Catholic Church is expressed
by this cross, made of gold,
silver, and enamel, and
paraded on religious holidays.

. (genes
G )
<u age
A REBIRTH OF EUROPEAN CULTURE INSPIRED BY ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME eo A

beard demonstrates

A thousand years after the Roman Empire's collapse, sculptor’s skill

scholars in Florence, Italy, arrived at a renewed

understanding of the art, architecture, and literature larger than
° . . . ife-si: i

of the classical period, sparking a cultural revolution. (.3312.54m Nigh

In the 14th century, trade among European states increased and Florence, :
Figure of Moses

as a banking and commercial center—eventually under Medici control— Sa OTTALY
developed a class of wealthy, educated individuals who became patrons Sculpted by Michelangelo
of artists and thinkers. If Florence stood initially at the forefront of these (1475-1564) for the tomb

Bas 5 f Pope Julius Il, this stat
artistic and intellectual developments, by the 16th century, the lead had Es a Garin:

passed to Papal Rome and Venice. of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome.

floor plan lantern lets
under dome —in light and air

Florence Cathedral's dome
15th century e ITALY

The octagonal cathedral dome by
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)
consists of three parts, with the
innermost visible from inside

the building, as shown by this
19th-century engraving.

inner brick dome
supports light roof

Mona Lisa

1503-06 e ITALy

Also known as La Gioconda, this
enigmatic painting by Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519) is the most
famous Renaissance work and
the world’s best-known painting.

\__ red ball signifies

Medici ceramic
a medicine pill

15th century e ITALY

This tin-glazed majolica plate,
emblazoned with the Medici coat of
arms, suggests the wealth and prestige
of the Medici dynasty in Florence.

pose of the goddess
Venus is based on
_—a Roman statue

The Birth of Venus

c. 1486 © ITALY

This masterly painting of the
early Renaissance by Botticelli
(c. 1445-1510) refers directly
to the Renaissance desire to
appropriate and update ancient
Roman ideals of beauty.

kidney

abdominal cavity
with intestines

removed to reveal
underlying organs

fur-trimmed coat
denotes wealth
and prestige ——
Organs in the abdominal cavity
c. 1453 e ITALY
From De humani corporis fabrica
by Andreas Vesalius (1514-64), this

5 5 4 structure
anatomical diagram typifies the based ona
Renaissance determination to bat’s wing

expand scientific knowledge.

Hand-powered wing

c. 1490 ITALY

Leonardo da Vinci produced
several proposals for human-
powered flying machines,
including this sketch for a
hand-cranked wing from his
12-volume Codex Ailanticus

celestial globe symbolizes
navigational skills —
\

symbolizes death;
when viewed from
the side, the skull

is undistorted

hand-crank
-— mechanism

distorted skull —/

straight lines represent
headings of mariner’s compass

torquetum, an
astronomical instrument,
symbolizes scientific
learning —

lute with broken _J
string suggests
religious discord

THE RENAISSANCE

_-——— Mediterranean sea

Mappa Mundi

1502 ¢ SPAIN

Venice's wealth derived from
its dominance of world trade
routes. This map shows

the Mediterranean and

its adjacent seas, which
Venetian ships regularly
visited to distribute goods
that were carried to the west
by overland trade routes.

Asian carpet
symbolizes
— exploration

The Ambassadors
1533 © GERMANY

A highly detailed painting with
complex symbolism, this
portrait of two young French
diplomats by Hans Holbein the
Younger (c. 1497-1543] includes
much evidence of their lives and
accomplishments as cultured
men of the Renaissance.

205

ad :

44 SO LONG AS THE MOTHER,
IGNORANCE, LIVES, IT IS NOT
SAFE FOR SCIENCE, THE
OFFSPRING, TO DIVULGE THE
HIDDEN CAUSE OF THINGS. 99

Johannes Kepler, German astronomer

ON OCTOBER 2, 1608, HANS
LIPPERSHEY (1570-1619), a
lens-maker in Zeeland in the
Dutch Netherlands, applied for

a patent for a device for “seeing
things far away as if they were
nearby.” This was soon known

as a telescope. Lippershey’s
device was crude, only magnifying
by three times, and was soon

exceeded by others. But it was still =

a milestone in the development
of scientific observation in 17th-
century Europe.

Since 1606, the Dutch had been
trying to broker a truce with Spain
to halt the ongoing wars of the
Dutch Revolt. Forty years of war
had left both sides spent, yet each
feared the other would use a

ceasefire to regroup—as each

intended to do. Despite this, in April

1609, a 12-year truce was agreed. —
In 1526, Charles V had decreed

that all Muslims in Spain convert

to Catholicism. The resulting

minority Morisco population

: remained on the margins of
Spanish society—valued for their

: cheap labor, but suspected for

: from Spain entirely. The decision

: caused whole communities to be

= summarily expelled and their

possessions forfeited. It also

created economic dislocation

: in many parts of the country

: asa valuable source of labor
disappeared. Muslim resentment

" toward Spain predictably increased.

| In 1609, the Dutch East India
Company had sent Henry Hudson
to investigate North America’s

: east coast. He explored the Hudson

: River to present-day Albany,

» Claiming the region for the Dutch.

_ Hudson River

New York State's river is named for
Englishman Henry Hudson, who
explored the river's course.

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SOO ere aa cor od’ xe
Fo” yo! CEN SN CC OM Sees
Pd GAS a cat or ah shag o®
Ae COR BO ce NBO Se AB go EP oh coh
CO Pak ato SAN et
nS y Cees
a or es ore
x2
oe nS

A copper engraving depicts the assassination of Henry IV, King of

France, in Paris. Henry lV had survived

THE ASSASSINATION OF HENRY IV
in Paris on May 14, 1610, stabbed
by a one-time monk and teacher,
Francois Ravaillac, promised a
reawakening of the brutal
religious divisions Henry had
worked so hard—and killed so
many—to avoid. The reality was
quite the opposite. Not only was
Henry's nine-year-old son
immediately accepted as the new
monarch, Louis XIII, but the
threat of renewed conflict between
France and Spain was averted.
Both had been sparring for
control of the duchy of Jiilich-
Cleves in Germany, threatening a
renewed pan-European religious
conflict. With Henry's death, both
could now legitimately retire with
no loss of face. Henry IV, first of
the Bourbon kings, was among
the most remarkable of France's
kings: his reconstruction of the
pestilential medieval shambles of
Paris echoed his far-sighted
reconstruction of France itself.
Less than a year after Hans
Lippershey claimed to have
invented a telescope, Galileo
(see panel, right), working from
no more than descriptions of
Lippershey’s device, had devised
his own. It took him, he claimed,
less than one day to put together.
It was 10 times more powerful. It
was with this basic instrument
that, in January 1610, Galileo
began to observe the “three fixed
stars,” invisible to the naked eye,
that were next to the planet
Jupiter. They were, he realized,
orbiting the planet. This was a
discovery that challenged the
accepted notion of how heavenly

18 previous attempts on his life.

GALILEO (1564-1642)

Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa,
was an Italian scientist who,
despite obstruction from
religious orthodoxy, revealed
an entirely new, scientific
understanding of the world.
The Church regarded his
revelations as heresy but,
reluctant to condemn the
scientific pioneer outright, did
its best to accommodate him.
Heretic or not, Galileo died
with his reputation not just
growing but assured.

bodies could orbit only one fixed
point in the skies: the Earth.
This explosive revelation was
reinforced later the same year
when Galileo began a systematic
series of observations of the
planet Venus. Its phases—
crescent, partial, and full—could
be explained only if it, too, was
orbiting another body, the Sun.
Observations made possible by
the telescope were poised to
revolutionize humanity's
understanding of its relationship
with a vast, impersonal universe.

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Cates
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Ea 3

| This painting shows the Battle of
Kalmar on the Baltic Sea.

IN 1604, KING JAMES | OF
ENGLAND authorized a new
English translation of the Bible.
Since the Reformation there
had been two previous English
translations: the Great Bible of
1539 and the Bishops’ Bible

of 1568. However, it was felt
that both contained minor
inaccuracies and neither fully
reflected the doctrinal authority
and structure of the Church of
England. The new translation,
published in 1611 as The Holy
Bible, was the work of 47
scholars under the direction of
the Archbishop of Canterbury,
Richard Bancroft. Though
accepted relatively slowly by the
Anglicans, by the 18th century
it was widely regarded by all
English-speaking Protestant
churches as the definitive
English-language Bible. It was
only when the revised edition was
issued in the late 18th century
that it became commonly referred

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY
SCHOLARS

King James Bible

Several scholars from each
institution translated the Bible
from Greek, Hebrew, and Latin
into English in 1604-08.

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SOY
<ee)
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we ats
bic? CRG
ah COS
5 ers x
< <
ca *

Tully Castle in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland, was built in 1619 for
Sir John Hume, a Scottish “planter,” or settler.

to as the “King James Bible”. And
it was only in the early 19th
century that it came to be known
as the Authorized Version.

In June 1611, English explorer
Henry Hudson, then in the pay of
a group of English merchants,
was abandoned by his crew after
spending an arduous winter on
the southern shore of the great
bay in northwest Canada that
bears his name. He was never
seen again. Hudson was
searching for a northwest
passage to Asia. Just as Magellan
had discovered a route to the
Pacific around the tip of South
America, so it was believed that a
comparable northern passage

one of 37__/
pearls

sapphires
and

must exist. The search for it had emeralds
sparked one of the most heroically

futile episodes in global ae
exploration, a series of mostly nectar cn

English endeavors from 1576 that
revealed only unnavigable,
ice-choked, dead-ends.
Control of the Sound—the
narrow waterway between
Denmark and Sweden at the
mouth of the Baltic—was a
central preoccupation in the
continuing Scandinavian
struggle for supremacy in
the Baltic. In 1611, Sweden,
determined to end
Denmark's stranglehold on
this vital waterway, began
what became known as the
Kalmar War. The result, in
1613, was inconclusive, the
Dutch and England in particular
supporting the Swedes once
a Danish victory threatened.
Future conflict was, in effect,
merely postponed.

scenes

OVER THE WINTER OF 1609-10,
the fledging English colony at
Jamestown in Virginia endured
what was known as the Starving
Time, a systematic attempt by the
Powhatan Indians to starve the
colony into submission. All but

60 of the 500 colonists died.

What transformed its

prospects was tobacco. The
Indians themselves cultivated
tobacco but the native strain,
Nicotiana rustica, was so harsh as
to be unsmokeable. John Rolfe,
who arrived at Jamestown in
1610, had with him seeds of the
much sweeter Nicotiana tabacum.
His first crop, in 1612, found an
instant market in London.

By 1627, the trade was worth
£500,000 a year.

Meanwhile, in Ireland the
deliberate settlement of
Protestants, many from Scotland,
started in 1613. It was intended to
reassure James I's Scottish
subjects that he had not
forgotten their interests
and to “pacify” and

convert the rebellious
Catholic population

of Ireland. Its
results were
generally only to
inflame religious
passions and, by
creating a Catholic
underclass, to
create tensions that
still slumber today.

Czar’s orb

This jewel-encrusted orb was
used at the coronation of Mikhail
Romanov on July 1613.

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roe Aere oF os NS eo HPF e® ged)

se S? xa S2GO Se wr ss Oe oe

g xs we SEP \) e hoo yo
s en RU
«

The title page of Don Quixote, part oni

je of which was published in 1605, and

part two in 1615. It remains a cornerstone of European literature.

ESTIMATED
NUMBER OF
EUNUCHS
EMPLOYED
BY THE MING
DYNASTY

IN CHINA

IN STARK CONTRAST TO ENGLAND, ©

where parliamentary authority
would progressively increase
throughout the 17th century, the
influence of France's legislative
assembly, the Estates-General
withered almost entirely. During
the crises of the French Wars of
Religion and their aftermath, the
Estates-General met regularly, if
ineffectually: six times between
1560 and 1614. But it would
not meet again until 1789,
by which point France
would be on the verge
of revolution.

By 1615, China
was grappling with
financial crisis and
social breakdown.
There were tensions in
the Chinese government
over conflict between the
scholars of the Donglin Academy
(literally, “the Eastern Grove
Academy’) in eastern China, and
the court eunuchs—particularly
the notoriously capricious and

: cruel Wei Zhongxian. With the

: assumed personal control of the

* government. The Donglin

» scholars, adherents of the moral

: imperatives of Confucianism,
objected to the self-glorification
and extravagance of the eunuchs.
By 1624, Wei Zhongxian had

» ensured the execution of the
leading Donglin academics.

Meanwhile, the Dutch started to

settle North America. In 1615,

: the Dutch cemented their 1609

claim to the region of present-day

Albany by building Fort Nassau

at the same site. In 1625, they

would build a further settlement

at the mouth of the Hudson

: River, New Amsterdam. Dutch

bones
in box,
shown
end on

numbered
_— rod or bone
la

7mm

: Napier’s Bones

| This is an abacus created by John
Napier around 1615, which used

: multiplication.

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Fo oe Pat oi & ot N
Fk ore rr re oO
gd eO* y Oe oes Fo ot
& cs
bh? ae e? LO yo OF Cage NS
as ce AS ero eae BO Eh Ne?
ee, om cc OS AON oF
Wg ¥ PK ye
Ro &

46 | HOPE ITWILL BE HARD
FOR THE RUSSIANS TO
JUMP ACROSS THAT
CREEK. 99

Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, Treaty of Stolbovo, 1617

THE SEEDS OF THE LATER FALL of
China’s Ming dynasty (see 1644)
were sown in 1616 when Manchu

tribal leader, Nurhaci (1559-1626), |

pronounced himself Great Jin,
establishing the Qing dynasty.

THE NUMBER
OF BLUE
CEILING TILES
THAT GIVE THE
BLUE MOSQUE
ITS NAME

Since 1599, he had united other
Manchu tribes in the Eight
Banners military system. War
with the Ming followed in 1618.
Although the Magellan Strait,
linking the Atlantic and Pacific in
southern South America, had
been discovered in 1519, it was

i difficult to navigate. In 1616, a
: Dutch expedition under Jakob le

Maire and Willem Schouten found
a new route through open water

to the south, naming its

southernmost island, Cape Horn.
One of Istam’s finest buildings

: Was completed after seven years

in 1616. The Sultan Ahmed
Mosque, in Constantinople (now

Mosque because of the many

ceramic tiles of its interior.

Gorée Island, to the south of

: Africa's Cape Verde, was

purchased by the Dutch from its

: Portuguese owners in 1617. They
= turned it into a major slave

trading base, a role continued by

| the French, who took it in 1677.

The 1617 Treaty of Stolbovo

: ended the war between Russia

: and Sweden that had lasted seven
: years. It drew a new, more secure
» boundary for Sweden that made
- use of lakes Ladoga and Peipus.

_ Dutch slave base
This colored engraving shows the
fort at Gorée Island when it was

: controlled by the Dutch. It proved a
highly profitable venture for them.

An illustration depicts the defenestration of two regents by Protestants in
Prague Castle, Bohemia, an event that sparked the Thirty Years’ War.

44 THIS IS A SHARP
MEDICINE, BUT ITISA
PHYSICIAN FOR ALL

DISEASES AND MISERIES. 99

Sir Walter Raleigh, last words before execution, October 29, 1618

ON MAY 23, 1618, THE PROTESTANT =

Count Thurn had the two regents
of the Catholic king of Bohemia,
and future Holy Roman Emperor,
Ferdinand II (1578-1637), thrown
from an upper window of

Prague Castle, in Bohemia. The
Defenestration of Prague
sparked the brutal Thirty Years’
War. It was mostly confined to
Germany, which by 1648 was a
scene of wholesale destruction
and slaughter. Initially a religious
conflict, Ferdinand’s quest to
erase Protestantism from all his
dominions became a Europe-wide
fight for supremacy involving, at
different points, every major
European power.

On October 29, 1618, the English
soldier and explorer Sir Walter
Raleigh (1552-1618) was
executed by beheading at the
Tower of London. He had
been one of the early English
colonizers of Virginia, North
America, but his failure to
find the legendary South
American city of El Dorado,
as wellas his attacking
a Spanish settlement
against the expressed
wishes of King James |,
had sealed his fate.

English privateers (state-
sponsored raiders) had bought
and sold African slaves since the
late 16th century, but in 1618
England's involvement in the
Atlantic slave trade became
deeper when the first slave
shipment to its North American
colonies arrived from West Africa
at Jamestown, Virginia.

EARLY SLAVE TRADE

Although it was in the 18th
century that the Atlantic
slave trade reached its peak,
in the early 17th century it
was developing rapidly.
Slaves were transported
from a series of slave forts
on the west coast of Africa to
the burgeoning European
colonial lands of the New
World. Male
slaves were
branded with
irons (pictured)
on the Atlantic
Ocean crossing,
in which
about 25
percent
died.

The work of the English philosopher Francis

Bacon was to have a lasting impact.

THE DUTCH, IN AGGRESSIVELY
SEEKING to supplant the
Portuguese in the East Indies,
had first attempted to establish

a trading post in Java in 1596.
From 1602, they also had to
contend with English efforts to
infiltrate themselves in the East
Indies. In 1619, the Dutch struck
back decisively, ousting the
English and their Javanese allies,
and establishing themselves in
Jayakarta, which they renamed
Batavia. It would become not
merely the capital of the Dutch
East Indies but the focal point of
the Dutch colonial empire,
dismembered only by its conquest
by Japan in 1942.

fee

444444

44 MANY WILL TRAVEL
AND KNOWLEDGE
WILL BE INCREASED. 99

Francis Bacon, English philosopher, from Novum Organum, 1620

Novum Organum, one of the
great books of philosophy, was
written by English philosopher
and scientist Francis Bacon
(1561-1626) in 1620. It was a
major work in the development
of scientific method.

The initial phase of the Thirty
Years’ War climaxed in the Battle
of White Mountain in November
1620, when the forces of Holy
Roman Emperor Ferdinand II
decisively routed those of the
Calvinist Frederick V (1596-1632),
ruler of what was called the
Palatinate, in southwest Germany.
Ferdinand’s victory over
Frederick had almost exactly the
opposite effect from what he

: might have expected. It galvanized
: Protestant opposition to him,

importantly including Denmark.
The founding of Jamestown in

* 1607 as the first permanent

| was overshadowed by the arrival

: near modern Boston in November

1620 of the Mayflower. The

» 102 passengers on board were
: Puritan pilgrims, Protestant
: self-exiles staking all on a new

life in a new world.

' Battle of White Mountain

This major engagement—a Catholic
victory—took place near Prague, and

: ended the first, or Bohemian, period
in the Thirty Years’ War.

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American Indians of the Powhatan attack a farm in the English colony of
Virginia in 1622, massacring all of its inhabitants.

120

2
oS

POPULATION
=~
r=)

1620

1621
Population of Plymouth

The population of Plymouth Colony
dropped dramatically in the first,
difficult year of its founding.

THE PURITAN PILGRIMS of the
Mayflower had arrived in the New
World in 1620 not only late in the
year, with the New England winter
settling in, but in the wrong place:
their original goal was the Hudson
River, several hundred miles to
the south. Their early survival
at what they named Plymouth
Colony was almost entirely a
matter of luck, a harsh winter

Indian aid. Thereafter, they
scraped a desperate existence,
dependent on uncertain
reinforcement from England and
their own meagre efforts.

The expiration in 1621 of the
Twelve-Year Truce between
Spain and the Dutch Republic in
1609 was, perhaps predictably,
the signal for a further round of
Spanish-Dutch conflict. Both
sides had increased their armies
and navies in expectation of a
resumption of the war. In addition,
Dutch financial if not military help
to Frederick V—now in exile in the
Dutch Republic after his crushing
defeat at White Mountain the year
before—provided an obvious
motive for renewed Spanish

: hostility. Yet the subsequent

: Dutch so much as an effort to

destabilize them politically and

: economically by attempts to ban
: Dutch mercantile activities and

: to blockade their principal ports.

: The Spanish were successful in

in 1622 but an attempted siege

of Bergen-op-Zoom had to be
© abandoned at huge cost.

The Banda Islands, in the East

: Indies, were the only known

sources of nutmeg and mace,

premium in Europe. They were
accordingly the focus of bitter,
often violent rivalry, first

: between the Portuguese and the

Dutch and, by the early 17th

i century, between the English and
: the Dutch. In 1621, having ousted
survived largely through American :

the English from the islands, the
Dutch, actively encouraged by the
Governor-General of the East

: Indies, Jan Pieterszoon Coen, set
_ about the extermination ofthe
: islanders. It is estimated that of a =

population of 15,000, all but 1,000

: were killed or expelled.

On March 22, 1622, the
Powhatan American Indians in

: what was now the English colony
© of Virginia, killed 347 of the

: settlers—men, women, and

percent of the total number of

: colonists. As early as 1610,
: tensions between the settlers and |
: the American Indians had flared
© into open conflict. By 1622, the

Indians, realizing that when the
settlers claimed to want peaceful

relations with the Powhatan they

: meant it exclusively on their own
» terms, rose against them. The

: predictable consequence was a

: all but eliminated the Powhatan
: American Indians.

Determined to end the power

: of the Janissaries—the elite

| military group that formed the

: household troops and bodyguard

_ of the Ottoman sultan—Osman II

: (1604-22) had made a dangerous

: enemy for himself since becoming
: sultan in 1618. His attempts to

= assert himself as an independent
» ruler provoked a Jannissary

in his own palace. On May 20,

i 1622, the 17-year-old sultan was
: murdered, probably strangled by
§ one of his captors.

: Sultan Osman Il

| This equestrian portrait of gouache
: on paper shows the Ottoman sultan
: Osman Il. His short, but brave, reign
' ended in violent tragedy.

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464 WAR IS ONE OF THE SCOURGES
WITH WHICH IT HAS PLEASED
GOD TO AFFLICT MEN. 99

Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France, 1620s

This illustration shows Peter Minuit purchasing the island of Manhattan from
the local American Indians, most likely the Lenape people, in 1626.

IN AUGUST 1624, CARDINAL
RICHELIEU (1585-1642] became
chief minister to the king of
France, 23-year-old Louis XIII
{1601-43}. Richelieu claimed that
his goals were “to destroy the
military power of the Habsburgs,
to humble the great nobles [of
France], and to raise the prestige
of the House of Bourbon in
Europe.” It was ambitious, and

involved alliances with groups that :

had little commitment to his
program. Eventually, the price of
confronting enemies abroad and
Protestants at home would be
popular revolt in France against
the financial and military burdens
imposed by him. It would also
lead to rebellion by the elites that
culminated in the civil war of the

| Fronde (see 1648-49]. His political:

: political breakdown, and by his

: death, France was making

| progress against its Habsburg

» enemies. Richelieu also knew that

: Huguenot military power at home

| (see 1597-98] was a permanent

that the persecution of Protestant

worship would lead to last-ditch

» resistance at home and imperil

| France's alliances with foreign

: Protestant powers, on which its

: anti-Habsburg strategy rested.
In 1625, the already tangled

» Years’ War became even more

» complex. With the Twelve-Year

: Truce over, Spain squeezed the

Dutch, taking Breda after an

: whose policy was now being

: directed by the hawkish Richelieu,
: became covertly involved in

: supporting an anti-Habsburg
struggle in northern Italy.

: This was an attempt by Richelieu

» to sever the Spanish Road, the

» tenuous but vital link between

: Habsburg Italy and the

: Netherlands. At almost precisely

: the same moment, Christian IV of
Denmark (1577-1648) entered the
: war, in part seeking to bolster

: the Protestant cause, but more

: particularly to forestall Swedish

: ambitions to control northern

: the Battle of Lutter (see right) by
a Bavarian Catholic
army led by Count
Tilly and in alliance
with the Habsburg
emperor. It seemed
for the moment that
French scheming
and Dutch fighting
could not prevent

a comprehensive
victory for the
Habsburgs.

The Surrender

of Breda

Justin von Nassau is
shown surrendering
Breda in 1625 to
Ambrosio Spinola, the
Spanish commander,
after an 11-month-
long siege. Breda was
retaken in 1637.

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ONE OF THE MOST FAMOUS EVER
TRANSACTIONS occurred on
May 26, 1626 when Peter Minuit,
director-general of the Dutch
West India Company's New
Netherlands settlement, bought
Manhattan island—site of Fort
Amsterdam since 1625—from
its American Indian inhabitants.
The fee was 60 Dutch guilders,
estimated since to be around $24.
Neither side felt the deal to be
overly unreasonable.

The Thirty Years’ War was a

brutal watershed in 17th-century |

Europe, but its cruelty was not
merely a grim consequence of

battle. Always strapped for money, i
armies took funding into their own :

hands and imposed taxes
directly on the peasants and the
towns. Faced by the collection of

200 8,500

casualties casualties

a
r=]
z
<
o
>
2
=
-
GS
a
me
=
<
Imperial Danish
army army
Battle of Lutter

In 1626, a Danish army, with a huge
loss of about 8,500 men, failed to
hold ground against a similar-sized
Holy Roman Empire force.

oS
ae
Os
oe BP ge so
oa? NP? vs
be ahr wer oe
res = ie
eee VASE coh
2 aCe
ce

Gathering pace in the early
17th century, the Roman
High Baroque was a strong
Catholic response to the
Protestant Reformation,

and reasserted classical
Renaissance architecture. Its

church building, in particular
St. Peter's Basilica in

Rome (pictured), sought to
advertise and glorify the
Catholic Church, and
produced numerous new
and grandiose buildings.

» overly heavy taxes by soldiers,

» peasants and poor townspeople

: became even more vulnerable to
i fluctuations in food supply

: the Austrian Habsburg lands, and
: Spanish southern Italy, peasant

: revolts and urban riots

: threatened to take whole areas

_ With the onset of the Little Ice Age
| in the mid-17th century (see

: 1645), the problem intensified.

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This 17th-century ink and watercolor miniature of Shah Jahan shows the fifth
Mughal emperor with a holy nimbus around his turbaned head.

AFTER MORE THAN A YEAR, THE
SIEGE OF LA ROCHELLE, the
strongest Protestant enclave in
France, ended in October 1628
with defeat for the Huguenots.
The siege was Richelieu's
response to lingering hopes of
Huguenot opposition to the
French Crown, and was designed
to both crush Huguenot
resistance and dismantle its still
formidable military. Although
Richelieu acknowledged their
right to religious toleration, he
made sure they could mount no
further threat to the Crown.
The publication in 1628 of On the
Motion of the Heart and Blood, by
royal physician William Harvey
(1578-1657), marked one of the
major discoveries of the 17th
century. It explained both the
circulation of the blood and the
functioning of the heart, by using
observation and experimentation.
One of the great leaders of
India’s Mughal Empire, Shah

Siege of La Rochelle
: Chief minister of France, Cardinal
: Richelieu, inspects the formidable
sea wall defenses of La Rochelle,
: during the siege of 1628.

the size of its territory as well as

: initiating a great flowering of

Mughal architecture and culture.

In the 17th century, rulers
across Europe embraced the idea
of strong central authority as

: the only guarantee of stability. In
: England, for Charles | (1600-49),
| absolute monarchy was

| legitimized by his conviction that

he had been divinely sanctioned

: by God to rule. In 1629, irritated by
© its checks on his authority, he
: dismissed Parliament, provoking
a growing resentment among
© those seeking to share
= power at what were
: seen as attempts to
: impose illegal

A hand-colored woodcut depicting the siege of Magdeburg by the Holy Roman

Empire. The city was later burned and 20,000 people massacred.

60 Battle of Breitenfeld
BON At Breitenfeld in 1631, a strong
50- casualties 20,000 Swedish-Saxon army inflicted huge

casualties

FORCES (IN THOUSANDS)

0
Swedish-Saxon Imperial
army army

THE ENTRY OF SWEDEN INTO THE
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR in 1630 added
a new dimension to the conflict.

It was still essentially a religious
war—one that the Catholic Holy
Roman Emperor Ferdinand II was
clearly winning. Exploiting this,
Sweden's Lutheran king,
Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632),
presented himself as the savior
of the Lutheran princes of north
Germany. Yet he was potentially
as much a threat to them as to
Ferdinand. Having spent the
previous 19 years fighting the
Russians, Poles, and Danes for
control of the Baltic, he now
hoped to dominate its German
coast too. His intervention might

numbers of casualties on an army of:

the Holy Roman Empire.

have led to nothing, however,

had not the Imperial troops
besieging the Lutheran
stronghold of Magdeburg in 1631
then massacred the population.
This provoked outrage among the
Lutheran princes. With their
political support, in addition to
substantial French funding,
Gustavus Adolphus inflicted a
crushing defeat over an Imperial

in September 1631. At this stage,
his army marching triumphantly

south, Gustavus Adolphus seems
to have conceived a vision of an

following year would destroy this
hope (see 1632].

On a day in November 1630,
forever known as the Day of
Dupes, the enemies of Cardinal
Richelieu attempted to overthrow
him. They commanded Louis XIII

to replace Richelieu with Mariede =

copper alloy

Swedish field cannon

This cannon was used by the army
of Gustavus Adolphus. The barrel
has a caliber (diameter) of 2% in

: Queen of France

: Portrait of Marie de Medici, the

: second wife of King Henry IV of

: France, who attempted to displace

army at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, : Carotnal Peneteu i oo0)

© Medici (1575-1642), the mother of
: the king, and when he retired to
ponder his decison they believed
empire that included both Sweden :
and Germany. Yet the events of the
» Richelieu, and the king's mother
: was exiled to Compiégne.

they had been successful. Yet
powerful friends saved Cardinal

THE
APPROXIMATE
NUMBER OF
PEOPLE BURNT
AT THE STAKE
AFTER THE
WURZBURG

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An oil painting depicting the trial of Galileo shows the Italian physicist and

astronomer sitting before the assembled

THE NUMBER OF

ranks of the Inquisition, in Rome.

PEOPLE

WHO DIED IN THE DECCAN

FAMINE, 1630-32

ANXIOUS TO RECOVER ITS LOSSES
TO POLAND-LITHUANIA under the
Treaty of Deulino of 1619, and
exploiting the death of the Polish
king, Sigismund III Vasa, Russia
besieged Smolensk in October
1632. Polish forces were unable to
attempt a lifting of the siege for
almost a year. Their ultimate
defeat of the Russians in 1634,
however, was absolute.

Sweden's success of the
previous year in the Thirty Years’
War continued with a defeat of

30
6,000 6,800
Bw 2s casualties casualties
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Swedish Imperial
army army
Battle of Liitzen

Similar-sized forces suffered similar
casualties at the Battle of Ltitzen.
Critically, though, the Swedes lost
their leader, Gustavus Adolphus.

the Imperial armies in April 1632

: at the Battle of Rain, in Bavaria. A

minor triumph in November at the

: Battle of Liitzen, near Leipzig,

| might then have confirmed

+ Swedish territorial ambitions in

: Germany had King Gustavus

: Adolphus not been killed in the

: battle. Ata stroke, the impetus

: went out of the Protestant

seemed to have been assured.
In 1633, Italian astronomer

» Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was

called before the Roman

Church. His crime was to support

: the heliocentric view of the Solar

System that placed the Sun, and
not the Earth, at its center. He was
found guilty of heresy, forced to

Under Japan's Tokugawa

: shogunate, a policy of kaikin (“sea
» restriction”) was declared in 1633.
: Contact with the outside world

was Strictly controlled, although

| prevent possible territorial

incursions into Japan. It remained

Pachelbel House, at Eger, Bohemia. He was awoken and killed by his own men.

THE DEFEAT AT LUTZEN WAS one
of the last times that Albrecht
Wallenstein (1583-1634) led an
Imperial army. Although generally
successful, he was distrusted by
almost everyone and was believed
to be negotiating a separate
peace. He was charged with
treason by Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand II, but in February 1634
he was murdered by some of his
own officers, with the tacit
approval of Ferdinand. Yet, with
the Swedes having failed to follow
up their victory at Litzen, the
initiative returned to the Imperial

Battle of Nordlingen

Fought in southern Germany, this
battle resulted in a crushing victory
for the Habsburgs—but it was not a
conclusive end to the war.

forces, who crushed the Swedes
at the Battle of Nordlingen in
November 1634. The subsequent
Treaty of Prague, in 1635, made
clear the extent of the Habsburg
triumph and the Swedish defeat.
Germany's Protestant princes
now backed Ferdinand ll. It

phase of the Thirty Years’ War, and
direct French intervention.

As in the 16th century, France
feared Habsburg encirclement.

: Up to now, it had sought to secure

itself by financing those states
most likely to defeat the Habsburg
forces, Sweden above all. With the

of Germany, the French now took
the field themselves. As Franco—
Swedish armies progressively

: ravaged Germany, the Swedes

: gradually reversing their previous
: losses, So Germany was

: devastated. The fighting spilled

: into France when, in 1636,

: a Spanish army invaded the

: northeast, briefly threatening

» Paris, and again, in 1637, when

: Spain launched an attack on
provoked the final and most brutal =
: France retaliated by invading

: Catalonia in the northeast of

: Spain. In this wave of violence, all
» the participants were by now

i effectively bankrupt. It was Spain
_ that suffered the most, with

Languedoc in the south. In 1639,

attempts at raising revenue

© provoking bitter resentment, even
Swedes on the verge of pulling out
: revolt against the Spanish Crown
: broke out in Catalonia and

» Portugal, both uprisings openly
© encouraged by France. In the

in Spain itself. In 1640, outright

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same year, there was no Spanish
New World treasure fleet. By now,
the original causes of the Thirty
Years’ War had been superseded.
Habsburg weakness, in Spain

as much as in Germany, was
increasingly apparent.

When not conspiring against his
enemies, chief minister Cardinal
Richelieu schemed to promote
French prestige, or gloire. He
championed colonial expansion,
and promoted French arts and
learning. Among his lasting
achievements was the Académie
Francaise, set up in 1635. Part
of a pan-European move toward
officially sanctioned institutes of
learning, it was also designed to
consolidate what France saw as
one of its chief claims to gloire: its
language. The Académie’s 40
members continue to pronounce
on language usage today.

In 1635, the system of sankin
kotai (“alternate attendance”),
introduced to Japan by Toyotomi
Hideyoshi in the 1590s, was made
compulsory. The daimyo [feudal
lords) were forced to spend every
other year at the shogun’s court at
Edo to participate in lavish rituals.
The cost of such submission, plus
the time spent at court, made
rebellion less likely. When they
returned to their estates, which
they held from the shogun, each
daimyo’s wife and heir remained
behind. Exacting demands were
enforced regarding dress, types
of weapons carried, soldier
numbers accompanying each
daimyo, and the contributions—
military and financial—the daimyo
were expected to provide.

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44 IT IS NOT ENOUGH

TO HAVE A GOOD MIND;
THE MAIN THING IS TO
USE IT WELL. 99

René Descartes, from Discours de la Méthode, 1637

Gondar Castle

Part of the Fasil
Ghebbi, founded by
Fasilides, in Ethiopia,
this 17th-century
castle shows Arab,
Nubian, and Baroque
design influences.

ETHIOPIAN EMPEROR
since 1632, Fasilides
(c. 1603-67) founded
a permanent imperial
capital at Gondar in
1636. The buildings

he constructed there included the

Fasil Ghebbi, a fortress complex
that became home to Ethiopia's
emperors until the 18th century.
An early speculative bubble
burst in February 1637, when the
Dutch price of tulip bulbs peaked

“a

| |
hd

One of the founders of modern
philosophy, French writer René
Descartes (1596-1650), an
advocate of rationalism, produced
Discours de la Méthade in 1637.

It was one of the most influential
works of Western philosophy.

DO PERCENT

THE RELATIVE PRICE OF TULIP
BULBS COMPARED TO THE
ANNUAL INCOME OF A SKILLED
DUTCH CRAFTSMAN

and then suddenly nose-dived,
allegedly ruining many investors.
A luxury item, they were seen as
a safe haven for investment in an
uncertain time. Although Tulip
Mania prices are difficult to be
certain about, and have been
disputed, anecdotal evidence
suggests significant highs.

A
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oe os
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A major new encyclopedia, The
Exploitation of the Works of Nature,
by minor provincial bureaucrat,
Song Yingxing, was published in
China in May 1637. Its wide range
of information regarding Chinese
technology distinguished it from
earlier traditions, and provided an
obvious and extensive resource.

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This engraving depicts the Ottoman sultan, Murad IY, sitting on a horse. His
reign restored internal authority and brought secure borders with Persia.

THE INTERMITTENT CONFLICT
between the Ottoman Empire and

the Safavid Persian Empire, which :

had begun in 1623, climaxed
in 1638. Baghdad fell to the
Ottomans under Sultan Murad IV
(1612-40), the last Ottoman ruler
to lead his troops in battle. This
was followed in 1639 by the
Treaty of Qasr-i-Shirin, which
definitively settled the long-
disputed Ottoman-Safavid border,
largely to the benefit of the
Ottomans. It granted all of
Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) to
the Ottomans, while handing the
city of Yerevan [in present-day
Armenia] to the Safavid Persians.
The problems that would
eventually lead to the execution
of Charles I of England in 1649
stemmed from the king's
high-handed conviction that he
could always impose himself on
his kingdoms. This was not
exclusively a matter of royal
versus parliamentary authority.
Asignificant element of religious
controversy was involved, too.
In 1637, Charles, encouraged by
William Laud, the archbishop of
Canterbury, had made the use of
the Church of England's Book of
Common Prayer compulsory in
Scotland. Both Charles and Laud
cordially despised the Calvinist
Scottish Kirk (Church). For their
part, Scotland's Kirk elders, much
like their Puritan counterparts in
England, considered any attempt
to impose Anglican religious
uniformity little better than
papism. Their virulent protests in
the following year, known as the
Great Covenant, were followed in

Portuguese
soldiers

canoes

: Pedro Teixeira’s

: Amazon expedition

| Teixeira’s expedition was immense
: and expensive. Of some political

: interest, it was financed by the

: governor of Maranhao, in Brazil.

| 1639 by the invasion of England
: bya “Covenanter” army from

: Scotland. The king's options

: were narrowing.

In 1638, Portuguese explorer

» Pedro Teixeira (d. 1641) achieved
» a remarkable double first in

: becoming the first person to make
© the return journey of the entire
: length of the Amazon River,

: reaching Belém, at the river's

: mouth, more than two years after
: he had set out. The previous year
© Teixeira had been the first person
: to make the journey upstream,

: aventure partly inspired by the

| need to know how far east

- Spanish colonists had advanced
: beyond the Andes and into the

On November 24, 1639, English

» astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks
: (1618-41] became the first person
: to both predict and observe a

| transit of Venus. This rare event

: sees Venus pass directly between
» the Sunand the Earth. Observing
: the transit provided information

: vital to calculating the distance

: from the Earth to the Sun

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213

An illustration of Malacca, which was taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch
in 1641. An earlier attack by the Dutch in 1605 had failed.

FOLLOWING A SCOTTISH INVASION
OF ENGLAND IN 1639, in April 1640
Charles | (1600-49) recalled the
parliament he had dismissed 11
years earlier. He needed approval
to raise taxes for an army.
Determined not to submit to its
lists of grievances, he dismissed
it, but a second invasion in August
forced a recall. In December 1641,
Parliament presented a Grand
Remonstrance, an accusation of
royal abuses of power. The king
responded, in January 1642,

with an attempt to arrest his
parliamentary opponents. By
August, the country was at war.

Life dancing to music

Poussin’s A Dance to the Music of
Time shows four dancing figures
representing poverty, labor, wealth,
and pleasure in a perpetual cycle.

By 1640, French painter Nicolas

» Poussin (1594-1665] completed A
: Dance to the Music of Time, a key

» work of the era. Poussin stressed
’ clarity and order rather than the

: emotion and color of the Baroque
: style dominant at that time.

From 1641, a devastating plague

| struck China, further weakening
' a Ming China threatened by both

: the Manchu military to the north

: and increasingly lawless bands of
: peasants roaming the country,

: victims of repeated famines. An

- almost complete breakdown of

: central control in China followed.

Continuing Dutch encroachment

| onthe territory and trade of the

: Portuguese in Asia saw the

i capture of the key trading base

: of Malacca in 1641. It would prove
: avaluable cornerstone of the vast
: Dutch Empire in the East Indies.

A depiction of the Battle of Rocroi, fought on May 19, 1643. It resulted in

the crushing victory of a French army over a Spanish force.

THE COURSE, NOT TO MENTION
THE CAUSES, of the English Civil
War that began in August 1642
was never clear cut. It pitted a
king bent on absolutism against
a Parliament determined not so
much to overthrow the monarchy
as to reassert its claim to shared
sovereignty in the government
of the kingdom. As the opening
battles were fought, Charles |
proved himself a surprisingly
obstinate and able war leader.
However, he was soon to become
undone, not just by his compulsive
deviousness but by the fact that
he found himself confronting
increasingly assertive and better

10,000
casualties

wo
8

4,000
casualties

= N
= S

FORCES (IN THOUSANDS)
cy

Swedish

Imperial

: Second Battle of Breitenfeld

: The imperial army of the Holy

: Roman Empire suffered heavy

: losses at the hands of the Swedish
army at Breitenfeld, in Saxony.

organized Parliamentarian forces. :

These would be largely dominated
by the formidably imposing figure
of Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658),
a Puritan, East-Anglian country

squire and Member of Parliament. :

The war's significance, at least in
English terms, was to be that
Parliament could claim greater
legitimacy than that of any king: in
short, that Parliament could
restrain a king, divinely
sanctioned or not, held to have
broken his trust with his people.
Eleven years after the village of
Breitenfeld, in Saxony, had seen
King Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden defeat a Holy Roman
Empire army (see 1631), the
Second Battle of Breitenfeld in
October 1642 saw another
decisive victory for Sweden in the
Thirty Years’ War. Sweden was
subsequently free to occupy
Leipzig and the rest of Saxony,
further strengthening
Protestantism in Central Europe,

: and making the Catholics of the
Holy Roman Empire more
? amenable to negotiation.
The overwhelming French
defeat of Spain at the Battle of
© Rocroi in northeast France in May
: 1643 put to an end to hopes ofa
: Spanish triumph against either

of the Dutch Republic or France in i

: both countries. Rocroi marked the |

: end of its dreams of European

: imperial dominance. The Spanish

| army in Flanders was destroyed,

: battle. Combined with its internal
struggles against the Catalonians

: and the Portuguese, and its

: risked permanent eclipse. In the

: short term, defeat reduced the
threat from the Dutch, who were
anxious that they had potentially
swapped the prospect of Spanish

: domination for that of control by
: the French. In the longer term,
: Spanish decline seemed

evitable.

In 1643, Italian physicist and

_ mathematician Evangelista

» Torricelli (1608-47) made a

| major contribution to scientific

i method in Europe with his

: barometer. He had not intended
: to make this invention, but while

working on a water pump for the
: Duke of Tuscany, and substituting
| the much heavier mercury for

| water, he realized that the rising

» and falling of a column of

' mercury in a tube sealed at one

: end was due to changes in

: atmospheric pressure.

: Torricelli’s barometer

: In this engraving, Torricelli

: atmospheric pressure through the
: use of mercury-filled tubes.

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> 44 WE STUDY THE GLORY OF GOD, AND THE

HONOUR AND LIBERTY OF PARLIAMENT,
__ FOR WHICH WE... FIGHT, WITHOUT
SEEKING OUR OWN INTERESTS... 99

Oliver Cromwell, English Parliamentarian general, Battle of Marston Moor, 1644

ON APRIL 24, 1644, AS A REBEL
MING ARMY under Li Zicheng
prepared to take Beijing, the
Chongzhen Emperor, the last
Ming ruler, committed suicide.

In February, Li had proclaimed the
Shun dynasty, but it was not to last
long. In May, the Manchus, allying
with a remnant Ming force,
crushed Li’s army at the Battle of
Shanhai Pass. By the autumn, the
first Manchu Qing emperor of
China, the six-year-old Shunzhi
Emperor (1638-61), had been
installed in Beijing. Ming
resistance in the south continued
until 1681. The Qing themselves
ruled until their collapse in 1911.

KEY

Under Manchu
control by 1644
Under Qing
control by 1660

Under Qing
control
by 1770

: ultimate victory was

In the English Civil
War, the Battle of
Marston Moor in

decisive victory for
Parliament. The
following summer, at
Naseby in June 1645,

virtually guaranteed
when the main army
of Charles | was

annihilated by Parliament's newly
formed New Model Army. Led by

: Oliver Cromwell and Sir Thomas

Fairfax, the New Model Army
brought a greater professionalism

: and mobility into the conflict, and

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

MANCHURIA
Mukder

Having secured control of China proper in 1644, the Qing Empire
continued to expand throughout the 17th and 18th centuries,
provoked in part by the threat of Russian, British, and French
moves into Asia. Only some areas of the vast empire were
governed directly by the Manchu or settled by the Chinese. Much

was secured, at huge expense, through military garrisons.

Potala Palace in Tibet
The Potala Palace, seen atop the
Marpo Ri hillin this view from the
south, rises more than 1,000 ft
(300m) above the valley floor.

emphasized the ultimately
superior resources of the
Parliamentary cause.

From about 1645, the Northern
Hemisphere saw crop failures
brought about by abnormally cold

winters. The result was famine on

a massive scale, leading to both
war and the collapse of state
structures across the globe.
These climatic changes,
known since 1976 as the
Maunder Minimum, were
the result of reduced
sunspot activity, the
direct consequence of
which was the Little Ice
Age, in which global
temperatures fell by
several degrees.

In 1645, the 5th Dalai
Lama, Lozang Gyatso
(1617-82], began the
construction of the modern

Potala Palace, in Lhasa, Tibet.
Construction finally ended in
1694, and it remained the seat of
the Dalai Lama up to 1959.

Se -

Carisbrooke Castle, on the Isle of Wight,

England, was where Charles | was

imprisoned for 14 months, from 1647, after his defeat in the English Civil War.

POWER IN THE EARLY YEARS OF
THE QING DYNASTY was exercised
by the child-emperor’s uncle,
Prince Dorgon (1612-50). A
distinctive feature of the Qing was
their hair, shaved at the front,
braided into a pigtail at the back,
and known as a “queue.” Dorgon

attachment for
holding strap

now made this compulsory for

: all male Han Chinese (the Queue

: your parents, should never be cut,
: to wear a Manchu pigtail was seen
: as amark of servility, as Dorgon

_ intended. Thousands who refused
: to adopt it were put to death.

On May 26, 1647, the
Massachusetts Bay Colony
banned Jesuit priests from the
colony. Founded as a staunchly

Puritan enclave, the colonists

loathed the Jesuits as a sinister

manifestation of popery. Also,
increasingly alarmed by the

French Jesuit missionaries in
Canada, who had converted

many Huron and Algonquin
American Indians, they
were determined that a
movement “subversive to
society” should have no
place in the new colony.
After escaping
Parliament's siege of
Oxford in April 1646,
King Charles |
surrendered toa
Scottish army. The
next year they
delivered him to
Parliament. He
was imprisoned
at Carisbrooke
Castle, on the
Isle of White.

From there, he

, continued to try to bargain
: with the various parties, but his
secret negotiations with the

» Scottish Presbyterians to invade

English Civil War armor

Metal breastplates with appended
tassets (to protect the legs and lower =
body] were used by foot soldiers on : England led to a renewalof the
both sides during the civil war. : English Civil War.

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215

1450-1749 |

ARMS AND

ARMOUR

Whether for hunting or sport, conflict or contests of skill, handheld arms

REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

have played a crucial role in human existence and advancement. The first
weapons developed out of survival tools: found objects, such as stones, were
used to bludgeon prey, or to fend off predatory animals or rival humans.

As prehistoric humans’ skills advanced, clubs and
stone hand-axes gave way to carefully crafted
wooden spears used to hunt animals or impale
fish. Even more effective weapons married wooden
shafts with razor-sharp flint blades to form axes,

Like arms and body armor,
shields—a type of “accessory
armor’ —could be functional,
decorative, or both. During
the medieval period in Europe,
when knights held high status

in society, shields were often
embellished with elaborate
scenes of courtly devotion or
prowess in battle. Decoration
like this was thought to bring
added protection to the bearer.

15th-century Flemish shield

daggers, spears, and arrowheads. Soft, easily
worked metals such as copper replaced flint,
followed by stronger, sharper, and longer Bronze
Age and Iron Age swords, daggers, javelins, and
battle-axes. Until the advent of firearms, the
history of handheld weapons is one of variations on
a theme, culminating in the sophisticated forging
processes of Japan's samurai swords, which at
their height in the 14th-16th centuries wrapped
super-sharp steel around a flexible iron core.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR

Early “armor” consisted of padding: thick layers of
cloth with a stiff leather “helmet” to protect the
head. Plated helmets, breastplates, and wooden
shields were used by classical Greek and Roman
armies, but elsewhere, ordinary soldiers relied on
padding, leather, and luck—a situation that changed
little in Europe until chain mail was perfected in
11th-century France. Full suits of armor were
costly, so they were also used as status symbols.

2500BCE

750,000-50,000BCE
Flint cutting edges
Razor-sharp flint -*
daggers, spears, and

axes are used for

both hunting and Flint
warfare. dagger
450,000-400,000BcE
Wooden weapons

Easily worked and readily available,
wood is shaped into spears
for hunting or defense.

Wooden spear

5500-3300 BCE

Flint arrowheads

The wooden bow combined
with arrowheads made from
sharpened flint proves a
deadly combination, allowing
users to strike their victims
from a safe distance.

3700-2300 BCE
Metal weapons
Metalworking gives
rise to sophisticated
and effective blades
in the Bronze and
lron Ages.

Bronze ax

Helmets
The first part of the
body to be protected
is the head. Early
armies use plated
helmets, but most
soldiers rely on
leather caps,

Attic helmet

c. 1400 BCE

Suit armor develops ’
Plated body armor is

an early invention, but

it is expensive and not

always practical for

movement in battle.

Mycenaean armor

cherub’s head
decoration

hole to
attach crest __

rope
comb

two sections of __/
skull plate join
at comb

French 16th-century embossed helmet
Armor reached its greatest decorative
heights during the Renaissance. Suits and
helmets were embossed and etched, gilded
or silvered, particularly for tournaments—
and to show the owner's wealth and status.

6th-mid-5th
centuries BCE
The crossbow
Crossbows can

be cocked well

in advance of
firing—providing
one of the earliest
“loaded” weapons.

Early Chinese
crossbow

3rd-4th

centuries

Steel blades

Adding carbon to iron
produces steel, which
allows bladed weapons to be
mass-produced. Blades also
become stronger and longer.

Roman
gladius

11th century
Mail perfected
Lighter and less bulky
than armor plate,
chain mail worn over a
gambeson (padded
jacket] saves lives.

Chain mail

ED
we

1100 onward
Swords improve

The cross-guard is added
to protect the hand, and
marks the first big change
to sword design since
Roman times. Refined
edges mean swords can
now cut and stab

surface is made
from bright steel
we

closed visor protects
face, but limits field

-— of view

15th century
First suits of full plate
armor develop

Suits of armor provide the
best protection. Gloves now
have jointed fingers, while
shoulder plates bring freer

movement and less exposure.

THE STORY OF ARMS AND ARMOR

breastplate is
combined with a
neck guard

single pivot for visor
and face guard

separate plates
offer protection, but
allow movement

peg for
lifting visor

___ upper bevor
decorated with
figures in Roman
armor

77 lb

Wheel-lock
pistol

15th-17th centuries |

Firearms developed

With the invention of guns, body armor
shrinks back to the cuirass (breastplate},

to allow for drawing of pistols.

The advent of the revolver, with its
rotating cylinder, meant that multiple

19th century
Automatic-loading firearms
shots could be fired before reloading.

Colt 1849 pocket pistol

The return of armor
During World War |, body
armor was revived. German
machine gunners wore suits
like this one when firing
from exposed places.

THE
APPROXIMATE
WEIGHT OF

A FULL SUIT OF EUROPEAN 16TH-
CENTURY TOURNAMENT ARMOR

1939-1945

Flak jackets
Based on the
same design as
the cuirass, World
War Il flak jackets
stop shrapnel,
but not bullets.

Reinforced
flak jacket

Kevlar and “liquid”

body armor

Kevlar threads are five times
stronger than steel. Soaked
in shear thickening fluid
(STF], it can withstand

bullet penetration.

20th-21st centuries

Pld

the actions of the royalist forces in defeating the Fronde uprising in France.

THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIII in May
1643 had brought to the French
throne the four-year old

Louis XIV, under the regency of
his mother, Anne of Austria (in
direct defiance of Louis XIlI’s will).
Whatever France’s successes in
the Thirty Years’ War (see 1635]
and its emerging supremacy over
Spain, the country was not only
strapped for cash, it had to
confront continuing peasant
uprisings brought about by
harvest failures and punitive
demands for tax. In addition,
those nobles that Cardinal
Richelieu (see 1624) had excluded
from government were invited
back to counter those supporters
of Richelieu who were hostile to
Anne and her new chief minister,
Cardinal Mazarin (1602-61).
Bungled attempts to

x
\ seal of one of

44 DO YOU NOT KNOW, MY
SON, WITH WHAT LITTLE
WISDOM THE WORLD

IS GOVERNED? 99

Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish chancellor, Westphalia, 1648

» manage factional rivalries while

: maintaining a costly war were to
lead to government breakdown in
1648 with the Fronde—initially a

| of turmoil followed: Paris was

: taken, the royal family fled, and

| Mazarin was

: twice forced into exile. When it

: fizzled out in 1652, the way lay

: open toa better management of

: aristocratic loyalties that was to

: In October 1648, after four years

: of negotiations, the Thirty Years”

: War in Germany was brought to

: aclose with a series of treaties

: of Westphalia. France was still

: at war with Spain las it would be

i until 1659), but Germany's horrors

» at least had been ended. France

» secured rather vaguely defined

: gains on its eastern border;

: Sweden was confirmed in its

: possession of Pomerania on the

: Baltic coast, as well as receiving a

: huge cash payment from the Holy

» Roman Emperor, Ferdinand Ill, to

withdraw its troops. Among the

German states, Brandenburg-

Prussia gained the most.
Crucially, Spain also recognized

\ the independence of the Dutch

: Republic, and Germany's local

: rulers were given the right to

: powers, in effect confirming them

: of the Holy Roman Emperor

Treaty of Westphalia

This document was agreed over
several months and signed by the
Holy Roman Emperor and the king

109 parties of France, ending 30 years of war. : appeared fatally undermined.
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This depiction of the execution of King Charles | of England outside the
Banqueting House, in London, was painted by English artist John Weesop.

ON JANUARY 30, 1649, Charles |
of England was beheaded. He
remains the only king of England
to have been legally executed.
His conviction by the High Court
of Justice as “tyrant, traitor, and
murderer” was carried by a vote
of 68 to 67. Throughout his trial,
Charles consistently rejected any
idea that any court could legally
try a king. “| would know by what
power | am called hither...
Remember | am your King, your
lawful King.” In reality, there is
little doubt that since the triumph
of the parliamentary New Model
Army, dominated by Oliver
Cromwell, his death became a
possible outcome to the crisis.
The awkward question was
whether one form of tyranny was
being swapped for another.
Nonetheless, what counted was
the assertion that a body of law

Oliver Cromwell

This portrait of Oliver Cromwell, the
chief instigator of the trial and
execution of the king, was painted by
English artist Robert Walker.

: Dahomey panther mask

: This bronze pendant in the shape of
: a stylized head of a panther, dating

: from 17th-century Dahomey, shows
: the country’s cultural sophistication.

: separate from the person of the

: king existed that no one, legal

: ruler or not, could disregard:
Parliament, not the king, was

| the law's rightful custodian.

: At the end of the 1640s, the

» under King Wegbeja (d. 1685).

: After uniting the lands of the Aja

: and the Fon, he introduced new

: laws, reformed government and

» bureaucracy, and initiated a

| religion and culture that would

| characterize this West African

: state for more than two centuries.

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44 IT IS NOT WISDOM
BUT AUTHORITY THAT

MAKES A LAW. 99

Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher, from Leviathan, 1651

CHARLES I'S EXECUTION did not
mark the final collapse of the
royalist cause in England. Arump

army, much of it Scottish, was still:

active. The royalists had an
obvious figure to rally round,
Charles's elder son, also called
Charles. Yet his defeat at
Worcester in September 1651
marked the final battle of the

English Civil War, and saw Charles =

forced into a nine-year exile.
One of the foundations of
Western political philosophy
appeared in 1651 when Thomas
Hobbes (1588-1679) published
Leviathan. It argued for the
absolutism of a sovereign

authority. Though recognizing the

liberty of the individual, Hobbes
believed that anarchy could only
be averted through a strong
central government. It was an
early example of social contract
theory [individuals in society are
united by mutual consent) and
was profoundly influential.

In 1648, the Khmelnytsky
Uprising sawa Cossack revolt
against the rule of the Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth in the
Ukraine, which had been awarded
to Poland under the Treaty of
Lublin of 1589. The uprising
climaxed in 1651 with the Battle
of Berestechko, the largest
single battle of the 17th century.
The result was a victory of sorts
for the Polish-Lithuanians.
However, the ultimate effect of the
struggle was a weakening of the
Commonwealth, which was
already wracked by numerous
internal disputes among its
querulous nobles.

POLISH-LITHUANIAN
FORCES
40,000

cavalry

700
casualties

40,000
cavalry

40,000
casualties

COSSACK-CRIMEAN
TARTAR FORCES

: Battle of Berestechko, 1651
The Cossack-Crimean Tartar forces
: suffered 40,000 casualties at
: Berestechko, far more than their
: Polish-Lithuanian adversaries.

The first of three wars between

_ England and the Netherlands
began in 1652 (two followed in

= commerce. For the Dutch, a
small nation with few natural

' resources, but still the leading
mercantile power of Europe, they
assumed vast importance. For

: the English, they marked the

: emergence of a new bullish
confidence. England's eventual
victory signaled the decline of

: Dutch commercial preeminence,

: and launched a new Anglo-

» Frenchrivalry for commercial
and colonial supremacy.

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The Coronation of Louis XIV, a tapestry from a painting by Charles Le Brun,
court artist to Louis XIV, shows the young Louis about to receive his crown.

ONE OF THE WORLD'S ICONIC
structures, the Taj Mahal, in Agra,
India, was completed in 1653 after
19 years. A mausoleum built by
Mughal emperor Shah Jahan
(1592-1666) in memory of his
third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, it
combined Indian, Persian, and
Islamic styles of architecture.

In December 1653, Oliver
Cromwell was made Lord
Protector of England. Various
types of government for the new
republic had previously been tried,
including military rule, while
parliaments were formed and
dissolved, generally by the
irascible Cromwell, with great
rapidity. Cromwell resisted the
idea that he be made king. In the
end, after his death in September
1658, it appeared desirable and

inevitable that the vacuum could
be filled only by the restoration of
the actual king-in-waiting, the
future Charles II

Weakened by its struggle with
the Cossacks during the
Khmelnytsky Uprising, the partial
dismemberment of the Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth by
neighbors eager for territorial
gains became inevitable. The
resulting devastation—its
population almost halved, its
economy all but destroyed—is
known as The Deluge. Not only
did Poland endure a Russian
invasion in June 1654, in what
became known as the Thirteen
Years’ War, the following year
Sweden, too, invaded the country.
The most enduring consequence
of this calamitous period was not

3 me

: merely Poland's loss of the
i Ukraine to Russia under the
| Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667;
: rather, that Orthodox Russia was.
: immensely boosted, and its czars’
© claims to rule “all the Russias”
: made tangible.
On June 7, 1654, the 15-year-old
© Louis XIV was crowned king of
: France. Since acceding to the
: throne when aged four, first his
© mother and then Cardinal Mazarin
© acted as regent. His subsequent
: reign, of 72 years and 110 days,
i remains one of history's longest.

: Taj Mahal

: itone of the most recognizable and

: admired buildings in the world.

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This engraving on wood depicts Brandenburg forces storming Polish positions

at the Battle of Warsaw in 1656 during the First Northern War.

THE APPROXIMATE SIZE OF THE
EMPIRE CLAIMED BY PORTUGAL

FEARFUL OF RUSSIAN
DOMINATION OF THE BALTIC,
Sweden entered the Thirteen
Years’ War between Russia and
Poland-Lithuania in 1655, thus
creating the First Northern War.
Other countries were sucked in
and alliances changed. In 1656,

the Polish capital Warsaw was

: taken by a Swedish-Brandenburg

force, further undermining the
Polish-Lithuanian state.

One of the greatest paintings in ©

Western culture was created in

: 1656 when Spanish artist Diego
Velazquez (1599-1660) painted

: Las Meninas, an enigmatic work
: that has been hugely influential.

A renewed phase of Ottoman

: confidence began when Kopriilii
: Mehmed (1575-1661] became

: Mehmed IV handing him control
: of the empire. He ruthlessly

: stamped out opposition and

= embarked on a series of military
' campaigns—completed after his
» death in 1661—that saw the

| empire atits greatest extent.

| Las Meninas

Diego Velazquez's painting of

| Margarita, the daughter of Philip IV
: of Spain, and her entourage, is
: known for its complex composition.

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Amanuscript showing Ottoman
troops on the island of Lemnos.

ON MARCH 2, 1657, the Great Fire
of Meireki began in Edo (Tokyo).
In two days, fed by relentless
winds, it destroyed almost 70
percent of the city, consuming the
paper and wooden buildings and
killing around 100,000 people.

Although an offshoot of the First
Northern War, the Swedish-
Danish Wars of 1657-58 and
1658-60 developed into a largely
separate conflict over control of
the Baltic when, in June 1657,
Denmark joined the coalition
confronting Sweden in Poland.
Sweden had made consistent
gains at Denmark’s expense
since the mid-16th century; the
prize, control of The Sound—the
strategically and economically
vital entrance to the Baltic—still
under Danish control in 1657. In
the winter of 1657-58, Charles X
of Sweden (1622-60) outflanked
the Danes, marching his troops
into Denmark and then, in
February, across the frozen Baltic
to Copenhagen itself. The Treaty
of Roskilde in 1658 confirmed
Sweden’s territorial dominance.
The second war, if less favorable
to Sweden, still underlined
Sweden's Baltic superiority.

With the Ottoman Empire now
reinvigorated by Grand Vizier
Koprulu Mehmed, in late 1657 its
fleet captured the Aegean
islands of Lemnos and Tenedos
from the Venetians. The islands,
which dominated the approaches
to the Dardanelles, had been used
by the Venetians to blockade
Constantinople, the Ottoman
capital. The Venetians would not
pose such a threat again.

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IN JUNE 1658, AURANGZEB
(1618-1707), or Alamgir
(“Conqueror of the World”) as he
called himself, was crowned
Mughal emperor. It ended two
years of infighting between him
and his brothers for their father,
Shah Jahan’s, throne—this
despite Shah Jahan still being
alive. All three brothers were
subsequently executed (two by
Aurangzeb). His reign would prove
paradoxical. Mughal India was
still immensely rich and powerful.
Under Aurangzeb, a devout
Muslim, it reached it greatest
territorial extent (see p.234). Yet
the near continuous warfare of his
49-year reign, in which immense

I :
Conqueror of the World
This portrait of the Mughal emperor,
Aurangzeb I, seen here with his
courtiers, is attributed to the Indian
artist Bhawani Das.

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The Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659 saw Louis XIV of France (center left) meet
Philip IV of Spain to ratify the treaty that ended Franco-Spanish conflict.

NORWAY

Christianiae

DENMARK
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eo -

campaigns were launched against
the Sikhs and the Marathas,
exhausted the country’s
treasuries and highlighted the
internal flaws of his vast empire
By his death in 1707, it was visibly
in decline.

Near Dunkirk, in northeastern
France, on June 14, 1658 a
combined Anglo-French force
defeated the Spanish. This was
the last decisive conflict of the
Franco-Spanish War that had
begun in 1635, and as such the
last battle of the Thirty Years’ War.
It was also the last confrontation
of the Anglo-Spanish War, which
had begun in 1654. For the
French, the imperative, as ever,
was dominance in Europe; for the
English, to steal whatever
advantage, commercial or
territorial, they could over Spain,
hence the pragmatic alliance
between Oliver Cromwell's
Puritan England with Louis XIV's
Catholic France.

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Swedish Empire
The Swedish
Empire reached its
peak in 1658 in the
reign of Charles X,
following the
Treaty of Roskilde.
However, the need
to defend its new
territories forced it
into a series of

a unsustainably

expensive wars.
RUSSIA

POLAND-
LITHUANIA

The year 1659 marked the start
of one of the most remarkable
developments of the scientific

revolution in Europe with the

| beginning of what is now known
as the Central England
Temperature, or CET, record. It
was a Scientific experiment on an

: unprecedented scale, an attempt
to measure temperatures almost

: Manchester, the east by London,
and in the west by Bristol. Today, it

: constitutes the oldest continuous
measurement of temperatures
in the world. It had a precedent
of sorts in 1657 in |taly, the

: Accademia del Cimento (Academy
of Experiment) in Florence
instituting what has been called
the “world’s first weather

: measurement, the CET was a
crucial forerunner.

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LOUIS XIV {1638-1715}

Louis XIV, known as Le Roi
Soleil (Sun King), had a greater
impact on France than any
other monarch. Determined
to be the absolute ruler of his
nobles and his country, he
centralized the state, fought
numerous wars, and also
encouraged culture. By his
later reign, France had
expanded its territory and was
the leading nation in Europe,
much admired and imitated.

The Peace of the Pyrenees in
November 1659 ended the
enduring Franco-Spanish conflict
in Europe. France was now
Europe’s major power, and
Spain, its New World revenues
diminishing, its internal tensions
multiplying, and its support from

THE VALUE OF
THE EARLIEST-
KNOWN CHECK

Austria curtailed, was slowly
subsiding. The change roused
those states able to confront an
assertive France to do just that,
putting France on a collision
course with the other emerging
powers in Europe: England, the
Dutch, and Habsburg Austria.

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MYSELF A LITTLE THE MORE IN
PLEASURE, KNOWING THAT THIS
IS THE PROPER AGE OF MY LIFE

TO DO IT. 99

Samuel Pepys, English diarist, diary entry, 1660

“L.. BLESSED GOD... IT WAS THE
LORD’S DOING.” With these words
diarist John Evelyn recorded the
overwhelming reception accorded
Charles II (1630-85) in London in
May 1660 on his restoration as
king of England. By any measure,
Charles's restoration was a
triumphant vindication of the
principles of kingship, as well as
of the contradictory limitations of
Oliver Cromwell's republican
experiment. Charles II swept back
to his throne on a wave of popular
sentiment. Worldly, knowing, and,
at heart, lazy, Charles was always
ready to compromise with his
parliamentary opponents. His
charm was legendary. That said,
his weakness for pleasure-
seeking combined with his
instinctive sympathy for
Catholicism, especially when
funded by Louis XIV in France,
highlighted a still unresolved
political crisis. Charles, by turns
vengeful and forgiving, never

: resolved this dilemma. It was

left to his successor, the rather
less shrewd James Il, to provoke
the crisis that would later
definitively propel England into
a unique parliamentary
revolution (see 1688).

The famous English diarist

» Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) began

putting his daily thoughts on
paper in 1660. Pepys wasa
high-ranking naval official, and
his diary, which he kept until 1669

» but which was not published until

the 19th century, provided one of

information on life during the
English Restoration.
The death of Cardinal Mazarin

(see 1648) in 1661 began the

personal rule of the 22-year-old

: Louis XIV. He would remain on

the French throne for a further

France was divided made him
aware of the need to develop a

_ Style of personal assertiveness

: and grandeur. This was to impress
- on the French elites that they

: were part of his great project for

: French glory and preeminence in

Europe. United under a ruler who
recognized their privileges and
status, French nobles and officials

: supported a series of wars to

assert this position. However,

: these wars would bring France
© to the brink of disaster and

pauperize most of its population.
Yet the cultural impact of Louis’
rule remained; no other European
country would approach France

: in the second half of the 17th
© century for such a projection of
: national preeminence

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‘A 1635 view of Fort Zeelandia, in
Tainan, present-day Taiwan.

FOR ALMOST FOUR DECADES the
Dutch East India Company had
controlled western Formosa
(Taiwan), with its trading base Fort
Zeelandia at its heart. Hostile to
this alien presence, the Chinese
Ming dynasty besieged the fort,
which was inadequately supplied
by water, and captured it in
February 1662. The Dutch were
forced to abandon Formosa.

The pace of scientific
investigation in the 17th century
led Europe's scientists to share
ideas, and then to form bodies
devoted to a better understanding
of science. In 1662, the Royal
Society, the world’s oldest such
scientific body, was founded in
London. That it had royal approval
showed how both the practical
application of science and the
pursuit of pure knowledge had
become of interest to the state.

MILLION

THE PRICE
IN LIVRES
FOR WHICH
FRANCE
BOUGHT
DUNKIRK

» ae
a asa
ox a 0 arnt
RY ° Vo 3
yao a \
of oe

The people of New Amsterdam plead with its director-general, Peter

Stuyvesant, not to resist the English warships gathering in the harbor.

NUMEROUS ENGLISH RAIDS on
Dutch shipping and trading posts
in this year were the result of an
English desire to win as much

Dutch trade as possible. The most :

_ONE LOVES. 99

successful of these took place on
August 27, when a small English
fleet arrived at New Amsterdam,
the capital of the Dutch North
American colony of New
Netherland, and demanded its
surrender. Director-general Peter
Stuyvesant eventually complied.
By March 1665, the Second
Anglo-Dutch War broke out.

The Austro-Turkish War that
broke out in 1663 reached a
climax in August 1664, when an

Battle of St. Gotthard

Adolf Ehrhardt, shows an attack by

(6 ONEIS

HASILY

_ FOOLED BY
_THAT WHICH

| Moliére, from Tartuffe, 1664

» Ottoman army, intent on capturing |

: Vienna, was defeated by a

_ Habsburg force at St. Gotthard,

: their invasion was curtailed.

Alarmed at English and Dutch

» in 1664 the French East India

: Company was established, with
: royal patronage. It was lavishly

This woodcut, based on a drawing by ; funded, but it resulted only in

: the settlement of the island of

the Habsburg cavalry in the defeat of :

the Ottomans at St. Gotthard.

Réunion in the Indian Ocean and a

: handful of trading posts in India.

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the Angel of Death holding an hourglass and a spear.

THE PUBLICATION IN THIS YEAR OF

Micrographia, by English natural
philosopher and polymath Robert
Hooke (1635-1703), was the first
work under the patronage of the
Royal Society. It was not merely
the first time that those other
than a closed circle of specialists
had been made aware of the
remarkable world revealed by
microscopes. His drawings of an
ant, louse, and flea, lovingly
detailed and precisely executed,
sparked particular astonishment
at the complexity of this hitherto
unsuspected microworld. It was,
according to diarist Samuel
Pepys, “the most ingenious book
that | ever read in my life.” Of
greater significance was that
Hooke was the first to use the
term “cell” for the smallest unit

| Robert Hooke’s
_ Micrographia,

» illustration of
» an ant. Hooke had
: drawn the ant after
: viewing it under his
microscope, which
: is shown here.

Hooke's
findings

This page from
1665 publication,

shows a detailed

: Hooke observed reminded him of
: amonk’s cell.

The year 1665 also saw the last

i outbreak of bubonic plague in
: England. The disease was
| concentrated mostly in London,

where, at its height in September,
7,000 a week were dying. In the 18

+ months the plague ravaged the
: city, 100,000 people died.

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In 1666, a major fire swept through the central parts of London, consuming
thousands of houses and wiping away centuries of history.

10 ships lost 4 ships lost
ENGLISH FLEET DUTCH FLEET

Four Days’ Battle

In one of the longest naval engagements ever, the Four Days’
Battle, fought in June 1666 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War,
saw the Dutch inflict a defeat on the English.

THE BIGGEST ENGAGEMENT OF
THE SECOND ANGLO-DUTCH WAR,
which had begun in 1665, the
Four Days’ Battle was an English
attempt to destroy the Dutch fleet
before it could grow to challenge
them. However, the English
suffered such losses that it
handed the initiative to the Dutch.
Disaster then followed for
England in June 1667 after a
daring Dutch raid on the Medway
River, in the Thames estuary. With
discontent at home, England
brought the war to a halt.

As the Great Plague ended, a
new disaster overtook London,
the Great Fire, which burned
from September 2 to 5. London
was still a medieval city, filthy
and unplanned, with no great

spaces and few public buildings of |

note. The City, which was the
commercial heart, was especially
overcrowded and unsanitary. It
was here the fire began. Although
the risk of fire was well known, no

effective precautions were taken
Though drought and a heat wave
had made the city especially
vulnerable, a crucial added factor
was a strong easterly wind. The
" result was that the whole of the
City was destroyed, including the
medieval St. Paul's Cathedral, 87
: other churches, and upward of
13,000 houses. The official death
toll of six has long been disputed.
Not to be outdone by the
founding of the Royal Society of
London (see 1662], in December
1666 Louis XIV gave his blessing
to the creation of the French
Academy of Sciences, which in
1699 became the Royal Academy
of Sciences and was installed in
: the Louvre Palace, in Paris. Today,
it is part of the /nstitut de France.
It was at the heart of a drive for
verifiable scientific knowledge.
As an arm of the state it was also
© interested in discoveries that
could enrich its country, such as
in agriculture and armaments.

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46 THE MIND IS ITS OWN

PLACE AND IN

ITSELF, CAN

MAKE A HEAVEN OF HELL,
A HELL OF HEAVEN. 99

John Milton, English poet, from Paradise Lost, 1667

THE TREATY OF ANDRUSOVO in
January 1667 ended the Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth's
calamitous war with Russia

that had begun in 1654. It also
climaxed The Deluge—its
dramatic decline above all in
the face of Russian expansion.
Russia, granted Smolensk and
present-day Belarus, could for the
first time claim to have unified
the Slavic peoples of the region.

The completion in 1667 of the
Piazza San Pietro, by Gian
Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), saw
the high point of urban planning in
Baroque Rome. Many of Rome’s
public spaces were ambitiously
rebuilt by a series of architects to
make them deliberately imposing,
and worthy to be at the center of
the Catholic Church.

The War of Devolution began in
May 1667 as a result of Louis XIV’s
continuing claims to the Spanish
Netherlands. It saw France take
some Habsburg cities in Flanders,
as well as Franche-Comté to its
east. However, a Triple Aliance of

THE NUMBER OF
PEOPLE KILLED
IN THE SAMAKHI
EARTHQUAKE

IN AZERBAIJAN

England, Sweden, and the Dutch
Republic forced the isolated Louis
to return most of his gains by the
1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
In 1667, the epic poem Paradise
Lost, by English poet John Milton
(1608-74), gave the English
language one of its greatest
literary achievements. It told the
Christian story of man’s fall from
grace in the Garden of Eden.

Siege of Lille

Louis XIV directs French forces at
Lille during the War of Devolution. Its
capture provided one of France's few
gains from a frustrating conflict.

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Awoodcut portrait of the admiral and
privateer Henry Morgan.

THE PORTUGUESE TRADING POST
AT BOMBAY (Mumbai) had passed
to the English Crown in 1662 as
part of the dowry of Catherine of
Braganza, Charles II's Portuguese
wife. In 1668, the king leased it to
the East India Company for an
annual rent of £10, making it the
Company's third trading post

in India after those at Surat and
Madras. With Bombay Castle
completed in 1675, from 1687

it became the focus of all the
Company's trading in India,
resisting attempts to storm it

by the Mughals and the Dutch.

In 1668, the Welsh privateer
(state-sponsored raider) Henry
Morgan, famous for his attacks
on Spanish settlements in the
Caribbean, succeeded in one of
the most daring assaults ever
when his ships captured the
well-protected Spanish trading
city of Porto Bello, in Panama.

It won him both great wealth and
further English support for his
buccaneering endeavors.

Just as Philip II's seizure of the
Portuguese crown in 1580 was
a sign of Spanish power, so its
recognition of Portuguese
independence in 1668 under the
Treaty of Lisbon, which confirmed
the House of Braganza as rulers
of Portugal, was evidence of its
decline. From 1640, Portugal had
been in open revolt against Spain,
and in June 1665 at the Battle of
Montes Claros a combined
Anglo-Portuguese force inflicted
a crushing defeat on them. Close
to bankruptcy, and sure of further
French hostility, the Spanish had
little option but to concede.

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223

464 COME QUICKLY,
IAM DRINKING
THE STARS. 99

Attributed to Dom Pérignon, while tasting champagne, 1670

» (2 4 e

Portuguese glazed tiles decorate the Sao Miguel Fortress in Luanda, a key
military strongpoint in the colonization of Angola in the later 17th century.

The Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, was
commissioned by Aurangzeb.

ONE OF THE REASONS GIVEN FOR
THE DISINTEGRATION of the
Mughal Empire after the death of
Aurangzeb in 1707 has been his
supposed religious persecution
of Hindus and other minorities.
Where his predessor Akbar |

had pursued an active policy of
religious toleration as the most
effective means of controlling his
Hindu vassals, Aurangzeb—
himself a Sunni Muslim—was
said to have systematically
destroyed Hindu temples. In
addition, he banned the use of
music, central to Hindu practice,
issuing a decree, perhaps in 1649,
to this effect. He also had drawn
up an exhaustive digest of
Muslim law, the Fatawa-e-
Alamgri, said to have been
rigorously imposed. All these
claims are disputed, however. In
fact, the number of Hindu temples
said to have been destroyed varies
improbably from 80 to 60,000.
That Aurangzeb was strongly
anti-Christian, though, seems
certain to have been true.

THE ANNUAL
REVENUE
RAISED BY

AURANGZEB'S
EXCHEQUER

IN MAY 1670, THE HUDSON’S BAY
COMPANY WAS FORMED under
British royal charter on the
initiative of two French fur
trackers, Pierre-Esprit Radisson
and Médard de Groseilliers. They
had learned that the best furs
came from the Cree territory to
the north of Lake Superior. Easier
to reach via Hudson Bay rather

Rebuffed in France, they solicited
support in England. The
Hudson's Bay Company would
become one of the great
commercial enterprises of
England, the basis of its claim to
Canada, and source of regional
rivalry with France.

The claim that in 1670 Dom
Pérignon (1638-1715), a monk at
the Benedictine Abbey of
Hautvillers, in Champagne in
northeast France, invented the
sparkling wine of that name, is
largely discounted today. In fact,

, Cossack leader

: who rose up against the nobility and
: the czar’s bureaucracy, is seen here
: on the Volga River, South Russia.

: he was devoted to eliminating the
: bubbles such wines produced, as
: the pressure they built up in the

| bottles tended to explode them.

: Butas cellar master of the Abbey,
than via the rivers and lakes to the :
south, they proposed a base there. =
: by using grapes otherwise used in
» red wine. It was not until the early
| 18th century that the taste for

: sparkling wines, in England and
: France, grew rapidly.

he did make a major contribution
to the production of white wines,

A Cossack uprising in South

: suppressed by the czar, and its

: leader Stepan Razin was executed
© the following year. An attempt to

: protect Cossack independence

' against the centralized Russian

| state had become a revolt bya

| disaffected peasantry that saw

: several cities sacked and looted.

IN 1671, PORTUGAL ENDED THE
INDEPENDENCE of the kingdom of
Ndongg, in what is today Angola.
A Portuguese colony had largely
dominated the Ndongo since the
16th century, but a rebellion by
their king, Philip, in 1671, saw
Portuguese troops capture the
capital and take control of its
entire territory.

Just as fears of Spanish
dominance in Europe had allied
France, England, and the Dutch
Republic, so French dominance
after 1659 saw anti-French

alliances throw Spain and the
Dutch Republic together. Spain
opposed Louis XIV's claim to the
Spanish Netherlands by marriage,

: while the Dutch preferred a weak
: Spain as a neighbor to a strong

| France. The War of Devolution of
: 1667-68 had seen French gains,

: and then losses, in the Spanish

: Netherlands, but in 1672 Louis,

: allied with England and Sweden,

: tried again in the Franco—Dutch

War. The war ended with the

» Dutch granting New Amsterdam
: to England, while the French—

although their conquest of the

: Dutch Republic failed—gained the
: former Burgundian territory of the
| Franche-Comté and a string of

: border territories in the Spanish

: Netherlands. Yet the peace proved
» a brief pause in Louis’ attempts to

expand and safeguard France.

A valuable natural asset of North America was fur. It drove the
French westward into Canada and saw the English establish the
Hudson’s Bay Company (see 1670). It also led to Anglo-French
conflict there. While the French would accompany the American
Indians on fur-trapping expeditions, the English, and the Dutch
(pictured) before them, usually took delivery of furs from the
Indians at their trading posts. All depended on Indian aid, while
the Indians became dependent on European weapons and tools.

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Leibniz mechanical calculator
One of the first calculating
machines, developed by Gottfried
Leibniz, this device multiplies by
making repeated additions.

In 1671, German mathematician
Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)
demonstrated one of the world’s
first mechanical calculators. It
was the first such machine that
could perform all four of the basic
arithmetic functions. Leibniz went
on to further refine his calculating
machines, thus providing the
basis of the modern calculator.

Repeated Cossack and
Crimean Tartar revolts against
the weakened Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth in 1672 drew
their Ottoman allies into a
four-year Polish-Ottoman War.
Polish resistance under Jan III
Sobieski (1629-96) was greatly
undermined by grudging support
from the Polish parliament, the
Sejm, and was hardly equal to the
progressively larger armies of the
Ottomans. The result was the loss
of what Little prestige Poland
could still claim as well as most
of its Ukrainian territories.

Marquette and Jolliet descend the
Mississippi River with their guides.

THE EXTENSIVE WATERWAYS
OF North America provided
a ready-made means of
exploring its interior. In 1673,
French-Canadian explorer
Louis Jolliet and French Jesuit
Jacques Marquette traveled
down the Mississippi River
to within 370 miles (600km)
of the Gulf of Mexico, They
turned back for fear of
arousing Spanish hostility
but discovered the Missouri
and Ohio rivers, as well as
confirming that the river led to the
Gulf and not the Pacific. English
exploration inland from their
scattered coastal settlements was
much more hesitant, rarely
coordinated, and additionally
blocked by the Appalachian
mountain chain. It almost always
depended on native assistance
For example, it was after spending
a year with a group of Tomahitan
Indians in present-day Georgia
that Gabriel Arthur traveled with
them across the Cumberland

Gap, unwittingly discovering what
in the 18th century would be the
principal route to Kentucky and
the west.

THE
LENGTH
OF THE
APPALACHIAN
MOUNTAINS

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ye®
we”

Ceremonial entrance of the Qing emperor, Kangxi, to Beijing. Kangxi oversaw
the complete suppression of the Three Feudatories revolt.

FOLLOWING THEIR TAKEOVER OF
CHINA WITH THE COLLAPSE of the
Ming dynasty in 1644, the Qing
coopted some of the more
powerful Ming generals, making
them regional governors and
allowing them considerable
latitude in their rule over what
became almost independent
territories. It was felt that if they
enriched themselves—as they
did on a prodigious scale—the
less likely it was that they would
revolt. The risk was that their
progressively greater revenues
would be matched by greater
pretensions to rule China. In
1674, the Revolt of the
Three Feudatories broke

out across southern
China in those
provinces controlled
by the three most
prominent
rebels, Wu
Sangui, Shang
Kexi Gungdong,
and Geng Jingzhong,
joined by lesser
Ming governors.

Led by the Kangxi
Emperor (1654-
1722), the Qing
response, with
its superior
military, was
successful,

Statue of Shivaji
This bronze statue of
Shivaji on horseback in
Maharashtra, India,
commemorates his
leadership of the Maratha
campaign for self-rule.

albeit not until 1681. With the
rebels as wary of each other as
they were of the Qing, they rarely
cooperated, allowing the Qing to
pick them off one by one. Those
rebels who did not commit suicide
were executed.

After freeing the Hindu Maratha
from the Sultan of Bijapur, Shivaji
(1630-80) was crowned Maratha
king in 1674, establishing the

Maratha Empire (see p.242)
* that would later defeat
the Mughals to
dominate India until
the early 19th century.

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Frederick William | leads his troops
at the Battle of Fehrbellin.

IN 1675, MUGHAL EMPEROR
AURANGZEB ORDERED THE
EXECUTION of Tegh Bahadur,
ninth guru of the Sikhs, after he
had refused to convert to Islam. It
brought to the Sikh throne his
nine-year-old son, Gobind Singh
(1666-1708). It would be several
years later that, under Singh's
leadership, the Sikhs would pose
a growing military threat to
Mughalrule, and contribute
significantly to its collapse.
However, the pattern of religious
opposition to the Mughals was
already well
established in many
parts of India,
most obviously
in the Western Ghats,
where Shivaji had
declared the Maratha
Empire.
On June 18, 1675, a
combined Prussian and
Brandenburg army, led by
Frederick William I, Elector
of Brandenburg [1620-88],
met and defeated a Swedish
army, led by Count von
Wrangel, near Fehrbellin, in
Brandenburg. This relatively
insignificant battle in the Scanian
War, itself a by-product of the
Franco-Dutch War, nonetheless
marked a crucial moment in
Sweden's long struggle to
impose itself as the dominant
Baltic power. Defeat at the
hands of an otherwise
relatively minor German state
dealt the Swedesa lasting
blow. Swedish pretensions to
great power status were
revealed as precarious at best.

Horseshoe Falls, on the Canadian sid
(800m) wide. Europeans first discove!

IN FRANCE, LOUIS XIV’S principal
architectural endeavors
concentrated on his immense
palace at Versailles, just outside
Paris. Louis was also determined
to continue the transformation of
the French capital, begun by his
grandfather Henry IV at the start
of the 17th century. Henry's intent
had been to lift the city from
medieval slum to a capital
worthy of the first power of
Europe—a city to rival Rome for
its imposing public buildings and
commanding spaces. The Louvre
Palace, predictably, was
significantly enlarged and
remodeled, notably the east
wing, whose stately facade
encapsulated the French taste

for Classicism at its most austere :

and precise. But the building that
most memorably reflects Louis's
contribution to Paris is Les
Invalides, or more properly
L'H6tel National des Invalides. Part

hospital, part retirement home for :
French soldiers, it was completed
in 1676. Designed by Libéral
Bruant (1635-97), Les Invalides
was conceived on an grand scale,
with vast formal gardens

je of Niagara Falls, is about 2,600 ft
red this natural wonder in 1677.

i sweeping up to its immense

: facade and 15 courtyards
clustered behind. Its most

: memorable feature, the lavish

» royal chapel L’Eglise du Déme,

: was added slightly later. Placed

: at the southern end of the

: complex, it was designed with a

: vast dome and spire, with details
picked out in gold.

Louis XIV's reign marked one of

: the most fertile periods of

: French literature. The year 1677

| saw the first performance of

: Phédre, the greatest tragedy of
French dramatist Jean Racine
(1639-99). Dramatists such as

: Racine, Pierre Corneille (1606-

: 84), and Moliére (1622-73) thrived |

: under royal patronage, captivating

court audiences in different ways.

: Corneille and Racine reflected
courtly concerns through their

: use of formal verse, classical

: themes, and emphasis on honor,

: virtue, and renunciation, while

Moliére’s racy dramas mocked

the social pretensions of the

_ tradition, the Comédie-Francaise
was established in Paris under

) royal patronage. This official state
: theater aimed to showcase the
: glories of the French stage

: and French ———
: culture as widely F
| as possible.

| European

: explorers began

| to realize the

: immensity of

: North America as
the 17th century

| progressed. The

i extraordinary variety
| and natural beauty of
its landscape also

: continued to amaze.
: The discovery of
Niagara Falls in 1677,

: a waterfall hugely larger
| than any in Europe, with
© over 6,000,000cuft (170,000 cum)
: of water thundering over it every

: minute, provoked wonder in the
Old World. There is doubt as to

: which European can claim to have
: seen the falls first. However, the

» French Franciscan missionary

» exploring at the request of King

: Louis XIV, is generally credited

: with their discovery, in 1677.

\
\

engraving of
author

Religious work
This is the frontispiece from the
third edition of John Bunyan's The
Pilgrim's Progress, a hugely
influential work in the 17th century.

One of literature’s most
significant religious works was
published in February 1678. The
Pilgrim's Progress was written by
English writer and Christian
preacher John Bunyan (1628-88),
who completed much of the work
while imprisoned in Bedford Gaol
(jail). It was published in two parts
(the second part appeared in
1684) and is an allegorical tale of
an everyman’s journey from this
world to heaven. The Pilgrim's
Progress has become one of the
most translated books in history.

Les Invalides, Paris

These sumptuous buildings now
contain museums and monuments
relating to France's military history,
and a hospital for war veterans.

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nog
_ A 19th-century image of the Asante, who
dominated West Africa from the 1680s.

| IN 1679, THE ENGLISH
| PARLIAMENT passed the Habeas
| Corpus Act. Like Magna Carta
(see 1215], it represented a
cornerstone of English liberty. It is
the legal assertion that no one
may be unlawfully detained.
The law was passed for
pragmatic reasons rather than
as a liberal principle of justice.
Its aim was to prevent James,
Duke of York, the Catholic
brother and heir of Charles Il,
from arresting his Protestant
opponents without legal
justification, as Charles's

44 YOU MAY
HOLD THE BODY,
| SUBJECT TO
| EXAMINATION. 99

| English writ of Habeas Corpus, 1679

chief minister, the Earl of
Clarendon, had begun to do. The
underlying principle of the Act,
| which is incorporated into the
| American Constitution, remains
| fundamental to most Anglo-Saxon
| legal systems as an ultimate
| guarantee of individual liberty.
However, in reality the law is
| hardly ever invoked.
In August 1680, the Pueblo
| people of the colony of New
Mexico rose against the Spanish
occupiers and drove them from
the area for 12 years. Spanish
claims to New Mexico, though
| dating back to Francisco

| Coronado’s expeditions of the
|

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ef i
ot “a we 9
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mid-16th century, had never
amounted to much more than
statements of priority and
Christian preeminence over the
region. New Mexico was seen as a
land of marginal value as it was
remote and arid. The Pueblo
revolt was provoked partly by
drought and by the suffering
such natural events inevitably
brought in their wake, but
more particularly by Spain's
determination to crush local
religious practices—Pueblo
shamen were consistently
accused of witchcraft and
executed. When the Spanish
returned in 1692, they did so in
overwhelming numbers.

The Asante kingdom, founded
in about 1680, was formed from
the Akan, who dominated West
Africa. The most prominent group
of the Akan was the Oyoko. Using
diplomacy and warfare, the Oyoko
consolidated the Akan tribes in
the 1670s, uniting them against
the threat of the neighboring
Denkyira, who they eventually

conquered in 1701 at the Battle
of Feyiase (in modern Ghana).
Few projects revealed the

: determination of Louis XIV's

France to extend itself than the
construction of the Canal du
Midi, a navigable inland waterway
that stretched between the
Mediterranean Sea and the
Atlantic Ocean. Its construction

| was necessary because it would

replace a perilous and indirect
sea passage with a simple canal

| route. The technical problems, no

less than the cost, were daunting.
The main problem was how to
ensure a sufficient supply of water
to the highest parts of the canal.

It was easily the most complex

: engineering problem undertaken

by any 17th-century European
state, calling for labor ona
massive scale, and used entirely
untried engineering solutions.

: When completed in 1681, the
: Canal du Midi stretched a distance
of 149 miles (240km).

The Pueblo of southwest North
America, so called by the
Spanish for their pueblos,
or villages, were famed
for their sophisticated
and elaborate pottery.
Itis characterized by
a light background on
which are painted stylized
animals and repeated
abstract patterns in ocher,
black, and gray coloring.

44 HE THAT DOES GOOD FOR GOOD’S
SAKE SEEKS NEITHER PARADISE
NOR REWARD, BUT HE IS SURE OF
BOTH IN THE END. 99

William Penn, English Quaker, establishing Philadelphia, 1682

Penn in America

This detail from a painting shows
English Quaker William Penn's
meeting with American Indians in
what is now the state of Delaware.

THE 1682 CORONATION OF
nine-year-old Peter the Great
(1672-1725) as czar of Russia
brought to a close this vast
nation’s vague, imperial influence
as a semipower on the margins of
Europe. Peter's childhood was
scarred by revolt, and it left him
determined to punish his internal
enemies and reshape Russia as
a western European power. Ina
life of compulsive energy, he built
a new capital, St. Petersburg,
and ruthlessly imposed himself
on his boyars (nobles). His version
of Versailles, recreated on the
edge of the Baltic, did not amount
to much more than a statement of
intent, but by the end of his reign
Russia was a massive power-in-
waiting, looming over Europe.

In 1682, nine years after Jolliet
and Marquette had ventured down
the Mississippi, confirming that
these territories contained neither
easily exploited wealthy natives
nor obvious sources of gold,
Robert de La Salle (1643-87),

a veteran of North American
exploration, determined to follow
the river to its mouth. With his
party of 19 American Indians, he
reached it on April 9, 1682, and
proclaimed the river and its
hinterlands a French possession,
Louisiana, named after the
French king. This formed the
basis of a French claim to a vast
swathe of North America. Yet a

follow-up expedition by sea in
1684 failed to find the river and
saw three of its four ships
wrecked. La Salle was murdered
by the remainder of his party.

In 1682, William Penn (1644—
1718), an English Quaker and
philosopher who had been
granted land in North America

Awe

: belonging to James, Duke

: of York, founded the settlement

: that would grow into the city of

: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

: Penn promised religious freedom
» and material wealth to all those

| Europeans who settled there.

French claims to

North America
_ Newfoundland : :
i " This map depicts the
‘York Fact tig we] vast areas of North
| sl ) . +
NORTH ED ‘ . America claimed by
AMERICA Ph = < Deion France, as wellas the
i LMontre areas under Spanish
_PAYSD'EN * -
LoxeH@UT and British control in
as New York
4 Michigan « FMP scans the late 17th century.
2? aa »
* = sf ATLANTIC
° &5— ie
h SEE MWererieston = OCFAN ey
_
© British control
= SAINT- and settlement
eee: © Spanish control

ate degesaite Domingo
YALTY OF NEW SPAIN

Caribbean

Sea

and settlement
) French control

and settlement

French influence

— approximate
western limit
of French claim

BAT

Empire's two-month siege of Vienna.

ON JULY 14, 1683, AN OTTOMAN
army besieged Vienna. As with
the previous Ottoman attempt on

The Battle of Kahlenberg saw a Polish-Imperial army lift the Ottoman

: League of the Holy Roman
: Empire, Poland, and Venice,
: formed in 1684 under papal

5,000
casualties

THE EDICT OF NANTES, AGREED by
Henry IV in 1598, was essential
to ending the French Wars of

This 19th-century illustration shows Friedrich Wilhelm |, elector of
Brandenburg, welcoming French Protestant Huguenots to Berlin in 1685.

: brutality—that it aroused not just
: the indignation of Protestant
| Europe but reinforced its alarmed

the city in 1529, this was adirect _: authority, driving them south 7 Religion. Of necessity, it was a : perception that Louis XIV's France
assault on the Christian West.In = across the Balkans. pS 50 compromise, and itsaw France's = had to be opposed at all costs.
the event, the siege failed justas it ! Taiwan’s Tunging kingdom, a 73 substantial Protestant Huguenot The consequence of Louis XIV's
had in 1529. But whereas 1529 : supporter of China's ousted Ming, : = £0 minority granted religious : obvious designs on Europe was
had been the climax ofa series of |: had supported military assaults 2 35 12,000 toleration in return for accepting; the establishment in 1686 of the
conquests that had seen the | against the Qing since 1661.By «9 casualties Henry as king. In October 1685, _ anti-French League of Augsburg,
Ottomans sweep across Hungary, i 1683, negotiations toward a :2 20 with the Edict of Fontainebleau, subsequently known as the Grand
the 1683 Ottoman assault wasa __ settlement had led nowhere and = Louis XIV revoked it. His decision : Alliance. The League was created
frantic final attempt to regain : so the Kangxi Emperor (1654- i 10 was entirely logical. There was : initially by the newly confident
former glories in the face of » 1722) launched the Qing’s military | practically no European state that © Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold |
internal weakness. Confronted : might, securing a huge navaland - 0 permitted religious toleration. i (1640-1705)—vanquisher of the
with renewed resistance, the : land victory over the Tunging at Qing Tunging Louis's absolutism clearly © Ottomans—and urged on by
siege was broken in September __ the Battle of Penghu, resulting in - demanded nothing less than an » William III of Orange (1650-1792),
© Battle of Penghu

at Kahlenberg by a combined
Imperial-Polish force led by the
Polish king, Jan III Sobieski. The
collapse of Ottoman rulein
Hungary followed, with a Holy

Thames Frost Fair, 1683-84

Frost fairs were a regular feature on
the Thames River, in London, during
the winters of the Little Ice Age, with
tents and coaches on the ice.

: their kingdom becoming part of
© the Qing empire.

: The climatic changes of the

| Maunder Minimum, which had

i begun in 1645 as a result of

: reduced sunspot activity, had by
: the 1680s initiated a particularly
© cold period of the Little Ice Age
: across the world, and global

: temperatures had fallen by

» several degrees. Amid its many

: So seriously did the Qing take the
: Tunging threat that it sent a huge
© land and naval force, including more
: than 200 ships, to guarantee victory.

| bitter winters, that of 1683-84

: was considered by many to be the
: worst. The Little Ice Age did not

| end until the 19th century.

Dissatisfied with the Treaty of

: the expense of the German states
= and the Spanish Netherlands

: with bids to occupy territory in

: Flanders and the Rhineland—the

» latter crucial in controlling trade

on the Rhine. Using bluster,

gained Alsace, Luxembourg, and
key forts in Flanders, consolidated
by the Treaty of Ratisbon in 1684
at the end of the brief War of the

: Reunions of 1683-84. Now at the
: peak of his power, Louis was

4 : determined to impose himself

on Europe, but succeeded only in
uniting Protestant and Catholic

: Europe alike against him.

officially sanctioned state

ead

THE N

: ruler of the Dutch Republic. In

R OF HUGUENOTS

IT WAS CLAIMED FLED FRANCE
AFTER LOUIS XIV ISSUED THE
EDICT OF FONTAINEBLEAU

religion, and that religion was
Roman Catholicism. In every
other respect, however, it was a
disaster for France. The huge
numbers of Huguenots who fled
the country were among the
most industrious in France, and
they were eagerly embraced by
those countries to which they
emigrated, chiefly England, the
Dutch Republic, and Prussia.
Simultaneously, so naked an act
of aggression was this against
France’s Protestants—the policy
was imposed with consistent

: time, every western European
: state bar Switzerland was ranged
: against France.

In 1685, the aging James I

i Charles | and younger brother of

: Charles II, brought a curious

: incompetence to a brief

: occupation of the English and

: Scottish thrones. Determined to
: reimpose Catholicism on a now
: Protestant, parliamentary nation,
© in less than three years he would
: overturn the delicately cynical

: political settlement of Charles Il.

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228

44 | HAVE CONQUERED
AN EMPIRE BUT | HAVE
NOT BEEN ABLE TO
CONQUER MYSELF. 99

Peter I (the Great), czar of Russia, reflecting on his rule, 1672-1725

ee
2 - es

This Dutch painting shows William III's fleet departing the Netherlands

for England at the start of the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

IN OCTOBER 1688, DESPITE ALACK :

of finances, Louis XIV's forces
devastated the Rhineland
Palatinate, in Germany, provoking

the Nine Years’ War. His goal was :

to force Leopold | to recognize
French rule over the frontier
territories previously annexed, as
well as create a devastated strip
of land that would be difficult for
armies to cross to attack France.
The next month, William III of
Orange landed in England with
an army of 15,000. These two
events provoked a kind of volcanic
eruption in European political
history. Whereas Louis's invasion,
almost immediately bogged down
in winter mud, eventually led to
an eclipse of French power in
the face of a Europe united in
opposition to him (see 1685-86],
within three months William III
had become not just the joint
monarch of England (with his
wife, Mary] but the leader of the
pan-European, anti-French
Protestant alliance. At stake
was a fundamental clash over
the nature of legitimate rule.

ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)

In 1687, the English physicist
Isaac Newton published the
universal law of gravitation,
one of the most remarkable

of all scientific discoveries.

It explained what holds the
universe together: that all
heavenly bodies exert a force
called gravitas, or weight.
Newton's work would dominate
science’s views on the physical
universe for almost 300 years.

If Louis XIV's apparently absolute
monarchy seemed the pattern by

: which modern princes could most

effectively exercise power, the
accession of William III to the
English and Scottish thrones
made plain a radical alternative:

arbiter of who should rule. No one

: had disputed the right of William's

ousted predecessor, James Il, to

: the English throne. His clumsily

active promotion of Catholicism,
however, was wholly at odds with
the strongly Protestant
sympathies of the ruling elite,
whose power was exercised
through Parliament. It was a
consortium of English magnates
of all parties who invited
William to take over the throne

Nine Years’ War coin

This German commemorative
coin—a form of propaganda—shows
the destruction of the Rhineland

Palatinate by French troops during
the Nine Years’ War.

of England in what was, legal
inventions aside, a direct
deposition of a reigning monarch.
The consequence, known as the
Glorious Revolution of 1688, was
a triumph of Parliamentary
authority, and England would be
immeasurably strengthened.
However, for Louis XIV the
result of the Nine Years’ War,
which would be mainly fought
around France's borders, but also
in Ireland, North America, and
India, would not be the one he had
intended. Although France had
fought well, it was crippled by
economic woes, and eventually
welcomed a settlement with the
Grand Alliance, which too was
financially exhausted. By 1697,
although Louis would retain
Alsace, he would have to return
the province of Lorraine and all
his gains on the east bank of the
Rhine, as well as accept William
as king of England anda string of
Dutch fortresses along his border
with the Spanish Netherlands.

WHEN CONFRONTED WITH THE
INVASION OF WILLIAM IIIIN 1688,
James II of England abandoned
an army he sent to confront
William and fled to Louis XIV’s
France. Charles || had been
happy to be financed by Louis XIV,
but he had disguised the fact.
James || now actively reveled in

French backing. In March 1689, he :

landed with a French-financed
army in Ireland, and attracting
substantial Catholic support
briefly threatened the new Dutch
Protestant settlement. However,
William's victory in 1690 at the
Battle of the Boyne saw James
back in France three days later.

echo when German Calvinist

: Jacob Leisler overthrew the

| royal governor in May 1689 in the
: name of William III. An English

: force arrived to compel Leisler to
i surrender in January 1691, and

| he was executed for treason.
Since 1682, a young Peter!

: (1672-1725) had ruled Russia
jointly with his disabled half-

* brother Ivan V, but the real power
: had been his sister and regent,

» Sophia. The power struggle came
i to a climax in 1689 when, gaining
| the support of the Streltsy royal

§ guardsmen, he overthrew Sophia,
© forcing her into a convent and

: leaving him and lvan as co-czars.

Henceforward, the Stuart Jacobite =
claim to its thrones in Britain [see
1715 and 1745) would complicate
French diplomacy, and seem
unlikely to change political reality.
In New York, the Glorious
Revolution produced a short-lived

: Jacob Leisler is shown swearing in
: volunteers to support his overthrow
: of the governor of New York. He

: captured Fort James, Manhattan,

} briefly renaming it Fort William.

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ES 2G)

1450-1749 | REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

THE RISE AND FALL OF THE

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

AN ENDURING POWER THAT DOMINATED IN EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST FOR NEARLY 500 YEARS

The long decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century disguised the
fact that for 450 years after its emergence in about 1300, it was not just one
of the most dynamic and sophisticated polities in the world, but also one of
the largest. It dwarfed its European and Middle Eastern rivals.

At its height, toward the end of the 17th century, Caldiran and much of the Middle East and North

the Ottoman Empire stretched from the gates of Africa was conquered. Suleiman the Magnificent

Vienna to the Indian Ocean, and from the Crimea (r. 1520-66) expanded Ottoman territories deep

to Algiers. Though the Mongol leader Timur had into Hungary and almost as far as the Atlantic.

checked Ottoman ambitions in the early 15th Faced with such potency, the Christian West could

century, once Murad | took the throne in 1413, the do little. Enormously rich, technologically advanced,

expansion program was vigorously renewed. His and buoyed by its leadership of the Muslim world,

son, Mehmed II (r. 1451-81], extended Ottoman Ottoman power seemed irresistible. The empire's MOROCCO
rule across the Balkans and seized Constantinople decline after the failure of the siege of Vienna in

(Istanbul) in a blaze of conquest. Under Selim | 1683 was the result less of internal weakness than

(r. 1512-20), the Safavids were contained at of the growing strength of its European opponents.

FORMIDABLE OPPONENTS —= Size of the
The Ottoman state began as a small frontier principality : Ottoman Empire

preying on Christian Byzantium. Under a succession of By the turn of the ‘16th-century Empire
f i Hi ‘ \ 20th century, the At its peak, the Ottoman Empire
14th-century warrior-sultans, a series of rapid conquests Ottoman Empire had was not just a land power—its

were launched, notably at Kosovo in 1389, when a combined shrunk to a third of navy dominated the eastern

Christian—Balkan force was defeated. Bayezid | (r. 1389-1402] ‘ 0.7 the size it been three Mediterranean and the maritime
centuries earlier. routes with the Indian Ocean. It

exploited this victory by annexing Bulgaria and invading ren Modern Turkey is a challenged not merely European
Hungary. Ottoman success was based on a highly trained SQMILES fraction of that. but its Middle Eastern rivals, too:

army. The most feared troops, the janissaries, were recruited Mamluk Egypt, conquered in

1517, and Safavid Pe F
from the conquered peoples of the Balkans, converted to 301,384 sq miles Sich ena 2h

Islam. In addition, Ottoman artillery in the 15th and 16th KEY sophisticated state.
@ 1683 ©) 1916 @ Modern Turkey

centuries was among the most destructive in the world.

HOLY Population of the
ROMAN Ottoman Empire
EMPIRE HUNGARY 4 Although the

" population did not
reach its peak until
the first half of the
19th century, by then
the empire was
clearly in decline as
a politicaland
military force.

Black Sea

Arabian
AFRICA Peninsula

1481 From a small nucleus c. 1300, the = 7
Ottomans went on to conquer a vast area, eas 15 20 25 30
covering much of Anatolia and the area Empire at 1300 POPULATION (MILLIONS)
around the Black Sea by 1481. Empire at 1481

RUSSIAN

EMPIRE
POLAND- ; KHANATE OF
LITHUANIA ®Kiev THE CRIMEA
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE JEDISAN Astrakhan @
Esztergom Khotin
Vienna@ (Gran) bd
MOLDAVIA
Koszeg(Giins) Buda "Ray, ah ° ®Bender
HUNGARY Sy, |
FRANCE VENETIAN REPUBLIC 2 Mohacs NIA Kata Caucasus
Szigétvar (Kefe)
e WALLACHIA ,
Bélgrade Black Sea GEORGIAN a:

STATES

Adrianople Trebizond ~A_ ®Kars ™™

6 Pee) (Edirne) Nakhichevan
: REPUBLIC es eg a
; Corsi OF RAGUSA =~ : = eS e Baru < Tabriz
a “Constantinople Caldiran y ®Tehran
Sardinia os
@H. d
ANATOLIA Marj Baie amadan
, YAEEDE Isfahan ®
SYRIA 2
‘WK Algiers i ‘ Sp, mouse
ALGIERS aes RA, = Damascus Za yy
Crete Tripoli ‘1
TUNIS # Jerusalem
TRIPOLI
aS Arabian
vente Peninsula
44 THEPRESENT =~ :
KEY

TERROR OF THE
WORLD. 99

Attributed to a European ambassador c. 1600

Ottoman Empire and vassals 1512
Conquests of Selim | 1512-20
Conquests of Suleiman | 1520-66
Ottoman conquests 1566-1639

Major Ottoman campaigns

® Mecca

EUROPE EUROPE

AUSTRO-
HUNGARIAN

EMPIRE

Black Sea Black Sea

PERSIA 3 PERSIA
, SYRIA
IRAQ

NEJD

\\_TRANSJORDAN

Arabian
Peninsula

Turkey 1923
French mandate

AFRICA

British mandate

1913 Ottoman power had dwindled. Greece, Serbia, Romania,
and Montenegro were now independent, and other European
powers had taken over North Africa and the Black Sea

1923 The Ottomans’ remaining Arab territories were divided
between Britain and France. Turkey was reduced to its Anatolian
heartlands, sparking nationalist conflict with Greece and Armenia

Fort William, shown here in the 1700s, was built after the English East India

Company moved its main Bengal trading station to Calcutta in 1690.

THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA
COMPANY had been a presence
in Bengal since the early 17th
century. Seeking greater
security for their trade, a new
base, Fort William, named after
William Ill, was established in
1690 in what is now Calcutta. The
fort, continually enlarged and
improved, would be critical to the
later British dominance in India.

In 1690, English philosopher
John Locke (1632-1704) wrote
An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding. It marked Locke
as a key thinker in the Western
philosophical tradition, above all
for his assertion that knowledge
of the world came through

experience of it, and that the basis =
: ensured his influence in debates

- about liberty and reason in

: 18th-century France and America.

of this understanding was
reasoned, empirical (based on
observation) thought. Reinforcing
many of his established ideas
about property rights, religious

Orange Jacobite

forces of forces of

William II! James |
35,000
TROOPS

‘

4 \
© orange Jacobite 4 500
300 casualties casualties 4

Battle of the Boyne, Ireland

The Orange army of William III
inflicted a decisive defeat on the
Jacobites of James Il, giving the lie
to William's “bloodless revolution.”

: Philosopher John Locke
: John Locke contended that there is

: a contract between monarch and
= people under which the monarch
: can be overthrown if he abuses it.

toleration, and monarchy, it also

The turnip, a basic root crop of
the agricultural revolution of the

17th century, was first cultivated
: in England in about 1690. The

: Dutch, to make best use of their.

» limited lands, had already

» discovered that crop rotation

{arable crops alternated with root

» crops rather than leaving fields

i fallow] not only improved fertility

: but provided food for sheep whose
: manure furthered productivity.

On July 12, 1690, William III's
victory over the deposed Catholic

_ James || at the Battle of the

Boyne, in Ireland, was decisive

: in maintaining the Protestant

i supremacy that had been

: established there by the Glorious
: Revolution of 1688. In Ireland,

_ brutal sectarian violence would
: continue for centuries.

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ry ~ e?
SNe, & ot™ os
aot gor soon Sse soon RY
ask 36 "305 oe eh ai i
ery aX re =a Oe ae ees <h et sn
preg we a ? EY ah geht
We GE LogMos™ wh arGa® 0% yo
OO ac Pro’ prea
S ys < uy
“ a e oo!
Wo Rs se gt si
Seo & gee so orod oe
EX eh wre Ree wo oh
oO we ow ys oF Goh Fy
oe wie (oe
ae es so oo’
Oro
om

232

be
This woodcut, taken from the title page of a pamphlet, shows the devastation
of Port Royal, Jamaica, by both an earthquake and a tsunami in June 1692.

44 THE EUROPEANS ARE VERY

QUIET; THEY DO NOT EXCITE ANY
DISTURBANCES... THEY DO NO HARM TO
ANYONE, THEY COMMIT NO CRIMES... 99

Kangxi, Chinese Oing emperor, announces the Edict of Toleration, 1692

Jesuit missionaries had been in
: East Asia since the 16th century.
: In contrast to Japan (see 1577-
_ 99), in China they were valued by

ALTHOUGH THE NINE YEARS’ WAR
had quickly settled in 1688 into a

stalemate on land that would last
to 1697, at sea the Grand Alliance

hysteria. On June 10, an elderly
widow, Bridget Bishop, was

:» hanged as a witch, and by
September a further 18 people

enjoyed a clear superiority over
France. The six-day Battle of La
Hogue from May to June 1692
saw much of the French fleet
either beached or destroyed by
fireships. It ended hopes of a

had been executed on the same
charge, and one man crushed to
death. Trials for witchcraft were
no longer common in England by

: this time, and the mass hysteria

| a succession of emperors, not
least for their knowledge of

» western science. They made many
© converts, and in 1692 the Kangxi

: Emperor issued an edict of

of Salem remains hard to explain.
French invasion of England. i

At 11:43am on June 7, 1692, a
catastrophic earthquake struck
Port Royal, capital of the English
colony of Jamaica, and one of
the most important ports in the
Caribbean, as well as a legendary
base for pirates. Most of the city
sank beneath the sea. With
the subsequent tsunami and
outbreaks of disease, the death
toll was about 5,000.

In Salem, Massachusetts, in late :
1691, young girls started having
fits and hallucinations, citing
demonic possession. This led to
claims of witchcraft, which by
1692 had reached the point of

Salem Witch Trial

The trial of George Jacobs was one
of many in a Puritan community
riven by petty jealousies, where none
disputed the existence of Satan.

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a e
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yo oe Oconee Oo BN oh eet
Og oS ao: Pee wee ah? 8 oe"
erat ro wer oF oe Cone anes ON a ge oe
gi 8 aR O° 2 Ce go ag C
a oe Ss ar Re ONG se" eS s ee
WP Po ~ ya Sores Pea ced” yr or?
eae ¢ Pes Ye cS Rt ” Wes ors
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wre BF ow Qi ST Soh
PP MOF aaa, er ar at rir ee:
gS BP 3% hn ok oe ne FA VS oS
VBA HN co WO go et oh or oF yh gh
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oF oo KS oF Wore Bo I Oe oe yak HO cP 8
BT ga ack oO Om Were” oe, Ber ere 99
{oe poor RS
Wn? ON og’ ae ~
asi oes Fe

The summit vent of Mount Etna, an active volcano on the east coast of Sicily,
in Italy, has witnessed many destructive eruptions, not least in 1693.

where a French garrison is besieged. The siege lasted two months.

IF SOUTHERN EUROPE
had been spared the
worst of the Little Ice
Age (see 1683-84), the
eruption on January 11,
1693 of Mount Etna, in
Sicily, proved a cruel
reminder of the power
of nature. The eruption
set off an earthquake
that devastated Sicily
and large areas of
southern Italy and
Malta. About 60,000
were killed in Sicily
alone, and thousands of square
miles became uninhabitable due
to lava flows and tsunamis.

For several years after the
summer of 1693, a series of
famines swept western Europe.
In France alone, about two million
died. These were among the most
calamitous consequences of the
Little Ice Age, with bitter winters
giving way to dismal, rain-soaked
summers, and stunted crops
rotting in sodden fields. Even in
years of relative plenty, the vast
majority of Europe’s peasants,
themselves the overwhelming
majority of the continent's
population, had a subsistence
existence at best, with root
vegetables, bread, and oatmeal
as their staple diet. When the
crops failed, they starved. In
the face of these near Biblical
visitations of mass misery, there
seemed to be no answer. Almost
entirely dependent on the food
surpluses generated by its heavily
taxed peasant population, even
as obviously powerful a state as

Dodo
The dodo stood about 3ft 3in (1m) in
: height and weighed about 44 lb
© (20kg). It had a long, hooked bill,
: grayish or brownish plumage ona
i fat body, and very small wings.

» little more than suffer and accept

its unavoidable fate.
In 1598, on the isolated island

: of Mauritius, in the Indian Ocean,
© the Dutch admiral Wybrand van
| Warwijck described a bird he

called a “walghvogel.” Later

: Dutch settlers there called it a

: “dodaars,” which was a reference
: to what they saw as the knot of

: “doudo,” meaning “fool” or

: “crazy.” By perhaps 1693, the

: dodo, a flightless bird that was

» related to the pigeon, had become
: extinct. The dodo is the first

» specifically ascribed to man; it

was a victim of its trusting nature,

: the destruction of its woodland

habitats, and the introduction of

"cats, rats, pigs, and dogs that
late-17th-century France could do

hunted it to its extinction.

IN JULY 1694, ENGLAND FOUND A
NOVEL SOLUTION to the problem

the combatants of the Nine Years’
War. The Bank of England served
both Crown and government, and
was closely modeled on the Bank
of Amsterdam, founded in 1609.
A private venture (until 1931),
it immediately loaned the
government £1.2 million—raised
by its investors in 12 days—at an
annual interest rate of 8 percent
and for an annual service charge
of £4,000, in return for the right to
print bank notes. It also created a
National Debt, but at the same
time allowed England not merely
to finance its own part in the war
but to finance its allies. The bank
was possibly the most significant
factor in Britain's subsequent
emergence on the world stage.
European colonialism in the
17th and 18th centuries had the
simple goal of money. In the New

World, the Spanish had conquered :

two rich civilizations and found a
vast silver mine. The Portuguese
in Brazil had found only native
peoples and tropical jungles;
sugarcane plantations worked by
slave labor were the source of its
marginal profits. Then, in Minas
Gerais, in the southeast, gold
was found in 1695. It transformed
colonial Brazil, as did the later
discovery of diamonds in the
same region. Vast, lawless towns
appeared, chiefly Ouro Preto

: (“Black Gold”} and Diamantia, and :
: the region's population exploded, ;
of a lack of funds that had plagued |

from scattered handfuls to

i the sugarcane industry, stripped
: of most of its workforce.

| One of the few moments of

i significance in the Nine Years’ War :

: took place in September 1695,
: when the Grand Alliance retook
© the city of Namur after three

: years in French hands. The loss of :

: the most important fortress in the

: Netherlands further weakenedan =

: already defensive French position. i Battle of Azov

In this painting by Robert Kerr
: Porter, Peter the Great is seen

In 1696, China began an
: eastward expansion that by the
: end of the 18th century would see
: it almost double in size. It was
| provoked by the invasion of
© Khalkha (Outer Mongolia) by
» the nomadic Zunghar people of
: Central Asia in 1690, who were
© anxious to forestall a possible
: Chinese takeover of the region.

: a confused series of campaigns

: under the Zunghar ruler, Galdan,

: as wellasa civil war. In 1696, the
» Kangxi Emperor led a Khalkha-

: Chinese army across the Gobi

: Desert into Mongolia and crushed
: the Zunghar. Outer Mongolia was

: Russia fought two campaigns in
© 1695-96 to capture the Ottoman-
: held fortress port of Azov. The

: port was key to Russia because it

personally leading his galley fleet

: during the capture of Azov in 1696.

: blocked access to the Black Sea, a
© factor that had contributed to the
: failure of its Crimean campaigns
: against the Ottomans in 1687-89.
: Finally, Peter | (the Great), the sole
The invasion failed, sparking only :

czar of Russia since the death of
his disabled half-brother, lvan,

: attacked Azov with a combined

» land and naval force, capturing
© the city in July 1696. A lesson

» learned was that Russia needed
i a navy, and it embarked ona

| massive shipbuilding program.
_ incorporated within the Chinese ~

" Caucasian pistol
: This ornately fashioned pistol with
: a long barrel and a short, gently

curved handle was typical of
the weaponry employed
in the Azov campaigns.

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e. ) Os ed
oye coe oo aot oe
test Foe oh Cs
Roan Ragin oF 0 ox
ho oe oct gy as
ho wre! cA ss
és Cars < oo
oe eo”
fe as ie
AS o se 2
ae 3 3 oe
oe = oe i. Cg mo a 5
rw oe RS ont 3 SO Rs
G
Se Ry an) gt ww perce we
Ses" z ae 2 oo" awe
“ SF ot

233

44 THE GREATEST COMFORTS AND
LASTING PEACE ARE OBTAINED,
WHEN ONE ERADICATES SELFISHNESS
FROM WITHIN. 99

Guru Gobind Singh, 10th Sikh Master, 1697

An engraving depicting 16-year-old Philip, duke of Anjou, being recognized
as Philip V, king of Spain, on October 2, 1700.

THE NINE YEARS’ WAR THAT HAD
SEEN FRANCE TAKE ON the Grand
Alliance of England, the Holy
Roman Empire, Spain, and the
Dutch Republic was ended by the
Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. It
established that all territory taken
since 1679 was to be returned.
The Ottoman defeat at the Siege
of Vienna in 1683 marked not
just the beginning of a protracted
Ottoman decline, but the
emergence of Habsburg Austria
as a European power to challenge
France, England, and the Dutch
Republic. After 1683, Austrian
Imperial armies pursued the
retreating Ottomans south across
the Balkans, a process that
climaxed at the Battle of Zenta,
in Serbia in September 1697.
Under the Italo-French general

Eugene of Savoy [1663-1736], who :

MUGHAL EMPIRE

The crushing of a Sikh revolt
in the Punjab in 1699 saw the
Mughal Empire at its zenith.
From its Afghan heartlands,
it had grown under Akbar,
taking all but the tip of India’s
subcontinent by the end of
the 17th century. The harsh
rule of Aurangzeb saw many
revolts, and the later rise of
the Marathas [see 1720] left
the Mughals as puppets.

KEY

Akbar’s domains, 1556
Additional areas held by
Mughals at Akbar’s death, 1605

Additional areas acquired up to
the death of Aurangzeb, 1707

) Treaty of Ryswick
| The treaty was

| Nieuwburg, the
: William of Orange,

: in Ryswick, in the
: Dutch Republic.

signed at the
palace of Huis ter

country house of

was rapidly emerging as one

: of the foremost commanders

: in Europe, an Imperial army

' surprised the Ottomans as they

: attempted to cross the Tisa River.
: The Ottomans were massacred:

about 10,000 drowned, and a

: further 20,000 were killed in

battle. The Treaty of Karlowitz
in 1699 confirmed the Austrian

INDIAN
OCEAN

: gains, including the gradual

: absorption of Hungary by the

» Austrian crown.

2 In July 1698, English military

: engineer Thomas Savery

» (1650-1715) registered a patent

» for “a new invention for raiseing

_ advantage for drayning mines.”

: existed since the 1st century CE,

: but none of these had ever been

i basic, prone to violent explosions,
and unable to pump water more

» than 33ft (10m) below it, meaning
: that in mines it had to be installed,
: dangerously, underground. It

i was only in 1721 when Thomas

» Newcomen (1664-1729), working
: with Savery, produced his

| atmospheric engine, that a viable
= commercial use was found. Yet,

| the real potential of steam as an

H engine of industrialization would
© not be realized until the invention
© by the Scot, James Watt (1736-

: condenser, and then only with the
| backing of English businessman

: Matthew Boulton [see pp.274-75).

THE DEATH IN 1700 OF CHARLES Il, :
the childless king of Spain, caused :
£ following July, he inflicted a

: similarly crushing defeat ona

» combined Polish-Saxon force at
: Klissow in Poland. With Sweden
that French power would preserve :
: bold campaigning, whatever the
i odds against him, had apparently

a major crisis when he nominated
Philip of Anjou [1683-1746], the
grandson of Louis XIV of France,
as his successor. Charles hoped

the Spanish Empire if ruled by a
Bourbon. Louis accepted the vast
increase in family prestige and
French influence, but opposition
to the succession and its increase
in French power grew hugely.
The accession in 1697 of the
15-year-old Charles XII
(1682-1718) to the throne
of Sweden was the signal
for Sweden's Baltic
rivals, Denmark, Saxony,
Poland, and, increasingly,
Russia, to attempt to end
Swedish pre-eminence. In fact,
in the conflict that followed,
the Great Northern War
of 1700-21, Charles,
“the Swedish Meteor,”
would prove himself
a general of genius.
In the four months
from August 1700,
he successively
defeated the Danes
and then, over on
the other side of the
Baltic, at Narva,

Stradivarius violin
The Stradivarius
violin, made by
Italian Antonio
Stradivari, entered
a golden age in
1700. These violins
were larger than
earlier models.

annihilated a Russian army four

times the size of his own. The

never more dominant, Charles's

been wholly vindicated.
From about 1700, a major

: development in European

culture began to take shape: a
musical tradition, part courtly,
part church-based, known
as the High Baroque.
It evolved from later
Renaissance music, above
alin Italy, but developed to
reach a new level of polyphonic
tonal and instrumental
complexity. It was
characterized by both new
and more elaborated musical
forms: the concerto, fugue,
oratorio, prelude,
cantata, and opera. It
was made possible
by new forms
of existing
instruments: the
organ, harpsichord,
and, above all, violin.
It depended also on
composers of genius,
such as Johann
Sebastian Bach
(1685-1750) and
George Handel
(1685-1759),
and on amore
extensive world
of courtly and
private patronage
of them.

Jethro Tull’s seed drill is shown here being operated manually. It sowed seeds
in rows, performing work that previously required several laborers.

A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE
BEGAN IN 1701 when English
agriculturalist Jethro Tull
(1674-1741) created the horse-
drawn seed drill [see pp.250-51).
A major time- and labor-saving
device, it sowed great numbers of
seeds in neat rows. Although not
taken up at once, it later proved
popular with large landowners
and would lay the basis of modern
productive agriculture.

No sooner had the Nine Years’
War ended than Europe's powers
found themselves in another
lengthy and costly war. The
surprise choice of Philip, duke of
Anjou, as King Philip V of Spain
(see 1700), greatly disturbed the
European balance of power,
and Louis XIV did nothing to
discourage fears of a Franco—
Spanish military alliance. He took
over military duties in Philip's
lands, moving troops into the
Spanish Netherlands to defend
them from the English and the
Dutch. With renewed confidence
in France's European status, Louis
then recognized James Ill, son of
the exiled James Il (1633-1701),
as king of England. With England
and the Dutch Republic backing
Austria’s claims to the Spanish
throne—in the form of their
candidate, Archduke Charles of
Austria—armed opposition to
France was now guaranteed. The
War of the Spanish Succession
that began in 1701 saw a Grand
Alliance oppose the unification of
the French and Spanish thrones.
It would last until 1713-14 and
redraw the map of the continent
and the world.

nS
ANGLO-DUTCH FRANCO-SPANISH
FORCES FORCES

Battle of Vigo Bay, October 1702
In an early encounter in the War of
the Spanish Succession, 25 ships
of an Anglo-Dutch fleet defeated a
Franco-Spanish fleet at Vigo Bay.

Freelance Samurai warriors
known as ronin emerged from
the Japanese civil wars of the
14th and 15th centuries. In 1651,
they engaged in rebellion and
continued to instigate dissent
into the 18th century. In 1701, a
respected lord, Asano Nugatory,
was forced to commit suicide after
assaulting an official who had
insulted him. In revenge, 47 of
his samurai became ronin and
murdered the official, an act
normally punished by execution.
But because Confucianism taught
that it is honorable to avenge a
lord's death, they were allowed to
commit suicide in turn.

The kingdom of Prussia—later
the forerunner of the German
state—was proclaimed in 1701
when Frederick |, duke of Prussia
and elector of Brandenburg, was
crowned the first “king in
Prussia,” in Konigsberg Castle.

Revenge of the 47 ronin

This color woodcut is one of a series
an the 47 ronin uprising, the most
famous incident of the samurai code
of honor, bushido.

eam
f 45, 6

» SN se

oF 9 he so
a ne dh o® Xoo

st oS Kor ae” ve

=a ge as SY es ote
tie eS rs
wrod ye So
x oo

- $ 3
3" > 0 ae :
Soe op. VS oe?
won Or we oF 3 pr 39 re
ios Ros Ry e* ee Ao aoe 9 rs Ry Cn
Fe ee? oe A®? 3? 08 poco nt RCs cy
SOP woh ye Qe As Qo” of Sa AOE SC)
OF ot en gh se on OO yuo
CoS ws 3 Sm
SS) ee w RET RE
(vs

235

This modern photograph shows Halley's Comet, named after the British astronomer Edmond
Halley, who was the first to determine that the comet returned periodically, every 76 years.

THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM,
fought in 1704 near the village
of Blindheim on the Danube
in Bavaria, Germany, ended
in victory for the Duke of
Marlborough and the Grand
Alliance [see 1701), and turned
the War of the Spanish
Succession in favor of the Grand
Alliance. The battle halted a
Franco-Bavarian march on
Vienna, and Bavaria played no
further part in the war.
Meanwhile, the Gibraltar
peninsula on the Spanish
mainland was seized by a
combined Dutch-English force
in 1704; Gibraltar was ceded
perpetually to Britain in 1713.

Victor of Blenheim

The Duke of Marlborough [in red]
sits astride his horse in this tapestry,
now hanging in his eventual home,
Blenheim Palace, England.

236

THE NUMBER

OF POCUMTUCKS
AMONG THE
RAIDERS AT
DEERFIELD

In Tunisia to the southeast, the
Husaynid dynasty was established
in 1705 when Al-Husayn ibn ‘Ali
(1669-1740) was recognized by
the Ottoman sultan as governor
of the province. The Husaynid
dynasty lasted until Tunisia gained
independence in 1957.

In North America, Deerfield,
Massachusetts, was the scene
in 1704 of a massacre of English
colonists by a combined force

News from home

: Published weekly, The Boston
News-Letter provided English

: colonists in America with news of
England's political events and wars.

of French-Canadians and

: American Indians. Also in 1704,

The Boston News-Letter, North
America’s first continuously
published newspaper, appeared,

: largely funded by the British

government.
In 1706, the most decisive
event in the War of the Spanish

Succession occurred in North Italy,

where the Duke of Savoy, allied

: with Austria and Britain, was

defending his territory against
French invasion and siege of the
capital, Turin. The French were
crushed when the Duke of Savoy
and Prince Eugene broke through

: French lines and routed the army,

driving them out of North Italy.

Also in 1706, Spanish
conquistador Juan de Uribarri
claimed southeastern Colorado,
an area populated by warring
American Indian tribes, and joined
it to Spanish New Mexico.

In England, the first steam
engine using moving parts was
built in 1704 by Thomas
Newcomen (1663-1729) and
Thomas Savery (see 1698]. The
first working Newcomen engine
was installed to pump water from
amine in Staffordshire in 1712.

Edmond Halley (1656-1742),
English mathematician and
astronomer, published A Synopsis
of the Astronomy of Comets in
1705, in which he described the
parabolic orbits of 24 comets. He
proved that three sightings, many
decades apart, were of a single
comet—the comet that is now
known as Halley's Comet—and
determined that this comet returns
to the solar system every 76 years.

my 20,000

casualties
56 |

12,000
casualties

TROOPS (IN THOUSANDS)

France

Allies

Battle of Blenheim losses

About 112,000 troops took part in
the Battle of Blenheim, with 20,000
French casualties but almost half
as many from Britain and its allies.

emperor Aurangzeb hunting nilgai.

THE DEATH IN 1707 OF
AURANGZEB, sixth Mughal
emperor of India (b. 1618),
marked the start of the decline of
the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb's
successors squandered the
dynasty’s fortunes while losing
control of regional governors,
who went on to built their own
empires. Aurangzeb, disturbed by
the growing power of the Sikh
Guru Gobind Singh, had

a b
GURU GOBIND SINGH
(1666-1708)

The tenth and last guru

of Sikhism, Gobind Singh
was a powerful figure in
Indian history. In 1699 he
transformed Sikhism by
creating the Khalsa (Pure),

a community of the faith that
trained as warriors; now the
Khalsa embraces all Sikhs.
Aurangzeb considered
coming to terms with Gobind
Singh, but the rajas of the
Sivalik Hills remained
hostile, and Gobind Singh
was assassinated in 1708.

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RK
tas RY ees
oO <s Or WF ig
HS Poe _ yahoo
We HOE A we Maas
Fe so 8
pecan he
i :
v7
Cae
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WF SO eo?
Feo
seg

“ ASERANpR Repeat BfASPeD EE”
r ea

In a detail of a painting by Ignace Jacques Parrocel, Prince Eugene of Savoy's
troops are shown confronting the French at the Battle of Malplaquet.

YEARS OF WAR

Aurangzeb's reign

Emperor Aurangzeb reigned for 48
years, from 1658 until his death in
1707, but for 27 of those years he
was at war with the Marathas.

summoned him, but died before
they could meet. Gobind Singh
became friends with the new
emperor, Bahadur Shah (r. 1707-
12), but was assassinated in 1708
on the orders of a rival leader,

: Nawab Wazir Khan.

Far from India, the kingdom

of England and the kingdom of
Scotland were formally unified as

: Great Britain by the Acts of Union
of 1707. Henceforth, both were
ruled by a single monarch and by
a parliament based in London.

Britain, still embroiled in the

War of the Spanish Succession,
joined Dutch forces to seize
Minorca and Sicily from France in
1708; both were used as military
bases. Also in 1708, British
settlers lost control of the
Canadian east coast after a defeat
by the French at St. John’s,

: Newfoundland.

THE BATTLE OF MALPLAQUET in
1709 was the bloodiest of the War
of the Spanish Succession (see
1701) and, indeed, the entire 18th
century. Grand Alliance forces
under the Duke of Marlborough
attacked the French at
Malplaquet, France, southwest of
the French-held fortress of Mons,
which lay over the present-day
Belgian border. In gaining
possession of the battlefield, the
Allies suffered more than 21,000
casualties, twice as many as the
French, but the French retreated
in good order and remained a
future threat.

Meanwhile, in the Great
Northern War (1700-21) between
Russia and its western neighbors
(see 1700), Charles XII of Sweden
had been leading forces ina
march on Russia. The Swedish
army of 17,000 men attacked the
fort of Poltava in the Ukraine in

17,000
SWEDISH
FORCES

10,000

Paha

forces killed

Swedish forces
killed/captured

Forces in the Battle of Poltava

In the Battle of Poltava, 60 percent of
the Swedish troops were killed or
captured, while less than 2 percent
of the Russian troops were killed.

July 1709. The Swedes were faced
by Peter the Great's army of
80,000, which eventually ran them
from the battlefield. Charles,
exiled in Moldavia, persuaded the
Ottoman Empire to go to war
with Russia in 1710, but Peter the
Great (1672-1725) accepted terms
in 1711.

In 1709, the Persian Safavid
rulers of southwestern
Afghanistan were overwhelmed
by an uprising organized by
Mirwais Khan Hotak (1673-
1715), a tribal chief of the Ghilzai
Pashtuns and founder of the
Hotaki dynasty (which lasted from
1709 to 1738). Furious at Safavid
cruelty and attempts to force
them to convert from Sunni
to Shia Islam, the Afghans
assassinated their Safavid
governor, Gurgin Khan, and
massacred many Persians.

In Britain, revolution of an
industrial kind was in the making.
In 1709, Abraham Darby
(1678-1717), a Quaker ironmaster
who was smelting iron using
charcoal, was the first to produce
high-quality pig iron using coke.
His new process freed iron
smelting from its dependence
on wood supplies, and coke—
processed from coal—was much
more plentiful. In 1710, it was
Germany's turn to transform
an industry. In that year, the
Meissen factory, near Dresden,
produced the first successful
European porcelain.

North of Germany, Denmark
was taking an interest in the Great
Northern War between Sweden
and Russia. Denmark had lost the

“
We dee
pF oF gen
Po gai?
We RP ne” cS
oe PF Wo™ gv xs
OS oo 8 O
Peco a! i
eS is
E>

provinces of Scania, Halland, and
Blekinge to Sweden in 1700 but
still had hopes of seizing them
back. Assuming Sweden to be
weakened by the Battle of Poltava,
Denmark found pretexts to
declare war on October 18, 1709.
In November, a large Danish
invasion force landed in Sweden
virtually unopposed. However,
by February 1710, Sweden had
managed to amass 16,000
men, and this force
defeated the Danes
in the Battle of
Helsingborg.
Denmark lost 7,500 }
men in the battle

and thereafter A
abandoned hope of
regaining its former
possessions.

In 1710, French
settlers of the
Canadian east coast
region of Arcadia
(now Nova Scotia}
endured a third, and
this time successful,
British attempt to seize
Port Royal. The victory
secured Britain their
first French colonial
possession and helped to
obstruct French colonization
of Canada for years to come.

German chinoiserie
This 18th-century Meissen porcelain
vase has moldings picked out in
gold leaf. Its form and decorative
motifs were inspired by imported
Chinese porcelain.

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ee Oy
oe eo oe Ae
eh ov Pro”
AW oo cyt Rite. 32
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OCS NG a
of 1X x0? Ci
SR BF Fo
sc NS on
¢ Oa
s
s RY
te ew 3
ai O80 Oe
AVY 6 oct 2
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Pr nv O® go 9% ro
‘a xe ew oe OF B® 2
se oh? ad Cor °
BP cP Go"
e

23,

1450-1749

REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

Perhaps the most surprising fact in the history of navigation is that, until the

18th century, it was impossible for explorers and mariners to determine

their position accurately. Today, thanks to developments in navigational
technology, it is possible to pinpoint locations to within a few meters.

The earliest sailors had no means of accurate
navigation other than by sight, relying on
landmarks along coastlines, judging distances and
directions from the positions of the Sun, Moon,
and stars, and using simple sounding devices, such
as weighted lines, to
keep ships from running
aground. The invention
of instruments such as
the magnetic compass,
astrolabe, and sextant

John Harrison

English clackmaker John
Harrison was the first to
make accurate timepieces
that enabled longitude to be
calculated with precision.

enabled direction and latitude to be gauged
reasonably accurately (by measuring the angle

of the Sun or a star above the horizon) but the
problem remained of how to determine longitude.

ACCURATE NAVIGATION

Calculating longitude depends on comparing local
time with “universal” time (the time at an agreed
location, which is now Greenwich, England). Each
hour's difference equates to 15 degrees’ difference in
longitude. Calculating longitude therefore relies on
accurate timepieces, which did not exist until John
Harrison developed his chronometer in the 18th
century. The next major advances in navigation did
not come until the 20th century, with the advent of
the gyroscopic compass, radar, and, from the 1990s,
of the global positioning system (GPS).

464 ONE OF THE MOST EXQUISITE
MOVEMENTS EVER MADE. jy

William Hogarth, English artist, on Harrison's H1 chronometer, from Analysis of Beauty, 1753

3000-1500 BCE
Early sounding
Ancient Egyptians y
use sounding reeds to i

measure water depth

and gauge their position

from coastal landmarks. 12th-dynasty sailing boat

c. 150
Ptolemy's maps

A Roman based in Egypt,
Ptolemy creates maps
using a grid system that
influenced navigational
maps until the 17th century.

Ptolemy's map

11th century
Dead reckoning
Sand clocks are
used for dead
reckoning:
measuring the
time traveled and
speed to estimate
a vessel's position.

c. 1100
The compass

Chinese sailors are the
first to use a magnetic
compass [which uses a
magnetized needle to
show the direction of
north and south)

for navigation.

H1 chronometer

LATITUDE

Latitude lines (parallels) run
horizontally on a map and are
measured in degrees north
or south of the equator.

Each degree is about

69 miles (111 km] apart.

LONGITUDE

Longitude lines (meridians)
run vertically on a map and are
measured in degrees east or
west of Greenwich, England.
They meet at the poles and are
farthest apart at the equator.

1300-1500
Navigational charts
Portolan charts of the
Mediterranean and
European coastlines
allow sailors to
navigate from port

to port using compass
bearings.

iner’s
compass

winding handle

Portolan
chart

c. 1480
The astrolabe
Sailors start to

use astrolabes

to estimate latitude
by measuring the
angle of the Sun
ora particular star
above the horizon.

Mariner's
astrolabe

seconds hand — =

Harrison's H1 chronometer

John Harrison's first “sea clock" was the
H1, which he made to solve the longitude
problem—how to measure time accurately
enough at sea to calculate longitude.
However, the H1 was impractically

large, a problem Harrison solved in

1759 with his H4 chronometer.

minute hand

1735-59 calendar hand, ve
The chronometer indicating date
John Harrison makes the first marine Dfthe mone
chronometer (the H1) in 1735. He

then makes improved versions,

culminating in the H4 in 1759.

1907 1930s-40s Late 20th century
Gyroscopic compass Radar Global positioning
American Elmer Sperry The invention of radar systems

The introduction of
satellite-based GPS
makes it possible

to pinpoint locations
and navigate to within

invents the gyroscopic
compass, a major advance
for accurate navigation
because it always points
to true north and is not
subject to deviation. Ship's compass Radarscope a few yards.

makes it possible to
determine an object's
position even when it
cannot be seen

GPS chart plotter

230

44 RIGHT IS RIGHT, EVEN IF EVERYONE
IS AGAINST IT: AND WRONG IS WRONG,
EVEN IF EVERYONE IS FOR IT. 99

William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania, 1681

On completion, St. Paul's Cathedral dominated the north bank of the Thames
River. It remained the tallest building in London until 1962.

IN AN EXTENSION OF THE WAR

OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION
(see 1701-03) in South America, a
squadron of French ships attacked :
Portuguese-held Rio de Janeiro,
incapacitated Portuguese ships in
the harbor, and only spared the
city’s defenses from destruction
on payment of a ransom. French
morale, which had been ata low
since their withdrawal from the
Battle of Malplaquet (see 1709),
was raised by this proof that

i Losses at Rio de Janeiro

i i Smallpox epidemic
: Caught unawares by a French naval i a In the South African
H 2

French long-range naval power = attack in Rio de Janeiro harbor, Cape, smallpox
had not been extinguished. | Portuguese ships tried to escape. + ravaged the native Khoisan

In North America, the © Three drifted aground, and one was : population, killing nine people
Tuscarora War beganin North = destroyed by its crew. ) for every one survivor.
Carolina between Tuscarora :
American Indians and settlers + moved to counter the uprising = : ON 7 JUNE 1712, PENNSYLVANIA,
from Britain, Germany, and the organized by Mirwais Khan Hotak : under moral pressure from its
Netherlands. The settlers and » {see 1709-10), but the Safavid Quaker population, freed all the
northern Tuscarora American i army and its leader, Khosru Khan, : slaves in the state, an early step in
Indians began to kidnap the © were annihilated, and Afghan : the abolition of slavery. However,
Tuscarora in the south, sellthem = independence was secured. : Queen Anne reversed the decision
into slavery, and appropriate their | In December 1711, St. Paul’s : in the following year. Quaker
lands. The southern Tuscarora : Cathedral, London's most iconic : state-founder and slaver trader
retaliated in September with : building, was completed. : William Penn (1644-1718) was not
widespread attacks on : Designed by Christopher Wren, it | himself an opponent of slavery.
settlements in which hundreds was the fourth church to occupy | In South Africa’s Cape region,
of settlers were killed. : its site; its predecessor was badly © Dutch sailors infected with

In Asia, the Persian Safavid : damaged in the Great Fire of © smallpox inadvertently caused
rulers of western Afghanistan London in 1666. The building had : a catastrophic decimation of the

| the first triple dome in the world:
a light, timber-framed outer

: dome, supported by a hidden

: brick cone, and inside it, the

: inner dome that is visible from

: the interior.

: native Khoisan people in 1713.
: The disease rapidly spread from
© laundrywomen infected by the
sailors’ dirty linen to the wider

: population because no one had
| immunity or medicine. The
epidemic killed 90 percent

Anend to war

This painting from the French royal
almanac for 1714 shows signatories
of the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended
the War of the Spanish Succession.

Attack on Rio de Janeiro

French corsair René Duguay-
Trouin’s ships enter Rio de Janeiro
harbor to salvage French honor—
and profit at the same time.

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tie Pr OF 0 vk so’ pr ge” he
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Naas FO ge WY ce? ce Xd os
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oe “ pero eos oe 29 oo ow MY SS te
es oe oo ar we FoF oreo cer PD ANP oe *
x oH gf’ SX? oo SO DE SO Cr eo
eo a we? Pacer oe Ne) pe coh <e8 xO Qe
eo Oe gO Be ons Bs od
oo As or’ Sg
ss
cS

William Penn, English Quaker leader
and colonialist.

of the southwest Cape’s Khoisan.
Survivors fleeing inland were
killed by neighboring tribes to
limit the disease’s spread.

In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht
was signed; together with the
Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, it was
to end the War of the Spanish
Succession. Underlying the
Utrecht Treaty (actually a series
of treaties) was the principle of
maintaining the balance of power
between France, Spain, and their
neighbors, so that no state could
dominate Europe. The lines of
succession of the two countries
were separated, so no Spaniard
could claim the French throne,
and vice versa. Savoy gained Sicily,
Austria received the Spanish
Netherlands, and Britain was
ceded Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia, and Gibraltar. In addition,
the Asiento Agreement gave
Britain a 30-year contract to
supply slaves and goods to
Spanish colonies.

In Britain, after the death of
Queen Anne in 1714, George |
(1660-1727} became the first
monarch of the German House
of Hanover to rule Great Britain
and Ireland. The Hanoverian
succession in 1714 ended the
reign of the House of Stuart,
which had ruled Scotland from
1371, and Great Britain and
Ireland since 1603.

In 1714, the Ottomans declared
war on the Venetian Republic.
The final conflict between the two
powers, the war ended in 1718
with an Ottoman victory and
Venice's loss of the Peloponnese,
its major possession in Greece.

The flag of English pirate Edward Teach, known as Blackbeard, became
notorious in the Caribbean between 1717 and his death in 1718.

THE STATE OF WAR BETWEEN THE
MAJOR EUROPEAN POWERS in the
late 17th and early 18th centuries
created a profound sense of
lawlessness. This was most
marked in regions where
desperate efforts were being
made to seize colonial power. With
the standing navies at war, some
of the work of policing the new
colonies fell to privateers. For
many it was only a short step to
becoming outright pirates. One
of the most notorious, Edward
Teach, known as Blackbeard

(c. 1680-1718), became a target
for the authorities after he took
charge of his own ship in
November 1717. He was finally
murdered in November 1718.

In North America, the signing of
the Treaty of Utrecht (see 1713)
had failed to bring an
end to the hostilities
between the European
colonizing powers, and,
in turn, these were struggling
to dominate competing
American Indian tribes.

In 1716, in an attempt to
block French expansion
westward from Louisiana,
the Spanish entered east
Texas; they established

Qing cloisonné
This ornamental
elephant with two
miniature vases
exemplifies the
sophistication

that cloisonné
enamel-work
reached during the
Qing dynasty period.

44 NO CHINESE CATHOLICS

: toward London but were defeated

44 SUCH A FIGURE, THAT

IMAGINATION CANNOT FORM
AN IDEA OF A FURY FROM HELL,
TO LOOK MORE FRIGHTFUL. 99

Captain Charles Johnson describing Edward Teach, from A General
History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates, 1724

ARE ALLOWED TO WORSHIP
ANCESTORS IN THEIR
FAMILIAL TEMPLES. 99

Pope Clement XI, Papal bull, 1715

several missions and, in 1718, the
town of San Antonio. While the
latter became the target of raids
by Apache American Indians, the
Spanish successfully encouraged
the Yamasee and other tribes
in their attacks on hundreds of
British settlers in South Carolina,
a conflict known as the Yamasee
War (1715-17).

In Asia, Zunghar Mongols

invaded Outer Mongolia

and Tibet in 1717, and
sacked the Tibetan
capital of Lhasa,
looting the tomb of the fifth
Dalai Lama. Tibet appealed

to the Qing Kangxi emperor

(1654-1722) for assistance.
The Zunghars defeated an
invading Qing army in 1718,
and the Qing Empire was
not to liberate Lhasa for
three years (see 1720).
Meanwhile, in the Chinese
homeland, Jesuit
missionaries
found
themselves
under threat.
Impressed
by their
services, the
Kangxi emperor

had ensured their protection with
an Edict of Toleration (see 1692).
However, in 1715 Pope Clement XI
issued a Papal bull condemning
Chinese ancestor worship. In
retaliation, the Kangxi emperor
would repeal his edict in 1721,
officially forbidding Christian
missions in China.

In Europe, King Louis XIV of
France died in 1715, leaving the

infant Louis XV as his heir. Ignoring :

the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht,
King Philip V of Spain claimed the
throne of France if the infant were
to die. In 1717, a Triple Alliance

was signed by the Dutch Republic,

France, and Great Britain inan
effort to compel Philip to abandon
his expansionist ambitions.
Austria's joining of the alliance
in the following year turned this
into a Quadruple Alliance against
Spain [see 1718-19).

In Britain, the Hanoverian
succession (see 1714) had
provoked anger among
Jacobites—supporters of the
deposed Stuart king James VII of

Scotland and II of England—and in :

1715 this erupted into the First
Jacobite Rebellion. Over-
estimating the support they could
count on in England, about 4,000

men [mainly Scottish} marched

in November by Hanoverian

: forces at the Battle of Preston

: While his lieutenants countered

i the threat to his reign in the north,
: life for Hanoverian king George |

i in London was seemingly

| unaffected: there were several

: performances for the king and

: members of the court of Water

Music by the German Baroque

: composer George Frideric
i Handel (1685-1759), who had
: made his home in London in 1712.

Astyle of European music
that began around 1600
and lasted until about 1750,
baroque developed from the
masses and madrigals of
the Renaissance. It had

a stronger emphasis on
counterpoint and rhythm,
greater expression of
emotion, and gave greater
importance to the solo voice
and instrumental solos. It
also established opera, with
Monteverdi and Cavalli being
early practitioners. Notable
baroque composers include
Peri and Allegri (early
baroque); Lully,

Pachelbel, and Purcell
(middle}; and Bach,

Handel, Telemann,

and Vivaldi (late

baroque].

BAROQUE
LUTE

241

THE TREATY OF UTRECHT [see
1713] had ceded Sardinia and
Sicily to Savoy, but the treaty was
ignored by King Philip V of Spain

the islands in 1717. Set against
Philip was the Triple Alliance (see
1717] of Britain, France, and the
Dutch Republic, which Austria
joined on August 2, 1718,
expanding it into the Quadruple
Alliance. On July 21, Austria—
under Holy Roman Emperor
Charles VI (1685-1740)—had
signed the Treaty of Passarowitz,
ending the Austro-Turkish War
(1716-18). This freed Charles's
forces to turn their attention to
Spain, and the War of the
Quadruple Alliance was declared
on December 17, 1718.

Previously, the Triple Alliance
had set an ultimatum for the

Admiral Sir George Byng’s British fleet sail into the Straits of Messina prior
to the Battle of Cape Passaro, in a painting by Richard Vale.

: withdrawal of Philip's invasion

force. The British fleet, led by Sir

: George Byng, clashed with the
: Spanish invasion fleet—which
(1683-1746), who sailed to capture {

had not been informed of the
ultimatum—in the Battle of Cape
Passaro on August 11, 1718. The
larger Spanish warships were

: Austrian army landed at Messina,
© Sicily, to oust the Spanish garrison,

but was defeated on October 15 in
the first Battle of Milazzo.

In 1719 there were further
attempts by the Quadruple

: Alliance, now joined by Savoy, to
= curb Spain. France invaded the

: Spanish Basque Country and

: then Catalonia, but disease

: forced both forces to withdraw.

The Austrians attacked in Sicily
and eventually the Spanish

occupiers capitulated, their
: supplies having been blocked by
: the British navy. In another
: example of Spain’s vulnerability
: from the sea, the British captured
: the port of Vigo in October.

War casualties

In the War of the Quadruple Alliance,
28,350 men were killed or wounded,
including more than 2,000 from
Sardinia, which was invaded by Spain.

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

CASUALTIES

4,000

2,000

Britain France

Austria

Spain Sardinia Dutch Rep.

& MUR mee FH

THE BRITISH COLONY IN
HONDURAS (now Belize], the only
British possession in Central
America before it gained full
independence in 1981, was
established on the eastern coast
of the Yucatan peninsula by
British buccaneers. By the turn
of the 18th century the colony had
begun to exploit the region's
logwood (Haematoxylum
campechianum], which yielded an
important dye used for textiles
and paper. In 1720, slaves—many
from Jamaica and others directly
from Africa—were first imported
to this area of the so-called
Mosquito Coast to expand logging
operations on the Belize River.
The year 1720 saw the end of
the War of the Quadruple
Alliance (see 1718} with
the signing of the
Treaty of the Hague.
Philip agreed to
abandon his claims
to Sicily and Sardinia,
which came under the
control of Austria and
the Duchy of Savoy
respectively, with the duke
being titled king of Sardinia. In
North America, the French
returned Pensacola in Florida
to King Philip V, along with
places they had occupied
in the north of Spain, receiving
trade advantages in exchange.
The treaty also confirmed Texas
was a Spanish possession.
Meanwhile, the Maratha, a
sub-ethnic group inhabiting the
Maharashtra region of western
India, began a major expansion
of the empire that it had

: their empire to the north,

by Willem Blau (c. 1650) shows the position of British-
controlled Honduras, lying on the east coast of the Yucatan peninsula

Maratha expansion

The Maratha expanded +o. Plateau

of Tibet
south, and east. Such
was their reputation that
they were able to raise
taxes even beyond areas
of their direct
administration.

KEY
Maratha Empire

~* Maratha campaigns mre tra

Sea Bay of

Bengal

reestablished in 1674. The
catalyst for the expansion, which
began in 1720, was the death in
1719 of Balaji Vishwanath (b.1680)
and the succession of his son
Bajirao (1700-40), who was only
20 years old at the time but
already a charismatic
and dynamic leader.

Ceylon

Recognizing the
weakness of the grip
that the Mughal
Empire, based in
Delhi, had on the
states around him,
Bajirao’s army struck out into
Hindustan. The campaign was
successful and gained Bajirao
great credit at home. This
helped him negotiate peace
treaties with Mughal authorities
in the Deccan. With the security
of the Maratha homeland
assured, Bajirao began further

Maratha mace

The head of 118 spikes and
a quadrangular top spike on
this Maratha mace testify to
its fearsome effectiveness
as a weapon.

: expansions in 1728, when he
: also moved his capital from
: Satara to Pune.

Far to the northeast, the

» Zunghar Mongols had taken

: possession of Tibet (see 1717). In
1720, a force of Qing and Tibetan

| warriors drove the Zunghars from
» Tibet. The Zunghars had killed the
» sixth Dalai Lama, claiming he

| was an impostor. The Qing force

brought with it a replacement,

: Qing China, and the Tibetan region
© of Kham was annexed to China's

: Sichuan province. However,

: under the Qing emperor resulted

: in harsh suppressions by the

Brilliant polychromatic decoration characterizes this detail of a rectangular
Persian dish made in the 18th century during the Safavid dynasty.

THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR
(1700-21) between Sweden and
Russia was brought to an end by
the conclusion of the Treaty of
Nystad. In 1719, Russia had
successfully challenged Sweden's
supremacy in the Baltic by
attacking cities on the Swedish
east coast. An alliance of the
British and Swedes in 1719 then
gave Sweden British navy
protection that discouraged
further raids. The Nystad Treaty
restored Finland to Sweden, but
former Swedish Baltic territories —
in Estonia and elsewhere went to

Deified ancestors

Moai were erected by clans on
Easter Island to watch over their
fields. This group, at Ahu Akivi, is
the farthest inland.

: Russia. Sweden was irrevocably

diminished by the terms of the

Baltic ports, now dominated
Eastern Europe.

In one of the landmark
moments of Dutch exploration,
Jakob Roggeveen (1659-1729)
set out in 1721 to find Terra
Australis, the mysterious
southern continent earlier
mapped in part by Spaniard Juan

: Fernandez and Dutchman Abel

Tasman, among others. A former
employee of the Dutch East Indies
Company but now sponsored by
its West Indies counterpart,
Roggeveen and his three ships
sailed to the Falkland Islands,
Chile, and the Juan Fernandez
Islands. While crossing the South

: Pacific Ocean the following year,

the three ships chanced upon
Easter Island (now Rapa Nui),
so-named because it was
discovered on Easter Sunday.
Roggeveen also discovered the
Society Islands and Samoa
before returning home.

In 1722, the declining Safavid
dynasty of Persia was deposed by
independent Afghans to the east.
Mahmud Hotaki (c. 1697-1725},
son of Mirwais Khan Hotak (see
1709), brought an army to the
Safavid capital of Isfahan, sacked
the city, and proclaimed himself
shah of Persia. It was not until
1729, and the defeat of the Hotaki
dynasty by Afsharid Persians who
were descended from the
Mongols at the Battle of
Damghan, that the Afghans were
finally forced back to Kandahar.

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rs RECO ROE Sirs eS SS
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oo re s x

464 SLAVES WHO ARE
DISABLED FROM WORKING
_..SHALL BE...PROVIDED
FOR BY THEIR MASTERS. 99

From the Louisiana Code Noir, 1724

EUROPEAN SUCCESS in procuring
slaves in West Africa for
transporting to the new colonies
depended on the enthusiastic
cooperation of certain tribes.

In Dahomey, in what is now the
Republic of Benin, King Agadja
(r. 1708-40) presided over a
culture of enslavement and
human sacrifice. His conquest
of neighboring Allada in

1723 provided a ready source

of captives for sale, and by
1724 Dahomey had become

the Europeans’ principal source
of slave labor.

In 1724, the Code Noir, King
Louis XIV of France's extensive
definition of the conditions of
slavery, was introduced in the

: French territory of Louisiana,
North America. The code was
partly intended to give slaves
basic protection from their
masters—all were to be given

: food and clothes, for example—

» but it also legitimized cruel

: were to be branded, their ears cut

: crippled by having their

: hamstrings cut.

Also in 1724, the disintegrating

: Mughal Empire saw the Indian

: state of Oudh gain independence

: Awadh dynasty, which ruled until
its power was seized by the

: British in the early 19th century.

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ws oa
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AP So s Fo 02
NS Abr ae ot Paige’
eg ro gee gt aS ad
e an an What oak
36 oe xe? we os"
& ates Cees
* WE os

243

Peter the Great's Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, founded in 1725,
was rehoused in this building of 1783-85 on the Neva River.

44 YOU ARE NOW TRAVELING
INTO THE PARADISE OF
THE SCHOLARS. 99

Caspar Wolff, German scientist, praising the Academy of Sciences
ina letter to mathematician Leonhard Euler, c. 1779

THE TREATY OF THE HAGUE

(see 1720) did not end rivalries
between the major European
powers. In 1725, Austria signed
the Treaty of Vienna with Spain,
gaining trading advantages in the
colonies for its Imperial Ostend
Company; in exchange, Austria
abandoned all claims to the
Spanish throne and also promised
to help Spain recapture Gibraltar.
In 1726, Britain embarked on an
attempt to blockade Spanish
treasure ships at Porto Bello,

CATHERINE | (1684-1727)

The orphaned daughter of
Lithuanian peasants, the
future wife of Peter the Great
was born Marta Skowronska.
She was secretly married

to Peter in 1707, and she
reigned as Russia's first
female monarch from his
death until her own. In her
reign, she was supported by
the Supreme Privy Council,
which wanted to deny power
to the aristocracy.

244

: Panama, but withdrew without
: success in 1727 after severe

losses from disease.
Emboldened by its promise

negated by a secret pact made

: between Britain and Austria,
| Spain besieged Gibraltar in
: 1727, an act that precipitated the

Anglo-Spanish War. The

: four-month siege failed, costing
Spain 1,400 men to British

: casualties of 300. The war ended
: with the Treaty of Seville in 1729.

In Russia, the St. Petersburg

i Academy of Sciences was

founded in 1725 by Peter the
Great (1672-1725). The most

_ eminent scholars of all disciplines

were invited to work there—for

: example, German embryologist
| Caspar Wolff (1733-94) offered
: Swiss mathematician Leonhard

Euler a 200-rouble salary as an

i enticement, which he accepted.

: To the southeast, the Afghan

: shah of Persia, Mahmud Hotaki

1 [see 1721-22), died in 1725. He

= was succeeded by his cousin,

: have murdered him. By then,

Persian lands were being
encroached upon by
Ottoman forces, who were
linked to the previous
regime by an Ottoman-
Safavid alliance. However,
Ashraf Khan defeated the
Ottomans in a battle near
Isfahan at Kermanshah,
and peace was eventually
declared at Hamadan,
Persia, in 1727.

Satirical novel

Clergyman and writer
Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)
first published Gulliver's
Travels in 1726. This edition
of the satire on humanity
was published in the 1860s.

Coffee in Brazil
This 19th-century woodcut shows a
Brazilian coffee plantation. From small
beginnings in 1727, Brazil grew into
the world's largest coffee producer.

Also in 1727, the Treaty of
Kyakhta was signed by Imperial
Russia and the Chinese Qing
Empire; it remained the basis of
relations between the two until
the mid-19th century. Mongolia’s
northern border was mapped and
agreed on, and routes established
for trade in furs and tea.

The late 1720s saw the start of
coffee-growing in the Caribbean
and South America. Seedlings
were first brought to Martinique
around 1720, and in 1727 the king
of Portugal sent to French Guinea
for seeds. His envoy, Francisco
de Mello Palheta, persuaded the
French governor's wife to provide
seeds and seedlings, and these
enabled the Portuguese to start
a coffee industry in Brazil.

The Shinto gate [torii) at the entrance
to the Itsukushima Shrine, Japan.

THE RUSSIAN EMPEROR PETER
THE GREAT was determined to
discover the full extent of his
lands to the east. A Danish
seaman, Vitus Bering (1681-
1741), was commissioned to
follow the Siberian coast
northward fram the Kamchatka
Peninsula, and in 1728 Bering
sailed into the narrow strait, now
named after him, that separates
Siberia and Alaska. By sailing
farther north, Bering established
that Siberia reaches its eastward
limit at the strait. Bering
suspected that there must be land
farther east, but it was only during
a second voyage, in 1741, that he
first saw the coast of Alaska
across the strait.

On the Indian subcontinent, the
Maratha people, after nearly a
decade of consolidating their
power under Bajirao (see 1720),
struck out into the Deccan region
surrounding their homeland. In
1728, in the Battle of Palkhed,
they confronted rival prince
Asaf Jah | of Hyderabad [also
known as Nizam-ul-Mulk} who
had been laying claim to Maratha
leadership and who was refusing
to pay them chauth (a tribute tax).
In a strategic masterstroke, the
Marathas cornered the nizam’s
army in a waterless zone, where it
refused to fight. In consequence,
the nizam abandoned his
leadership claim and payment
of chauth was resumed.

The year 1729 was a pivotal
point in trading relations
between China and the West
because the Qing Yongzheng
emperor banned almost all

importation of opium. Chinese
goods were in high demand in
Europe, but the Chinese were
unimpressed by European goods
and accepted payment only

in silver—which Britain, in
particular, had to obtain at
exorbitant cost. In the early 18th
century, British traders had begun
to trade Indian opium for Chinese
goods, and there was soon a
growing number of addicted
Chinese that greatly reduced
Europe's silver requirement.
European opium smugglers
remained a major problem for
China into the 19th century.

Also in 1729, after more than a
decade of mistreatment, Natchez
American Indians killed more
than 200 French settlers at Fort
Rosalie, Mississippi. However,
by 1731 the French, assisted by
the Choctaw people, were to
retaliate by enslaving a large

Bering Strait
This satellite image shows the

: Bering Strait, a 56-mile (96-km)
stretch of water that separates
Asia and North America.

number of Natchez for work
on Caribbean plantations.

The short-lived Ottoman Tulip
Period [1718-30] was ended by
a rebellion against unpopular

: measures led by a janissary

(soldier), Patrona Halil, that
caused Sultan Ahmed III to be

: supplanted by Mahmud I. The
: Tulip Period was one of stability

in the Ottoman Empire and was
marked by increased interest

in Western ways. Just as Western
Europe had been fascinated by
tulips in the 17th
century, the
Ottoman
court
became
equally

obsessed. Ottoman architecture
and art were invigorated, but
high prices for tulips and tulip
bulbs distorted the economy. The
instatement of Mahmud | in 1730
brought an end to the Tulip
Period, but Halil was strangled
in front of the sultan in 1731 for
overreaching himself.

In Japan, whose population
had been ruled by the Tokugawa
shogunate since 1603, there was a
resurgence of the Shinto religion.
Beginning around 1730, it was
fueled by the writings of scholars
such as Kada no Azunamaro
(1669-1736) and Kamo no
Mabuchi (1697-1769). The Shinto
scholars rejected Chinese and
Buddhist influences and sought to
identify a purely Japanese
spiritual identity. Shintoism was
reinstated as the national religion
of Japan more than a century
later in 1868.

Meanwhile, the Arabian state
of Oman was expanding its
dominions in Africa. The
Portuguese-held Kenyan city

46 ...IN LESS THAN
TWO HOURS THEY

180

CASUALTIES
2
)

Men Women Children

Massacre at Fort Rosalie

On November 28, 1729, Natchez
American Indians killed 242 settlers
at Fort Rosalie, Mississippi, in
retaliation for years of mistreatment.

of Mombasa and the island of
Pemba had been captured by the
Omanis in 1698, and by 1730 they
had driven the Portuguese from
the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts
and gained control of the island of
Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania).

In West Africa, Islamic Fulbe, or
Fulani, people began to unify into
larger communities in

what is now known as f

MASSACRED MORE THAN
200 OF THE FRENCH. 99

Father le Petit, missionary, in a letter to Father D'Avaugour, Procurator
of the Missions in North America, 1730

the Fulbe Revolution. The first
such state was Bondu, in Guinea,
formed in the late 17th century.
Then came Futa Jallon (centered
in Guinea but sprawling over
neighboring territories), where
the Islamic Fulbe took power from
the existing leaders and non-
Islamic Fulbe people.
A confederation of provinces
was formally created in 1735 with
its capital at Timbo, Guinea. Other
areas that were profoundly
affected by the Fulbe Jihad—as the
seizure of power was termed—
included the formerly declining
Bornu Empire [in present-day
Nigeria}, the fortunes of which
underwent a significant revival.

In 1731, formerly independent
Dahomey in West Africa finally
accepted the suzerainty of the

Nigeria). The Yoruba had invaded
and defeated them after a
protracted and bitterly fought
campaign in 1728,
but resistance
in Dahomey
did not end
until 1748.

Opium pipe and poppy
This traditional Chinese
opium pipe has a knob-
shaped bowl in which the
drug (dried latex from the
opium poppy] is vaporized
when the bowl is heated.

OBSESSED WITH CREATING a
strong, independent state,
Frederick William | (r. 1713-40),
the “Soldier King” of Prussia,
instituted compulsory military
service: every young man had to
serve in the military for three
months of each year. In this way,
the Prussian army became the
fourth-largest in Europe, with
60,000 soldiers, despite having
the twelfth-largest population.
In America, the state of Georgia
was founded in 1732, becoming
the last of the Thirteen Colonies
established by Britain on the
Atlantic coast. Named after
Britain’s King George II, the new
state was intended to strengthen
the British presence in the south.
The first settlers began to arrive
in 1733 and included many
released from debtors’ prisons.

SNe ae

SOME

STATES

HAVE AN

ARMY, THE
-PRUSSIAN

ARMY HAS

A STATE. 59

_ Voltaire, French thinker (1694-1778) 15 990 people died. In cities such

Also in 1733, Danish seaman

- Vitus Bering (1681-1741), after

whom the Bering Strait is named
(see 1728], began the Great

| Northern Exploration. Empress

Anna of Russia (1693-1740) had
authorized a large expedition

: involving 3,000 people in three

separate groups: one group was
to map northern Siberia; the
second, to explore north of
Japan; and Bering's group,
to determine what lay east
of the strait. It was not
until June 1741, just
months before his

B= that Bering first
» caught sight of
Mount St. Elias

Prussian blue

The conscripted army of
Prussian king Frederick
William | wore dark blue
coats with red linings and
red-and-white facings.

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death in December, :

“Tavern Scene” is one of the eight paintings of British artist William Hogarth’s A Rake’s
Progress (1732-33), which depicts the downfall of a rich merchant's feckless heir.

i 46 WHERE : on the Alaskan mainland. In the

: same month, his second ship sent
| men ashore on Alaska’s Prince of
i Wales Island

Meanwhile, during the Kyoho

: era (July 1716 to April 1736)

in Japan, famine had struck. In

: 1732, swarms of locusts attacked

the crops, especially rice, of

the inland sea. Heavy rains then
destroyed winter crops of wheat
and barley, and insects decimated
the following year’s rice crop. The

i worst-affected area was the north

of Kyushu Island, where around

as Edo [present-day Tokyo) and

: Osaka, the cost of rice rose
: seven-fold, and in 1733 rice shops
| were attacked during food riots.

In 1733 Poland’s King Augustus II
died. Stanislaw Leszczynski was
made king when 12,000 Polish

: nobles voted for him in the Sejm

election. However, 3,000 nobles
who voted for Augustus III used

TOTAL
POPULATION

Kyoho famine in Japan
In the Fukuoka Domain, northern
Kyushu, about 20 percent of the

: population died during the 1733
: famine of the Kyoho era.

(1704-80). The loom had a
wheeled, thread-carrying shuttle,

: which greatly increased the rate

at which fabrics could be made.

Polish election, 1733
Stanislaw Leszczynski

1:4
= gained 12,000 votes

and temporarily became king of
Poland. Augustus II! gained only 3,000
votes but succeeded him in 1734.

the backing of Russia and Austria
to install Augustus as king in
1734. What began as a civil war
developed into the War of the
Polish Succession (1733-38) as
the Bourbons (France and Spain),
the Habsburgs [Austria], Prussia,
Saxony, and Russia campaigned
outside Poland to seize territories
lost after the War of the Spanish
Succession (see 1701). Only with
the Treaty of Vienna in 1738 did
Stanislaw give up his legal claim.

British culture in this period
came to be dominated by radical
humanism, a conviction that
human identity, ethics, and
knowledge need not be based on
a belief in God. Alexander Pope
(1688-1744) wrote in his poem An
Essay on Man (1734), “Know then
thyself, presume not God to scan/ |
The proper study of Mankind is
Man.” Secular humanism spread
to the arts, with artists such as
William Hogarth (1697-1764)
bringing sharp social criticism
and satire to their depictions
of humanity.

Another British development
was the patenting in 1733 of a
flying-shuttle loom by John Kay

VOLTAIRE (1694-1 778)

Born Francois-Marie Arouet
in Paris, Voltaire was a
prolific writer, historian, and
philosopher of the French
Enlightenment (see 1763)
who disseminated his radical
humanist ideas in works that
ranged from essays and
historical works to poems,
plays, and novels. His ideas—
on social reform and civil
liberties, for example—often
met with hostility, forcing him
to flee several times, but they
had a major influence on
thinkers of the French and
American revolutions.

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An illustration depicting sugar processing in the Caribbean from Histoire des

Antilles by French clergyman and pla

CHARLES MARIE DE LA
CONDAMINE (1701-74), French
explorer, scientist, and
mathematician, joined an
expedition to Peru in 1735. After
falling out with his colleagues, he
continued alone to Quito, Ecuador,
from where he traveled down the
Amazon to Cayenne, thereby
making the first scientific
exploration of the river.
Returning to Paris in
1744, he published the
journal of his travels and
discoveries in 1751. When
in Ecuador, La Condamine
was the first European to
encounter rubber—the
Mayans had been making
flexible rubber for centuries—
and in 1736 he introduced the
product to Europe when he
sent sheets of processed
rubber to Paris.

By the early 18th century, the
Portuguese, Spanish, British,
French, and Dutch had
slave-worked sugar
plantations in Brazil and
throughout the Caribbean.

In 1735, the French East India
Company began to develop
plantations on the islands of
Ile-de-France and Bourbon
(now Mauritius and Réunion).
Soon to follow was the first
sugar refinery on Mauritius,
built at Ville Bague in the north.

Weapon of conquest

This finely decorated battle-ax
belonged to Nader, who was
crowned shah of Persia in 1736.
He led the Persians to war with
Afghanistan in the following year.

intation owner Jean-Baptiste Labat.

In North America, pressure from
expanding British colonies forced
the French to strengthen their
claim to Indiana by establishing a
permanent settlement. In 1732,
a trading fort had been erected at
the site of present-day Vincennes,
but in 1735 the traders were
joined by a wave of agricultural

ax head
inlaid with
silver
calligraphy

workers. Vincennes quickly
grew, becoming not only the
foremost French trading post
in Indiana but also the
dominant center of French
culture in the region.

Meanwhile, the year 1736
marked the end of Safavid
rule in Persia. Persian
military leader Nader Shah
(1698-1747) had become more
powerful than the Safavids he
served [Tahmasp II until 1732,
and Tahmasp’s young son,
Abbas Ill). When Nader
proposed himself as shah, few
stood against him. He was
crowned in 1736. In 1737,
Nader moved against Persia's
former Afghan overlords by
occupying southern
Afghanistan. When Tahmasp
and Abbas were murdered in
1740, the Safavid dynasty was
extinguished.

The Russo-Austrian-
Turkish War (1735-39)

signaled that no treaty could
easily end the War of the Polish
Succession (see 1733). In addition,
Russia, joined by Austria in 1737,
intended to seize the Crimea and
gain access to the Black Sea, at
the same time ending raids by
Crimean Tartars. One Russian
army captured part of the Crimea
in 1736, but was forced by disease
to retreat. Another army recovered
Azov from the Ottomans in
Romania and advanced to Jassy
(Iasi), Moldavia. In 1737, renewed
Russian gains in the Crimea were
reversed due to a lack of supplies.

By 1737, the Maratha Empire
in India {see 1728) was enjoying
its greatest expansion to the
north, at the expense of the
Mughal Empire. Peshwa (prime
minister) Bajirao I (r. 1721-40)
masterminded this expansion, but
almost as powerful as the Peshwa
were Maratha chieftains called
Sardars—among them Gaekwads
of Baroda, Shindes of Gwalior,
and Holkars of Indore—who
established their own kingdoms
in the captured lands.

In 1737, Swedish taxonomist
and botanist Carolus Linnaeus
(1707-78] published Genera
Plantarum, later joined by Species
Plantarum (1753). Along with his
earlier Systema Naturae (1735],
these works laid the foundation
for the system of biological
classification still used today.

Plant anatomy

Carolus Linnaeus’s Genera
Plantarum classified plants by their
sex organs—the numbers of
stamens and pistils in their flowers.

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247

The ruins of the old Kandahar citadel, Afghanistan, lie on the hilltop behind the 12th-century arch. In the Persian

THE AFGHAN HOTAKI DYNASTY
had been expelled from Persia
in1729 by Nader Shah (1698-
1747], and he was also
determined to eliminate the
remaining threat posed by the
Afghan Ghilzai people. Having
occupied southern Afghanistan
in 1737, he besieged the Hotaki
stronghold of Kandahar in 1738.
Nader Shah exiled Hussein, last of
the Hotakis, destroyed the towns
of Kandahar and Qalat-i-Ghilzai,
and finally crushed the hopes of
the Ghilzais by backing the rise of |
the rival Afghan Durrani people.
Afghanistan was then part of the
Mughal Empire, centered in Delhi,
but the Mughal governor had
been powerless to stop Nader
Shah's Persian force, which
swept through Kabul and crossed
the Indus in December 1738.
After defeating the forces of
Mughal Muhammad Shah in the
Battle of Karnal in February

siege, Hussein Hotaki took refuge in the citadel but surrendered after it was bombarded by Nader Shah.

1939, around 68 miles (110 km]
from Delhi, Nader Shah entered

: the city victorious on March 9,

: empty but the shah seized the

: emperor's personal jewels,

: including the famous Koh-i-Noor

and Darya-e-Noor diamonds.
Also in 1739, the Austro—

| Turkish War (1737-39] was ended

by the Treaty of Belgrade. In the

: same year, the Treaty of Nis
© brought the Russo-Turkish War

(1735-39) to a conclusion. Both
these treaties confirmed Austria's

_ loss of northern Serbia and
» Belgrade to the Ottomans,
obliging Russia to abandon hopes

of capturing the Crimea, although

| the Russians were allowed to
: build an unfortified port at Azov
: and trade on the Black Sea.

Hostilities broke out once again

~ between Britain and Spain in
: 1739. Britain had been awarded

limited rights to trade slaves and
goods in the Spanish colonies

| (see 1713], but increasingly, the
| Spanish were seizing British

cargoes. In 1731, Spanish

: coastguards had severed the

ear of a British captain, Robert
Jenkins, and in 1739 the case led

: toa war, which was later dubbed

the War of Jenkins’ Ear by the

such as the Spanish naval base of

: Porto Bello in Panama. Following

Battle of Karnal
8 il 1 Trying to prevent
= Nader Shah's Persian
invading army from reaching Delhi,
the Mughals lost 20,000 men while
the Persians lost only 2,500.

| the Battle of Porto Bello, the
| British took possession of the
: settlement in November 1739.
: The Viceroyalty of New Spain,

: first established in the early

Havana

Jamaica

PACIFIC
OCEAN

i 16th century, responded by
: increasing its defenses around
: the Caribbean coast.

In North America, French

: colonists were maintaining their
_ drive to push westward into
: Spanish territories. A priority
| was to identify a route to link the

Battle of Porto Bello

Fought in 1739, in the early stages of
the War of Jenkins’ Ear, the Battle
of Porto Bello resulted in the British
seizing the settlement from Spain.

®Charleston

New Orleans
Bahamas

Administration
of empire

The Viceroyalty
of New Spain,
centered on the
Caribbean and

ATLANTIC

Hispaniola gan Juan Gulf of Mexico was
P¥Sento Domingo the first of four
NES.
wesT INDIES, created to govern

Spanish New
World territories.

Mississippi Basin with Spanish
Colorado and Santa Fe. In 1739,
two French brothers, Pierre

and Paul Mallet, opened upa
route by negotiating the Missouri
and Platte rivers, traveling
southward to the Arkansas

River, from where a local man
guided them to Santa Fe. Despite
the continuing existence of a
buffer state of warring American
Indian tribes, a link between the
French and Spanish settlements
was established.

=o rig:

Frederick II (left) converses with the
Marquis d’Argens near Sanssouci.

WITH THE DEATH OF KING
FREDERICK WILLIAM I OF PRUSSIA
in 1740, his son, Frederick II
(1712-86), ascended to the throne
In his youth, Frederick II had
been fond of music, poetry, and
philosophy. He studied the works
of Niccolo Machiavelli (see 1513)
in preparation for kingship, and

in 1739 wrote a refutation of

the Renaissance Florentine’s
ideas, Anti-Machiavel, which he
published anonymously in 1740.
His rule was characterized by
modernization, tolerance, and
patronage of the arts. Yet he
became known as Frederick the
Great for the political and military
feats by which he first expanded
the borders of Prussia (until 1701
known as Brandenburg-Prussia]
far beyond their historical limits,
then defended these acquisitions
against massive coalitions of
powerful enemies. Frederick II's
first opportunity to expand
Prussia’s frontiers arrived quickly
after his accession. The Habsburg
emperor, Charles VI, died in 1740
and was succeeded by his
daughter, Maria Theresa (1717-
80}, who was to rule Austria's
hereditary domains with her
husband, Francis Stephen, as
Holy Roman Emperor.
Immediately, Prussia and France
challenged the arrangement.
Most of Europe took sides in what
became the War of the Austrian
Succession (1740-48), with
Britain, the Dutch Republic,
Sardinia, and Saxony supporting
the queen. Frederick, claiming
inheritance of Silesia—parts of
present-day Poland, Germany,

46... TOWARD THE NORTH,
SHONE FREDERICK, THE NORTH STAR,

FROM THERE

AROUND WHOM GERMANY, EUROPE, EVEN
THE WORLD SEEMED TO TURN. 99

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer (1749-1832), on Frederick the Great

and the Czech Republic—seized of Katanga in the present-day

70,000
North America

4,000
Britain

Poppelsdorf Castle, Germany, exemplifies Rococo style, which became popular
during the 18th century, particularly in France, Germany, Bohemia, and Austria.

THE OPPORTUNISTIC Celsius thermometer

the territory from Habsburg,
Austria, and made it a Prussian
province. It was later incorporated
into the German Empire, in 1871.

In Asia, the Mon kingdom
centered in Pegu, Burma
(Myanmar), rebelled in 1740
against the northern Burmese
Toungoo kingdom that had first
subjugated it in 1539. After the
rebellion, a Burmese monk with
Toungoo royal heritage was made
king of Pegu. The independent
kingdom lasted until 1757.

Also in 1740, a major expansion
of the Lunda kingdom of Central
Africa began when a party
exploring to the west established
the kingdom of Kazembe. For the
next hundred years, an aggressive
policy of annexation increased
Kazembe's size to cover most

Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Meanwhile, the War of the
Austrian Succession was having
repercussions in the north.

| Sweden, still bridling at losing its

Baltic territories after the Great
Northern War (see 1721-22],
deployed troops on the Russian

: border and declared the Russo—

Swedish War (1741-43). The

in Russia, but the new tsarina,
Elizabeth Petrovna (1709-62),
continued with the war rather

: than cede the Baltic territories to

Sweden, as had been promised.

In Ulster (Northern Ireland),
emigration to North America
increased dramatically. Those
leaving included many members
of the Scottish Presbyterian

DENMARK SWEDEN
North
a paltic S¢2 — Memet@
Flensborge
ekiel Stralsund EAST
Ric aN Kénigsberge
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BAVARIA

Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia
In the late 17th and 18th centuries,

successive leaders enhanced the power
and territory of Brandenburg-Prussia

through military and political means.

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KEY
Brandenburg 1648
Acquisitions 1648-1786

16,500
Europe

The Ulster diaspora

Between 1680 and 1750, 70,000
Scottish-irish emigrants left Ulster
for North America, 4,000 moved to
Britain, and 16,500 left for Europe.

Church, most of whom were
descendents of families who had
colonized the Irish north in the
17th century. Ireland's English
overlords distrusted the Scottish—
Irish colony, which supported
Scottish interests. Presbyterian
ministers were fined or
incarcerated, and economic
activities of the Scottish
Presbyterians were curtailed,
causing poverty and famine.

In the early 18th century, this
discrimination worsened; they
were forced to pay tithes in
support of the Church of England
and excluded from important
office. A severe famine in 1741-42
resulted in about 12,000 annually
leaving for the New World. These
Scottish-Irish emigrants,
resentful of their treatment by the
English, later gave fierce support
to the cause of American
independence from Britain

in the 1770s and 1780s.

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SEIZING OF SILESIA by
Frederick II of Prussia
(see 1740-41] proved a
successful gambit.

The Austrian army had
challenged the Prussians
but had been defeated in
the Battle of Mollwitz

in 1741. In 1742, Maria
Theresa of Austria and
the victorious Prussians
signed the Treaty of
Berlin, by which a large
part of Silesia was ceded
to Prussia. The treaty
brought an end to

the First Silesian War
(1740-42), though the
wider European conflict
known as the War of the
Austrian Succession
continued until 1748.

In 1742, Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius (1701-44)
developed the Celsius, or
centigrade, thermometer.
Celsius actually set the melting

point of ice at 100 degrees and the :

boiling point of water at zero
degrees, an arrangement that
was reversed in 1744 by Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78).
In Spanish Peru, a new leader
of the native people, Juan Santos
Atahualpa, a Jesuit-educated
man claiming to be a direct
descendant of the murdered Inca
king Atahualpa (1497-1533},
began a rebellion in Quisopango
in 1742. The Spanish mounted a
military campaign against him in
1742, and again in 1743, 1746, and
1750, but never defeated him in
his home territory in the Andes.

This 18th-century French
instrument, intended

for measuring outdoor
temperatures, features
Celsius’s scale, with a range
of -15 to +45 degrees.

In India, the struggle for
power continued between
the Maratha people (see
1720) and the nizam of
Hyderabad, the semi-
independent representative
of the Mughal Empire.
The Marathas seized
Trichinopoly, leaving
Murrarao Ghorpade as
governor of the town, and
refused to pay tribute to
the nizam. In 1743, the
nizam, determined to
regain control of the area,
: had 80,000 men besiege the town.
: Defeated, Murrarao accepted
: payment to change allegiance.

: The Russo-Swedish War
: (1741-43) was ended by the
| Treaty of Abo in 1743. Intent on
reducing the Swedish threat to St.
» Petersburg, Russia had occupied
» Finland, and the treaty moved the
: Swedish border north. Most of
: Finland was returned to the
: Swedes, who in exchange accepted
: Adolf-Frederick of Holstein-
| Gotthorp (1710-1771), a client of
: Empress Elizabeth of Russia, as
: heir to the Swedish throne.

In North America, South Dakota
: was first explored by Europeans
: in 1743, when the French de La
: Vérendrye brothers returned west
: after being the first Europeans to
: see the Rockies during their
: attempt to reach the Pacific.

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249

1450-1749 | REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION

Tne SlOnRT OF

No other activity has made a greater impact on both human society and the
environment than agriculture. Its discovery and use first allowed small,
previously nomadic, hunter-gathering societies to settle in one place,
transform the landscape, form communities, and establish civilizations.

Most archaeologists agree that the earliest plants TOOLS OF THE TRADE Middle Ages, when the heavy horse-drawn plow and a
were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region Neolithic farmers used digging sticks—long, flat three-field system of crop rotation revolutionized
of the Middle East around 10,000 Bce. While the blades with rounded points—to scrape shallow agriculture and greatly increased food supplies.
] fig is thought to be the first truly cultivated food, depressions in the earth, into which they dropped Voyages to Asia and the discovery of the New World in
oh emmer wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, and flax seeds. They also cleared areas of woodland using the 15th century had a profound impact on agriculture
ra were also common early crops. The first animals axes as well as fire to make space for crops and worldwide, as crops and animals were exchanged
/ J to be domesticated were sheep and goats, followed animal enclosures. However, sophisticated farming between Europe, Asia, and the Americas. This changed
by small breeds of cattle. techniques such as irrigation and large-scale agriculture on a scale not seen again until engine-
On the other side of the world, in what is now monocropping were practiced in Sumeria as early driven farm machinery and mass-production
South and Central America, squash and corn were —_as 5000.ce, while in Egypt, farmers made use techniques, including the use of chemical fertilizers
being planted, joined by beans; these three plants —_ of plows and sickles, and boasted a range of and pesticides, became the norm in the 20th century.
became known as the “Three Sisters” crops and crops and livestock.

represented an early knowledge of nutrition: The light scratch plow used by Mediterranean
planting them together not only retained soil countries dominated farming in Europe until the
nutrients but provided essential vitamin and
minerals needed for human health.

attachment point

coulter cuts thin

share cuts deep
vertical strips of turf

horizontal slices
of earth

c. 5S000BCE
Sumerians develop
core agriculture
Large-scale cultivation,
monocropping, irrigation,
and the use of a specialized
agricultural labor force oods such as olives, olive oil, and wine are
allows the Sumerian culture traded across the Roman Empire, where
to flourish and expand. agriculture is an important business.

¢.10,700-9000 BCE
Domestication of plants
In the Middle East, figs
are among the first
crops to be cultivated
actively by man.

Sumerian
plow

c.8000-2000 BCE
The Three Sisters
The planting together
of squash, teosinte

(a primitive form of
corn}, and beans in

the Americas shows a
knowledge of companion
planting techniques.

2500-15008CE
Egypt cultivates the Nile

The Egyptians use a

sophisticated system of

planting and harvesting

crops that is dependent

on the annual flooding

Teosinte of the Nile Delta.
corn cob Egyptian harvest Roman millstone

Green figs

Small’s wooden plow

Scottish inventor James Small was a major contributor
to the development of the plow. In the mid-1700s, he
significantly redesigned the single-furrow horse plow
and remodelled the mouldboard, which was now made of
iron, making it stronger and more efficient at turning soil.

600
&

US 20th-century tractor usage

Tractors became more widespread as their
design improved. They became smaller and
mass production made them more affordable.

moldboard turned
soil to one side

1050-1300

The Middle Ages

The heavy plow, pulled first

by teams of oxen then draft
changes the shape

of fields, gives bigger yields,

and greatly improves the way Wooden

medieval Europe feeds itself. plow

1492
Columbian exchange
Columbus's discovery
of the New World
results in an
unprecedented cultural
exchange of animals
and plants, including
tobacco and corn.

Tobacco
leaves

1800-40
The mechanical reaper
Although still horse-drawn,
the mechanical reaper

is the first step in the
mechanization of farming,
harvesting crops in much
less time than could be
achieved by hand.

Late 18th century
The cast-iron plow
The invention of first a
cast-iron moldboard, then
a cast-iron plowshare
greatly improves plowing
efficiency in both Old and
New World agriculture.

McCormick's reaping machine

handle

From the end of the 16th century in Europe,
landowners began to take a more scientific
approach to farming. This entailed following such
practices as crop rotation to ensure that soil fertility
was not depleted, using more efficient machinery
such as improved plows, and cross-breeding
livestock to avoid genetic weaknesses. While the
success of these practices resulted in more food,

it came at a cost: the need for farm laborers was
greatly reduced, and land enclosures dispossessed
many peasants who had nowhere to go.

1890s-early 1900s
Gasoline-powered vehicles
The internal-combustion
engine-powered agricultural
tractor signals the end of
horse-drawn farming.

By World War |, tractors
become common parts of
farm machinery in the US.

The Ivel tracto

1970s
Move to sustainability

In a countermovement

to the high-impact and
environmentally damaging
chemical practices of the
mid-20th century, green
and sustainable practices
begin to be developed.

2000-present
Urban farming
As world populations
rise, the search for

new ways to feed more
people increases. Vertical
hydroponic farms in
urban spaces have
proved successful.

THE EAST AFRICAN PORT OF
MOMBASA was used in the 18th
century for trade in gold, ivory,
and slaves. Mombasa was held
for 200 years by the Portuguese,
until a native rebellion drove them
out in 1729. The Arabs of Oman
took over, and in 1744, with a new
dynasty installed in Oman, the
new governor of Mombasa seized
power there from the Omanis.
He was killed by Omani assassins
in 1745, but his brother, ‘Ali ibn
Athman [r. 1746-55] stirred up a
rebellion and the assassins were
executed. ‘Ali ibn Athman
proclaimed himself Sultan of
Mombasa, thereby securing the
port's independence from Oman.
Meanwhile, Prussia’s war with
Austria [see 1740) continued.
In the Second Silesian War
{1744-45}, the Austrians tried to
regain Silesia, but the Prussians
eventually defeated the forces of
Empress Maria Theresa in 1745 in
the battles of Hohenfriedberg,
Soor, and Kesselsdorf. Maria
Theresa finally recognized

: husband, Francis, as Holy Roman
: Emperor. This left only France

: prosecuting the War of the

» Austrian Succession (1740-48).

_ major invasion of Britain in

support of Prince Charles Edward
: Stuart (1720-88)—grandson of the
| deposed Stuart King James Il and
: the"Young Pretender” to the

: Frederick II's sovereignty in
: Silesia by signing the Treaty of
» Dresden at the end of the year;

in return, Prussia recognized her

In 1744, France attempted a

: Hanoverian throne of Britain. But

5,000

PRUSSIANS

Losses at
Hohenfriedberg
In this battle the victorious

Prussians had significantly fewer
casualties than the Austrians and
their allies from Saxony.

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| the invasion foundered due to
: terrible weather. In 1745, “Bonnie

: Scotland and rallied the Jacobite
» chiefs of several Scottish

| England. The Scots defeated a

: Hanoverian force in the Battle

Prince Charlie,” as Charles
became known, crossed to

of Prestonpans and eventually
reached Derby but then retreated,

: having gained little support from

the English or the French. Military

: successes followed on their
return to Scotland, but in 1746

This 18th-century, hand-colored copperplate engraving shows disciplined ranks of red-coated Hanoverian troops
falling upon Jacobite Highlanders at the Battle of Culloden, the last battle of the Jacobite uprising.

Deadly Coehorn mortar

The Hanoverian army at Culloden
had six short-barreled Coehorn
mortars; easily portable, they were
deadly weapons on the battlefield.

the Scottish force was overcome

: by a Hanoverian force at the

Battle of Culloden. The hounding
and killing of fleeing and wounded

_ Highlanders earned the

: notoriety as the “Butcher of

» Culloden.” The battle ended the

: Second Jacobite Rebellion and

wiped out Jacobite hopes of
regaining power in Britain.

In 1745, an English farmer
began experiments in selective
animal breeding that were to

» revolutionize animal husbandry.

The principle of mating animals
with desired traits was already

: known, but the methods developed
© by farmer Robert Bakewell were
: better than earlier ones. His work
: resulted in the New Leicester

breed of sheep and New

i Longhorn cattle breed, both of
» which are still widely influential
© in animal breeding today.

In Japan, the hold of the
Tokugawa dynasty on power was
weakening. In 1745, Tokugawa
leshige (1712-61) was elected as

shogun. The retiring shogun’s
eldest son was poor in health,
defective in speech, and had little
interest in government affairs,
but his father demanded his

succession as primogeniture
dictated. Natural disasters and
famine characterized his reign,
and as the power of the
mercantile class grew, his own
authority declined, the result of
poor decisions and delegation
of power to subordinates.
Meanwhile, France was still at
war with Austria and its allies. In
1746 a French force, authorized
by Governor-General Joseph
Francois Dupleix (1697-1763),
took the British-held Indian port
of Madras. In 1747, Dupleix
followed this with an attack
on Fort St. David, the strongly

Selectively bred sheep
This 1842 engraving depicts a New Leicester ram, a breed
developed by Robert Bakewell’s new breeding methods at
his Leicestershire farm.

: fortified British headquarters in

© southern India, 100 miles (160 km)
: south of Madras, but this time he
: was unsuccessful. However, the
French remained in occupation

: Aix-la-Chapelle (see 1748}

returned the port to the British
in exchange for Louisbourg in

In China, during the reign of the
Qianlong Emperor (r. 1736-99),

| Christians were subjected to

: renewed persecution from 1746

: to 1748 asa matter of imperial

© policy. In 1715, Pope Clement XII
: had criticized idolatrous elements
: in Chinese religious practices, and
: the Qianlong Emperor realized

: that Chinese Christians felt

44 THE MOST SUDDEN AND VISIBLE

GOOD EFFECTS WERE...FROM
ORANGES AND LEMONS. 99

James Lind, British surgeon, from Treatise of the Scurvy, 1753

evangelization was banned, and
Chinese Christians were forced
to go into hiding. Wherever
missionaries were discovered
flouting the law by preaching,
the persecution of Christians

was intensified.
Another scientific

breakthrough in 1745 was
the Leyden jar, probably

the most important
18th-century
development in

the understanding
of electricity.

Early capacitor

The Leyden jar could
store electric charge,
which was created

by an electrostatic
generator and
conducted into the jar
through its metal rod.

: Invented by the Dutch scientist
: Pieter van Musschenbroek of the

i University of Leiden, this device,
: an early type of capacitor,

: demonstrated that electricity
could be stored. From this
developed the idea ofa
battery, originally a group
of Leyden jars combined to
generate a more powerful
electric charge.

In 1747, the powerful
Persian overlord
Nader Shah

{b. 1688), who had
become paranoid
and mercilessly
cruel, was
murdered by his
bodyguards. A
grand assembly
in Kandahar,
Afghanistan,
recognizing the

Map of Madras

This 1750 engraving
depicts the Indian port of
Madras, together with its
British Fort of St. George,
both captured by a French
naval expedition in 1746.

resulting weakness of
the Persian Empire,
elected Nader's Afghan
lieutenant, Ahmad
Khan Abdali, (also
known as Ahmad Shah
Durrani, 1722-73) as
head and founder of
the modern state of
Afghanistan. Abdali
was to unify the country
under his rule and
develop a large empire,
including parts of present-day
Iran, Pakistan, and India.

In West Africa, the Yoruba
people, occupying territory from
eastern present-day Benin to
southern Nigeria, invaded the
Kingdom of Dahomey in 1747.
The kingdom was rich from trade
in slaves and commodities such
as palm oil, and was forced to pay
tribute to the Yoruba Empire of
Oyo, an arrangement that lasted
until 1818.

1747 also saw a development
that was to improve the lives of
sailors. In a pioneering study,
James Lind, a surgeon of the
Royal Navy, proved that scurvy, a
sometimes fatal disease common
during long voyages, could be
treated by eating citrus fruit.
However, only in 1795 did the
Royal Navy begin to use lemon
juice to prevent and treat scurvy.

A fireworks display on the Thames River on May 15, 1749, organized by the
Duke of Richmond to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN
SUCCESSION (see 1740) was
concluded by the signing of the
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
(present-day Aachen] in 1748.
Prussia’s conquest of Silesia
was recognized, France
regained some of its
colonies in exchange

for withdrawing from the
Netherlands, and Britain's
Asiento contract with Spain
(see 1713] was renewed.

Nader Shah's lucrative sacking
of Dethi (see 1739) became the
incentive for a second attack, this
time on the Punjab by Ahmad
Khan Abdali [see 1747). His army
of 12,000 horsemen was met
in the Battle of Manupur bya
defensive Mughal force of 60,000.
Abdali’s Afghans held their own
until 1,000 of them were killed by
an exploding gunpowder store;
devastated, they fled. Meanwhile,
arising power in the south was
the Kingdom of Mysore under
the control of Hyder Ali (1720-82),
father of the famous Tipu Sultan
(1750-99). Under Hyder Ali, the
Mysore Empire seized territory
from the Marathas, Hyderabad,
and neighboring kingdoms.

In North America, the British
presence in Nova Scotia was
consolidated with the
establishment of Halifax in 1749;
the area capital was transferred
there from Annapolis Royal. In
violation of a previous treaty,
Lieutenant General Edward
Cornwallis (1713-76) arrived with
transport ships containing 2,500
settlers, sparking a war in which
the French and native Mikmaq

Unrefined platinum ore
Platinum was discovered in South
America by Spanish conquerors. The

» name is derived from the Spanish

term platina, meaning ‘little silver.”

kept the British settlement
constantly under attack.
In Pennsylvania, the first

- Lutheran Synod was founded
: in 1748 by Henry Melchior

Mihlenburg (1711-87). German
Lutherans had first arrived in
Pennsylvania in 1683, but it was
the creation of the Synod that

| unified the Lutheran community.

South America’s gold and silver
had long been valued in Europe,

: but it was not until 1748, witha
: report from Spanish explorer

Antonio de Ulloa (1716-95), that
the value of South America’s

platinum was realized. A dense,
corrosion-resistant metal, it was

» mined in the Cordillera Occidental
: of Colombia and in central Peru.

Another Spaniard, Giacobbo

made history in 1749 when he
took a pupil to the Paris Academy
of Sciences to demonstrate his

» new sign language for deaf-

mutes in which the sign alphabet

i required the use of only one hand.

253

THE AGE OF

REVOLUTION
1750-1913

Often dramatic, war-torn, and violent, this period was also
a time of remarkable technological advances in medicine,
communication, and transportation—ushering in the
beginnings of the modern world.

. ts x
José | of Portugal’s coat of arms on
the ceiling of Coimbra University.

THE COLONIAL BOUNDARY
BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
in the New World was settled by
the Treaty of Madrid, signed on
13 January, which significantly
amended the Treaty of
Tordesillas (1494). The previous
agreement stipulated that the
Portuguese empire extend no
further than 370 leagues west of
the Azores (around 46 degrees
west], but the new treaty took into
account the extent of Portuguese
settlement in Brazil. Spain hoped
that by allowing Portugal some
concessions it would discourage
any further Portuguese territorial
expansion in the region.

MARQUIS OF POMBAL
(1699-1782)

The Marquis of Pombal was
a controversial political
figure, appointed prime
minister of Portugal in 1750,
the year José | (1714-77) took
the throne. His 27 years in
power saw economic and
social reform, and the
expulsion of the Jesuits.

THE NUMBER
OF VOLUMES
OFTHE |
ENCYCLOPEDIE
PUBLISHED
BETWEEN 1751
AND 1765

ENGLAND WAS EXPERIENCING AN
ALCOHOL CRISIS, fuelled by the
popularity of cheap gin, as
illustrated by the darkly satirical
engraving Gin Lane by William
Hogarth (1697-1764), issued in
1751. Gin production had been

refined over the previous 50 years,

and the spirit proved hugely
popular — by the year Hogarth's
print was completed, the British
were drinking more than two
gallons of gin per capita a year.
Public outcry over the social
effects of gin led to the Gin Act of

1751, which attempted to limit the

amount that could be bought.

In France, intellectuals led by
the writer and philosopher Denis
Diderot (1713-84) began the

publication of the Encyclopédie, ou =
dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, :

des arts et des métiers. Known as
the Encyclopédie, it became one
of the defining works of the

A detail from engraver William Hogarth's 1751 work Gin Lane depicts the
public drunkenness and social problems caused by cheap gin.

: Enlightenment (see 1763). Many
i influential French thinkers — such
_ as Montesquieu [1689-1755],

| Jean-Jacques Rousseau

» (1712-78), and Voltaire (1694-

: 1778) - contributed to tens of

: thousands of articles in the work,
_ which attempted to catalogue the
depths of human knowledge in

: science, philosophy, politics, and

religion. With its emphasis on

= reason, the volumes were banned
: in some countries, such as Spain,
: where the Catholic Inquisition

: objected to its content.

Halfway across the world, China

: was extending its power in the

» Dzungaria and Tarim basin by
| fighting the Mongolian tribes

Road [see pages 100-01), the

i vital trade route between China
| and the West.

ROCOCO

This 18th-century painting on
the ceiling of a Bavarian
church exemplifies the work
of the Rococo movement that
dominated European
decorative arts, architecture,
painting, and sculpture.
Rococo evolved out of
Baroque (see 1626], but its
details and flourishes were
even more ornate and often
playful. The period is often
associated with French
design during the reigns

of Louis XV (r. 1715-54)

and Louis XVI (r. 1774-92).

This Buddha statue is in the Sulamani Pahto temple in Bagan, Burma, which
was built in 1181 but contains images and frescos from the Konbaung period.

46 ENERGY AND
Pp

BURMA [MYANMAR] HAD LONG
BEEN DIVIDED among warring
factions until a chief, Alaungpaya
(1714-60), began to unite the
country through a series of
military victories, and established
the Konbaung dynasty. Not only
did he have to bring disparate
groups together, he also faced the
challenge of troops from Britain
and France, who were eager to
gain territory in Burma and who
were willing to arm Alaungpaya's
enemies. But for the next seven
years, Alaungpaya resisted both
threats, and British and French
troops were driven out. Under
successive kings, the unified
kingdom continued to become
stronger, and over the following
decades it went so far as to make
incursions into Siam (Thailand).
In Britain, the public went to bed
on 2 September and woke up on
14 September. The government

ERSISTENCE

CONQUER ALL
“THINGS. 99

: Attributed to Benjamin Franklin,
: American inventor, politician,
: and diplomat

» had made the decision to change

from the Julian calendar to the

: Gregorian one, joining the other

» western European countries that

| had made the change hundreds of
© years before. This calendar was

» introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory
» XIII, who chose to make the

H change when it became clear that

the old Julian calendar put around

11 extra days between vernal
© equinoxes, making the celebration
» of Easter arrive earlier each year.

In British North America,

politician, and diplomat Benjamin

: Franklin (1706-90) invented the

- lightning conductor. Before the

» advent of Franklin's lightning rod,
: buildings were often destroyed by
: fires started by lightning. Franklin
: thought there was a relationship
between lightning and electricity
» and was said to have flown a kite
© ina lightning storm to prove his

theory. The rod, developed after

: this experiment, attracts

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256

Based on the work of the botanist Carl Linnaeus, this
botanical drawing of blackberries is by J. Miller.

BY THE TIME SIR HANS SLOANE : exchange, he wanted a payment

(1660-1753), an Irish-born
physician and collector, died, he
had amassed 71,000 different
objects, ranging from samples of
flora and fauna from all over the
world, to books and manuscripts
about a wide range of subjects.
Like other intellectuals and
scientists across Europe, he was
part of wider Enlightenment
intellectual currents, and he
had realized the scholarly
value of his collection, which
he bequeathed to Britain. In

Golden collection
Used for determining
positions of stars, this
gold astrolabe, was
part of Hans
Sloane's
collection.

«)

of £20,000 to his estate - well
below the value of the collection.
The English Parliament approved
» the deal and passed an act
: establishing the British Museum.
: Parts of the collection were put on
1 public display a few years later.
: Sloane's contemporaries across
Europe were engaged in collecting
and other scientific pursuits.
In the same year, Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus
(1707-78) published his
Species Plantarum, which
classified more than 7,000
species of plants by
putting each genus
into a class and
order, a system
Mm that is still
used today.

A he

This scene shows troops mounted on
elephants during the Carnatic War.

THE SECOND CARNATIC WAR
(1749-54) and the French and
Indian War (1754-63) were both
precursors to the larger Seven
Years’ War (1756-63). However,
the theatre of these Anglo-French
disputes was not Europe. The

INDIA Hugh)

Chandernager opin air

els Calcutta

Diu $Daman
Bassein TBombay

Goa@

* Vizagapatam
#Yanam

Masulipatam
—Pulicat

Cannanore — Madras

Mahe ~ Pondicherry

Calicut — oe Karikal
‘Cochin ———__Nagapatam

Jaffna
——Trincomale

Colombo
KEY Galle ™™Matara

* Portuguese * French
settlements settlements

Europe in India

By the mid-18th century, European
powers held territories and
established settlements in India.

French and Indian War
ranged from Virginia in the

® south to Nova Scotia in the

north of North America.
Battles of the Second
Carnatic War took place
in South India. The Treaty
of Pondicherry temporarily
halted tensions between
France and Britain, whose
troops were technically
employed by corporations -
the East India companies.
The treaty recognized the
British-backed Mohammad Ali
as the new Nawab of Carnatic,
which had been a key factor
behind the dispute.

A painting depicts the desperate search for survivors in Lisbon
after the city was heavily damaged by an earthquake in November.

44 1AM NOT SOLOST IN

LEXICOGRAPHY AS TO
FORGET THAT WORDS ARE
THE DAUGHTERS OF EARTH. gy

Samuel Johnson, English writer, from the preface of his Dictionary

of the English Language, 1755

AN EARTHQUAKE KILLED TENS OF
THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE in Lisbon,
Portugal, when it shook the city
on the morning of 1 November. It
was later estimated by scientists
to be around an 8.7 magnitude
event. Estimates of the number
of deaths range from 10,000 to

The earthquake also triggered a
tsunami that destroyed
settlements further south in the
Algarve region. The disaster had

a profound effect across Europe

- Voltaire {1694-1778} was
inspired to write his Poéme sur le
désastre de Lisbonne about the
event, and German philosopher
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) wrote
a series of essays aboutit. The
Marquis of Pombal (see panel,
left) immediately took action,
making sure fires were put out
and the dead were quickly buried.
He then began the rebuilding of
the city, including the construction
of buildings meant to withstand
another earthquake.

Earlier in the year, in England,
the writer Samuel Johnson
(1709-84) had completed the
commission he had received
for a Dictionary of the English
Language from a syndicate of

: London printers. It took him

: eight years and six assistants
i to finish it. Although it was not
© the first English dictionary, it

celebrated and authoritative.

: Some of its more notorious
: definitions include “patron:
100,000 in a population of 200,000. :

commonly a wretch who supports

: with insolence, and is paid with
© flattery” and “oats: a grain,

: which in England is generally

' given to horses, but in Scotland
| supports the people”.

: English by definition

) This is the front cover of the first

! edition of Samuel Johnson's

: Dictionary of the English Language.

oe
Or e
ne eat Not
0 PE ad) 0
ROO p% aN oo
oot om so
Ae os? ad WP ot 30?
Coe. Xa
oy Rog
Sy es
NS

This detail taken from an engraving by Paul Revere depicts the British capture of the French fort in Louisbourg, Nova Scotia. The fort was built to protect France's

interests in the region and became a target for the British when war was declared in 1756. The town was attacked by land and sea, falling to the British in 1758.

THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR [1756-63]
was fought in theaters from India
to North America to Europe,
making it a truly global conflict.
Its roots, however, were European.
The earlier War of Austrian
Succession (see 1740) left many
territorial issues unresolved. The
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)
did not settle the dispute between
Prussia and Austria over the
province of Silesia, located in
southeast Prussia and bordering
Austria. At the same time, British
and French tensions continued to
simmer. Because of complicated

FREDERICK II (1712-86)

Known as “Frederick the
Great,” the Prussian King
Frederick II ruled for 46
years. With his interest in
culture and philosophy,
Frederick's reign was
marked by a liberal spirit.
But it was his military
prowess that earned
Frederick II his reputation,
as he transformed the small
kingdom of Prussia into a
European power.

alliances, these situations
escalated into what became
known as the Seven Years’ War.
By 1754, some key incidents had
made the battle lines clear. In
April, France invaded Minorca in
the Mediterranean, which Britain
had taken from Spain in 1708. The
French sent 15,000 troops to the
island, where the British had only
* around 2,500. Britain formally
declared war on France. The
conflict brought in the Electorate
of Hanover, in northwest
Germany, which was willing to
send the British extra troops.
Prussia’s Frederick II (1712-
86), meanwhile, was increasingly

France and Russia. In May, his
troops entered the Electorate of

: Men at arms

| The sizes of the armies
) involved in the Seven

» Years’ War are shown

: here. Although some of
: the important battles

: were at sea, most of the
: fighting was done by

: army soldiers.

: Saxony, between Prussia and

_ Austria's leader, Maria Theresa
: (1717-80), was quick to send

i more troops. The war had begun.

Britain and Prussia formed an

: alliance against France, Russia,
: Austria, Sweden, Saxony, and
suspicious of the alliance between :
: was also pursuing its own

: interests: Britain wanted France

eventually Spain. But each country

000

out of India and North America;
Austria and Prussia both wanted
Silesia. Russia wanted to curb
Frederick II's growing powers and
assist Austria and France.

The European conflict had been
preceded by skirmishes in
colonial territories: the British
and French had been fighting in

North America, as wellas in India.

Anglo-French tensions had
spilled over into disputes with

SWEDEN

Zorndorf 1758
Minden 1759

Krefeld 1758 \
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
BRITAIN \ heen

Kolin 1757

Rossbach 1757 “~~ EUROPE

Quebec Quiberon Bay 1759 Bohemia
NORTH 1759 wuiberon Bay 1759 © Rance HOLY ROMAN
AMERICA PORTUGAL
NEW spain &% Minorca 1756
FRANCE
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Havana
1762
a AFRICA
Guadeloupe 1759
Martinique 1762
PACIFIC
OCEAN SOUTH
AMERICA
The Seven Years’ War KEY oe ;
The battlefields of this conflict spanned the globe, stretching from % Britain Austria
Canada to India to Europe, making it the first global war. The colored © Prussia ® France
crosses show the victors in the key battles. © Anglo-German alliance

v7 Eo
_

local rulers in India, leading to an
infamous incident—the Black
Hole of Calcutta. The Nawab of
Bengal, Siraj-ud-Dawlah
(1733-57), who France supported,
attacked the British in Calcutta
and imprisoned many of them
ina small cell in Fort William.
Estimates of the captives range
from 60 to 150. Overnight,
between 40 and 123 of them died
due to overcrowding and heat.

ASIA

INDIA
Wandiwash
1760

Pondicherry
1761

INDIAN
OCEAN

ns
rm
ee a

Be RW x?
Caer ACS

NOE oo ue eo cot

Seat wh
J

Barbary pirates in an engagement
with the Venetian navy.

THE BRITISH-PRUSSIAN ALLIANCE
(see 1756) received a number of
boosts during 1757. Robert Clive
(1725-74) recovered Calcutta for
the East India Company [see 1600)
and Britain by defeating the
Nawab of Bengalat the Battle of
Plassey. The Holy Roman
Emperor Francis |—who was
married to Austria’s Maria

Frederick Il leads his soldiers to
victory at the Battle of Zorndorf.

Spain's new king, Charles III, would rule for nearly 30 years. Luis Paret y Alcazar
(1746-99) depicts palace life in his painting Charles II! Eating Before his Court.

44 ALLIS FORTHE BEST
IN THE BEST OF ALL
POSSIBLE WORLDS. 9g

Voltaire, French writer, from Candide, 1759

AS THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR
CONTINUED, the British won key
victories over France by taking
Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg in
North America and Pondicherry
in India [see map, opposite), and
by claiming Senegal in West
Africa. In Europe, Britain and
Prussia defeated the French near
the banks of the Rhine at Krefeld

Germany, followed in November
by further defeat by the Austrians
in the Battle of Maxen in Saxony.
In Spain, the throne was taken
by the Bourbon Charles III
(1716-88), who would become
known for his reforming zeal.
Portugal, meanwhile, had grown =
suspicious of the activities of the
Catholic Jesuit order (see 1533),
expelling it from its territories.
Cultural developments included
the publication by the Frenchman
Francois Marie Arouet
de Voltaire of Candide, a satire
about mindless optimism.

in June and Russia at the battle
of Zorndorf, on Prussian soil,
in August.

Meanwhile, in India, warfare was
breaking out on a different front—
between Afghans and Marathas.
Territorial disputes were behind
the Afghan-Maratha War (which
continued until 1861). After the
death of Nader Shah [1688-1747],
his Persian empire began to
disintegrate and Afghanistan
emerged independent under the
rule of Anmad Shah Durrani (c.
1722-73) who wanted to gain
control of the nearby territories
of the Punjab and the Upper
Ganges. Durrani had sacked the
Mughal city of Delhi the previous
year. The neighboring Marathas,
who felt they should rule over the
territory, then went to war against
the Afghans.

In the Arabian Peninsula,
significant—though not violent—
political change was taking place
as the chieftains of the Utub
confederation elected Sabah bin
Jaber (Sabah I} (c. 1652-1762)
emir of an emerging territory that
would soon become known
as Kuwait. His family,
the al-Sabah dynasty,
continues to rule Kuwait
to the present day.

Theresa—officially declared war
on Prussia. King Frederick II
then attacked Bohemia, though he
was defeated by Austrian troops.
Although Prussia defeated
Austro-French forces in Rossbach
in November, they lost to Austrian
troops in Leuthan in December.

In Morocco, Muhammad III
(c. 1710-90} brought stability to
the country as sultan after 30
years of unrest. Muhammad was
known for curbing the power of
the Barbary pirates, who raided
towns across the Mediterranean.

FOR THE BRITISH, THE SEVEN
YEARS’ WAR reached a turning
point. They took the French West
Indian island of Guadeloupe in
May, Canadian territory in July,
and Quebec in September. They
also defeated French naval forces
off Portugal at Lagos Bay in
August and at Quiberon Bay, in
the west of France, in November.
Anglo-Prussian troops defeated
the French at the Battle of Minden
in Germany in early August,
although less than two weeks
later Prussia faced a humiliating
surrender at Kunersdorf, in

Robert Clive

Calcutta was recaptured for the
British by Major General Robert Clive
at the Battle of Plassey. The victory
secured Clive's control over Bengal.

ABOLITIONISM

The image of a kneeling
slave and the inscription “Am
| not a man and a brother?”
became a famous symbol of
the British abolitionist
movement and was later
adopted by the American
Anti-Slavery Society, founded
in 1833. The seal was made
by Josiah Wedgwood for the
Society for Effecting the
Abolition of the Slave Trade.
After decades of pressure,
the British slave trade ended
in 1807. Abolitionist groups
were also established in
other countries involved in
slavery, such as the French
Société des Amis des Noirs.

Wedgwood pottery

Born into a family of English potters,
Josiah Wedgwood transformed his
craft with his style and technique.
He set up his own business in 1759
and became potter to Queen
Charlotte. His “creamware” dishes
were hugely popular.

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iy)

Acaricature of George |

was born in Britain, which he ruled for nearly 60 years.

WHEN GEORGE III (1738-1820)
TOOK THE THRONE OF ENGLAND
in 1760, he was the first king from
the German royal dynasty, the

Hanoverians, to be born in Britain. |

Unlike his German-speaking

grandfather, George Il (1683-1760), ©

English was his first language. The

crown skipped a generation owing

to the death of George's father,

Frederick Lewis (1707-51). Before

his death, he left instructions for
the 12-year-old George to separate
the Electorate of Hanover from
England and reduce the national
debt, when he took the throne.
After the death of his father,
George fell under the influence of
John Stuart, Third Earl of Bute
(1713-92), who was his tutor and
adviser. During the early years of
George Ill's reign, Bute held much
sway. This was especially evident
in the souring of relations with
William Pitt the Elder (1708-78)
and the Newcastle-Pitt coalition,
which governed Britain during the
height of the Seven Years’ War

PRICE IN POUNDS STERLING

1748 1758 1775

Price of a male slave

As British Caribbean colonies began
to increase sugar production, they
had to bring in more African slaves
as labor, as did the French.

1755

ie 31

| Fleet size in the Seven Years’ War
: Many important battles were at sea,
© and British naval strength became

: even more superior to that of France.

| [see 1756). Most significant in this
: period is George Ill’s desire to

_ have the war come to an end, as

: well as have Britain distance itself

from Prussia. These wishes were

: made manifest when Bute
became prime minster in 1762.

While George II! was embroiled

i in British and European politics,
: his dominions in the Caribbean

had undergone a transformation.
They were no longer imperial
outposts, but wealthy sugar

© colonies. However, these riches
. depended on the use of thousands ~
: of African slaves to work on the
i plantations. The population of

: British America had reached two
: million by 1760, and of this, more
: than 300,000 were slaves. Similarly, :
© the slave population in France's
: Caribbean colonies would reach

379,000 by the end of the decade.

: In the Spanish sugar islands,
» however, Cuba had fewer than
: 40,000 slaves, but its sugar boom

would come later.

1760

115

KEY
British Royal Navy
©® battleships

cruisers

French Navy
® battleships

cruisers

The British island of Jamaica

| had become a large sugar

i producer and seen a rapid rise

: in the importation of slaves, many
© of whom ran away or rebelled.

: Sunday in 1760, when a revolt led
: byaslave named Tacky began in

: St. Mary's parish. It spread from

i there, and some 30,000 slaves

: participated before it was

i suppressed the following year.

Meanwhile, in Qing China, the

i ongoing revolts in the northwest

frontier by Mongol tribes, which

: started around 1755, had finally

: been suppressed. The conflict had
: begun after the Mongols refused

Chinese government had

: China was eventually able to

: overpower the Mongols and

: bring their territory under their

: dominion by 1760.

ha
e

y
7

Hyder Ali, the ruler of the Indian kingdom of Mysore, who
became an enemy of British East India Company troops.

AS THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR

INTENSIFIED within Europe, italso :

reached a climax in the colonial

possessions. The British effectively :

destroyed French power in India
when they seized Pondicherry
(see map, below]. The port had
been settled by the French East
India Company in 1674 and had
become one of France's main
bases of operations for trade as
well as ongoing fights against
the British East India Company.
This victory followed another
one against the French the
previous year in Wandiwash,

in southeast India.

At the same time in India, the
fighting between Afghans and
Marathas [see 1758) came toa
head in the battle of Panipat, in
the north of the territory, on
January 14. The battle was bloody,
with high casualty rates—some
75,000 Marathas were killed
and 30,000 captured. However,
Ahmad Shah Durrani, who led
the Afghans, was forced by his
troops to return to the throne in
Afghanistan, This outcome meant
that the Marathas and British

began to divide the former Mughal =

territory among themselves. The
war contributed to the weakening
of the Maratha Confederacy and
the further decentralization of its
power, leading to the breakup of
its kingdoms and subsequent
battles over territory with Britain.

Farther south, in Mysore,
another future enemy of Britain,
Hyder Ali [1720-82], was building
up his army and consolidating his
power base in order to take
control of the territory.

Halfway across the world,
British and French troops were
| fighting in the Caribbean.

The British used the island of

: Guadeloupe, which they had

» captured two years earlier [see

: map, 1756), as a base from

: which to take Dominica from

: the French. The following year

: they stormed Martinique.

: To complicate matters further,

: Spain had entered the conflict,

: and Britain's naval fleet was

| making preparations to attack

: Spanish ships. However, the
attack plans would go beyond

: naval skirmishes, as British

: troops managed to not only

: a similar attack on Manila,

: the capital of the Spanish

: colony of the Philippines.

Panipat #

INDIA

Wandiwash

M .
Yeore® Pondicherry

: Conflicts in India

| India was the site of important

| battles in 1761, not only for Britain
and France, but also in the fight

: between Marathas and Afghans.

THAT'S HIS. 99

RUSSIA SAW THE ARRIVAL OF
TWO RULERS over the course of
1762, first with the ascension of
Peter III (1728-62) and later
Catherine Il (1729-96), who
became known as Catherine the
Great. When Peter III became
emperor, he made clear his
support of Prussia in the Seven
Years’ War and then pulled Russia
out of the conflict. His views were
deeply unpopular with ministers
and the public. A conspiracy
against him was quickly
organized, leading to his arrest.
His wife, Catherine, was installed
as empress of Russia. Peter III
was imprisoned, where he died in

the Great's reign was marked by
Russian aggression and
territorial expansion. She
introduced wide-ranging reforms
in agriculture, industry, and
education. She also relaxed
Russia's censorship laws and was
known for her love of literature
and particular fondness for
French philosophers and writers—
including Voltaire, with whom she
corresponded for 15 years.

As the Seven Years’ War
continued, Spain became further
drawn into events as the British
occupied its key Caribbean port of
Havana. In addition to this, Britain
was able to use troops in India to
occupy Manila, in the Philippines,
which was also a Spanish colony.
At the same time, Spain and
France entered a secret
agreement known as the Treaty
of Fontainebleau. Under the

France’s Louisiana territory in

44 | SHALL BE AN AUTOCRAT,
THAT’S MY TRADE; AND THE
GOOD LORD WILL FORGIVE ME,

Attributed to Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia

: Catherine the Great

terms of the treaty, Spain received :

The German-born empress of

1796, oversaw the territorial
expansion of her adopted country.

= North America, which stretched
: west of the Mississippi River. The

treaty was partly to thank Spanish

: Bourbons for their support of
: French forces, and also to get rid
: of apotential drain on resources.

Spain also benefited from the deal
because it would block British

In France, the philosopher and

_ writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau

: (1712-78) published his influential
» treatise, The Social Contract (Du

: between governments and the
governed, and the question of

| freedom in the face of political

: authority. It was immediately

banned by French authorities.

which ended the Seven Years’ War.

OUT OF MONEY AND EXHAUSTED,
THE EUROPEAN POWERS fighting
the Seven Years’ War brought the
conflict to a close with the Treaty
of Paris (also known as the
Peace of Paris) and the Treaty of
Hubertusburg. The cost had been
enormous—the lives of hundreds
of thousands of soldiers, and
mountains of money. Britain's
national debt rose from £75 million
to £133 million; Prussia raised
taxes and debased the taler three
times. For Austria it cost 392 million
gulden (the original estimate was
28 million] and French national debt
rose from 1,360 million livres in
1753 to 2,350 million livres in 1764,
The Treaty of Paris involved
Britain, France, and Spain. The
French faced the largest losses:
they ceded to Britain their
territories in present-day Canada,
with the exception of the islands
of St. Pierre and Miquelon; their
territories in present-day US
east of the Mississippi River; the
Caribbean islands of Grenada,
Dominica, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines, and Tobago; Minorca
in the Mediterranean; and
Senegal in West Africa. They also
formalized their cessation of the
Louisiana territory to Spain. In
exchange, Britain returned to
France the valuable Caribbean
sugar islands of Martinique and
Guadeloupe; Belle Island, off
the coast of Brittany; and the
slave-trading island of Gorée in
West Africa. France also regained
its Indian factories, but they were
not allowed to fortify them. The
Spanish were forced to give their
Florida territory to Britain, but in

A print of a fireworks display in London celebrating the Peace of Paris,

exchange British troops left
Havana and Manila. In Europe,
France agreed to evacuate
German territories.

Under the Treaty of
Hubertusburg, the borders of
1756 were reinstated, so Austria
retreated from Silesia and Prussia

left Saxony, and Europe reverted to

its former boundaries.

In the Ohio River valley territory,
Pontiac (1720-69), a chief of the
Ottawa people, was angered by
the deal, which would put the land
under British rule. In what became
known as Pontiac’s Rebellion, he
led attacks against settlements, a
situation that lasted until a deal
between the Ottawa and British
was reached in 1766.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, age 8, around
the time he visited Britain.

IN AN ATTEMPT TO FILL THE
COFFERS DEPLETED BY WAR,
the British government brought
in the Sugar Act, which clamped
down on tax avoidance on
imported molasses in North
America, a move that angered
traders and colonists.

At this time, the musical prodigy
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
(1756-91) was on a three-year
tour of Europe with his family. He
visited Munich, Brussels, Paris,
and London, where his father
Leopold presented him to play at
the royal courts. While in London
he met the German composer
Johann Christian Bach
(1735-82), who became an
important musical mentor.

The Enlightenment was a time of questioning many established
beliefs in Europe—a change in ideas reflected in the writings and
other cultural output from around the mid-18th century. It is also
marked by scientific curiosity and advancement. This painting by
Luke Howard (1772-1864) shows a fascination with weather that
led him to classify and name many cloud types.

1750-1913 | THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

EUROPEAN

PLANNING PEACE FOR A CONTINENT AT WAR

Europe at the dawn of the 19th century bore little resemblance to the
peaceful political unit of cooperative countries that it has become in the
21st century. Indeed, prior to 1815, the power balances and political
alliances were constantly shifting, leading to near-continual confrontation.

The Napoleonic Wars had seen Europeinacycle of torn Europe apart and a spirit of conservatism
almost constant conflict for more than a decade and restoration prevailed—though not all deposed
and left Europe in a state of imbalance. To address _ rulers were restored, and not all possessions lost
the questions of howto reorganize the war-ravaged __in the Napoleonic Wars were regained.

continent, a congress was called at Vienna in 1814. The national boundaries resulting from the ANIEIL ZN INDI INE
Decisions were made on what to do with the new Treaty of Vienna in 1815 stayed in place for more OCEAN
states that Napoleon had created, such as the than four decades. Fear of revolution led to a desire

Grand Duchy of Warsaw (see map below), and the among Europe's statesmen to maintain the status

regions of Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries quo. Although there were threats from liberal and Bay of

that had been annexed to France. The peacemakers _ nationalist elements, the Vienna system survived
aimed to avoid a repetition of the conflicts that had and disputes were largely settled by diplomacy.

1815 The Congress of 1820: revolution in
i ‘ peas Portugal against British
NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE Vienna’s reorganization PREY > control of country

When Napoleon became First Consul of France in 1799, Sail aeratae a

he soon made clear his imperial ambitions by crowning Confederation. The
himself emperor of France in 1804 and mounting military growth of liberalism and

ei nationalism in Europe
campaigns throughout Europe. saw uprisings across the

continent but the Vienna
system held firm until SPAIN
the revolutions of 1848.

Pn
1833-39:
First Carlist War

1820:
revolution Madrid

y
Cy
~~
Sa
g

1846-48:
Second Carlist War

fey GIBRALTAR
North Sea a & Threat to Vienna system to Britain
DENMARK =@ Rl = Internal frontiers 1815

Copenhagen 5
~~ German confederation

Is GRAND DUCHY
CONFEDERATION OF WARSAW | Population chart
BETHE RHINE Peague Prussia At the beginning of
Zurich AUSTRIAN EMPIRE Napoleon's rule,
Munich es
England France had a far larger
population than the
Habsburg surrounding states.
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POPULATION IN 1800 (MILLIONS)
KINGDOM
aural OF SICILY
French forces
Over the course of the
1812 Since coming to power in 1799, KEY 1,000,000 Napoleonic Wars,
Napoleon had managed to extend France's © French territory 2,000,000 CASUALTIES soldiers from all over
power in Europe dramatically, controlling the ruled directly NATIVE FRENCH 1804-15 the French Empire
Low Countries, parts of Germany and Italy, from Paris 1812 SOLDIERS fought, and died,

Spain, and Poland, although his attempts to Dependent 1804-15 in Napoleon's army. At
encroach on Russia were met with a state 1812 its height, it comprised
humiliating defeat in 1812. nearly 600,000 men.

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with Britain | 1817-31: PRUSSIA

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44 ANY PLAN CONCEIVED
IN MODERATION MUST FAIL
WHEN THE CIRCUMSTANCES

A RETURN TO WAR

Many of the ongoing tensions between countries that
arose in the 19th century gained momentum in the 20th.
The assassination of the Austrian archduke Franz
Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists in 1914 sparked World
War I, a global conflict that would reshape Europe.

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

1914 The Vienna system was swept away by the wave of
nationalism that crossed Europe from the mid-19th century.
Countries such as Italy and Germany were unified by the
time Europe sat on the brink of war in 1914. However, at
Versailles in 1919, the map would be redrawn yet again.

KEY

@ German Empire
BD Austro-Hungarian Empire
Russian Empire
I Netherlands
1B France

WB United Kingdom
1 Norway

®@ Spain

B® Switzerland

W@ Sweden

BB Belgium

Rival
1 3 a 6 populations
= The population
of the Allied countries at the
outset of World War | was more
than double the population of
the Central Powers.

Montenegro
© Portugal
{Romania
B italy

I Ottoman Empire
BB Albania

Luxembourg
@ Denmark
© Serbia

@ Bulgaria

5.4 million

MILLION

KEY

‘Allied Powers: Russia,
France, Britain, Belgium,
and Serbia

Germany and Austria-Hungary
Troop numbers
The Allied Powers had far greater
forces to mobilize in 1914 than
the armies of the Central Powers.

263

Pie. Ende :
Acartoon about the Stamp Act shows the Treasury Secretary, George Grenville, with

a child's coffin bearing the words “Miss Ame-Stamp, born in 1765, died 1766”.

THIS YEAR WOULD BE ONE OF
GROWING DISCONTENT with
colonial rule within British and
Spanish colonies in the Americas.
In May, the residents of the
Andean city of Quito (in today’s
Ecuador] protested against the
imposition of a new system of
tax administration aimed at
increasing revenues for Spain's
depleted treasury. The rioters
drove out the royal officials,
installing in their place a
government that controlled the
city until troops arrived a year
later to reestablish royal control.
Farther to the north, Britain's
American colonists were growing
angry at similar revenue-raising
exercises. Following the
unpopular Sugar Act (see 1764)
was the Stamp Act. This piece of
legislation stipulated that all
American colonists would have
to pay a tax on every piece of
printed paper they used. This
meant that products from legal
documents to newspapers and

44 IF OUR
TRADE BE
TAXED, WHY
NOT OUR
LANDS, OR
PRODUCE,
IN SHORT,
EVERYTHING WE
POSSESS?... 99

Samuel Adams, American
politician, on the Sugar Act, 1764

: playing cards would carry the

: duty. The colonists feared the tax
| represented a form of press

: censorship. They also resented

: much because of the cost, but

: because the Crown was beginning
: to look at internal American

» commerce and not just external
? trade for additional revenue,

» something not done before. In

: addition, Britain was imposing

: taxes without the consent of the
: colonists, who responded with

: protests, and the act was

Meanwhile, in Lancashire,

» England, a weaver and carpenter
» named James Hargreaves

: (1720-78) had completed work

: onan invention known as the

spinning jenny. The device was

= animprovement on the spinning

: wheel because it could power

: multiple spindles. Hargreaves

| supposedly came up with the idea
: for the device after observing a

i spinning wheel lying overturned

: on the ground. He realised that
j by creating a machine that was
: horizontal, more spindles could
» be added. The spinning jenny

: enabled cloth production to

_ increase by eightfold, and other
: inventors continued to modify

: Hargreave’s design to make the
: machine even more efficient.

In Germany, Joseph Il (1741-90)

» became Holy Roman Emperor

» andalso co-ruler of the Habsburg
» family lands with his mother

: Maria Theresa until her death

| in 1780. Joseph later began a

| program of reform that included
© the emancipation of serfs and

: improvement of the education

| system, a reflection of the

: Enlightenment works he read.

: He was considered to be

: an “enlightened despot”.

: Dawn of the machine age

: A woman working at a spinning

: jenny inan early 19th-century mill.
: James Hargreaves’ invention

: revolutionized cloth production.

Jacobites toast Charles Stuart—“Bonnie Prince Charlie”—in Edinburgh.

Many of his supporters were Scottish.

JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART

DIED IN 1766 at the Palazzo Muti in ;

Rome, having failed in his mission
to be restored to the British
thrones as James Ill. His birth
in 1688 had initiated the Glorious
Revolution, forcing his father
James II (1633-1701) to take his
family to France to
live in exile. At the
heart of the matter
was the Stuart
faith: Catholicism.
After the royal family had
fled, the English Parliament
passed the Act of Settlement
of 1689, barring any Roman
Catholics from succession to the
throne. The Stuarts, however, had
many supporters in England,
Scotland, and Ireland. They were
known as Jacobites after
“Jacobus,” the Latin for James.
Several attempts were made
to return James Ill, or the “Old
Pretender” as he became known,
to the throne, the most notable
being the risings of 1715 and
1745. All proved unsuccessful.
Over the course of the Old
Pretender’s exile his son, Charles
Edward Stuart (1720-88)—known
as “Bonnie Prince Charlie” or the
“Young Pretender”—also took up
his father’s fight, but to Little avail.
Charles never recovered from his
defeat at the Battle of Culloden
(the last clash of the 1745
rising—see 1744-47), although
he made later efforts to secure
support from France and the
Holy Roman Empire for further
uprisings. By the time the Old
Pretender died and Charles
became the official claimant to

Bonnie Prince
Charlie's star and garter

The star and garter worn by Charles
Stuart indicated he was the son of a
legitimate sovereign. It was awarded
while the family was in exile.

the Stuart throne, the battle that
had consumed both their lives
had been lost, though admiration
for the cause continued.

In Denmark, Christian VII
(1749-1808) became king shortly
before his seventeenth birthday.
Later that year, he married
Caroline Matilda, one of the
sisters of Britain's George Ill. His
reign was marked by his mental
instability and debauchery.
During his early days of rule, the
German doctor Johann Freidrich
Struensee (1737-72) infiltrated
the court and exercised much
influence over the weak king,
eventually enacting policy and
having an affair with the queen.
Struensee was finally arrested
and executed. The later years of
Christian’s reign were inname
only, and from 1784 his son,
Frederick VI (1768-1839), acted
as regent.

A depiction of the Jesuits being
expelled from the kingdom of Spain.

Jesuit settlements
in the New World
The Society of Jesus was
instrumenial in the settlement of
territory in the Americas and by
1767 had extensive missions.

LIKE THE PORTUGUESE NEARLY

A DECADE EARLIER, the Spanish
Crown grew concerned about the
Jesuits and the order's activities
in the American colonies. One of
the underlying causes for concern
had been Jesuit resistance to
paying tithes to the Crown, and
this reluctance was symptomatic
of longer-running struggles
between the order and the king.
At issue was the Jesuits growing
influence and wealth in Spanish
America through their schools,
extensive landholding, and
agricultural success. Claiming

he was “moved by weighty
reasons,” Charles II| decided to
expel the Jesuits from his realm.
This enabled the Crown to
confiscate valuable Jesuit land
and property. Thousands of the
order’s members fled to the
Papal States and Corsica.

CAPTAIN JAMES COOK (1728-79)
made his name in the Royal Navy
with his excellent navigational
skills and cartography of
Canadian waters during the

Seven Years’ War (1756-63). These
accomplishments paved the way
for his next assignment—an
expedition to the South Pacific.
The mission was organized by

the Royal Society, with the
Admiralty providing the
ship. The Endeavour set
off from Plymouth on
August 25 and arrived
in Tahiti—via Madeira, Rio de
Janeiro, and Cape Horn—on
April 13, 1769. Cook then headed
further south encountering the
island later known as New
Zealand. He eventually sailed
from there to the unknown
eastern coast of Australia where
he landed in what became known
as Botany Bay. The Endeavour
returned to England in 1771 and
Captain Cook's expedition was
hailed a success.

THE NUMBER
OF CREW AND
CIVILIANS WHO
SET OFF WITH
CAPTAIN COOK

Captain James Cook and his crew at the watering place
in the Bay of Good Success, Tierra del Fuego.

As Cook was sailing the Pacific,
other changes were afoot in
Britain. Reflecting the growing
desire for knowledge [the
Enlightenment), the first volume
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
was published in Edinburgh. It
was “compiled upon a new plan in
which the different Sciences and
Arts are digested into distinct
Treatises or Systems.” It soon
sold out and by 1771 a three-
volume set was completed.

Meanwhile, in London, former
soldier Philip Astley (1742-1814)
opened a riding school in 1768
called Halfpenny Hatch based in
Lambeth, where he performed
tricks on horseback in a ring. He
added musicians, acrobats, and

The Endeavour
took Captain James

\\ Hemisphere.

: clowns to provide entertainment
© during the interludes, and the
modern circus was born.

In Russia, events had taken a

» serious turn. Tensions with the

» two into the Russo-Turkish War
: of 1768-74. The root cause was

: Catherine the Great's refusal to

' comply with the treaty ending the
© previous war with the Ottomans

» (1736-39), as well as her

: interventions in Poland. The

Ottomans declared war after

» Russia sacked a Turkish town.

Further east, Prithvi Narayan

A model of the ship that

\\. Cook to the Southern

Detail of the bell tower at the Mission
of San Diego de Alcala in California.

THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH
AMERICA showed no sign of
abating, though its inhabitants
still knew very little about the vast
western territory. In 1769, an
American named Daniel Boone
(1734-1820) set off for a hunting
expedition in present-day
Kentucky, an area virtually
unknown to white settlers. Along
the way he worked out a better
route along the Cumberland Gap,
a plateau in the Appalachian
mountains. This became part

of the Wilderness Road, a

trail blazed by Boone and
the Transylvania Company,
and later used by settlers to
cross the mountains and reach
the Kentucky territory. Boone
and his family moved to Kentucky
in 1775 and established one of the
first towns, Boonesborough. He
spent the rest of his life working
as a hunter and explorer.

The Spanish, too, were looking
to expand their territory in North
America. They had claimed a
region in present-day southern
California that Charles III was
eager to populate with Spanish
settlers after rumors that Russia
was planning to move into
the area. To this end he sent
Franciscan friars to establish
missions in the region. Spanish
Franciscan Junipero Serra
(1713-84) began work ona series
of missions throughout Spain's
California territory. The first one,
established in 1769, was San
Diego de Alcala, and over the
course of the next 54 years a
chain of 20 further missions was
built along the California coast.

An engraving depicting the violence of the

Boston Massacre.

AFTER THE FAILURE OF THE
STAMP ACT (see 1765) the
British government was still
left with the question of how to
raise money in the colonies.
The answer came ina
series of acts formulated
by the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, Charles
Townshend (1725-67).
The legislation

included duties on

paint, paper, glass,

lead, and tea imported
to the American
colonies, as wellasa
reorganization of
customs to cut down on
smuggling. In addition,
another act suspended the
New York legislature
because it refused to comply
with the Quartering Act, which
demanded that colonial
assemblies provide basic
necessities for British soldiers
in the territories. On March 5,a
group of dock workers began to

: Marie Antoinette miniature

» Acameo of Marie Antoinette, who
: would become one of the most

infamous queens of France.

: harass some British soldiers on

The Cromford Mill set up by Richard
Arkwright in Derbyshire.

THE BIRTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION came a step closer
when Englishman Richard
Arkwright (1732-92) worked with
clockmaker John Kay to develop
a spinning frame. By 1771 they
had decided to use a waterwheel
to power it—hence the name
“water frame” and built a
factory—Cromford MillL—
in northern England,
making this the first
water-powered textile
mill. The venture was a
success and the textile
factories became profitable,
leading Arkwright to open
a series of factories in
Engand and Scotland.
Arkwright’s inventions are
considered an important part of
the Industrial Revolution, which
transformed Britain from an
agricultural economy to a
manufacturing one. The mills
saw the development of the
mass-production factory system
which would be adopted all
over the world.

whose constitution and reforms angered the nobility and led to his death.

Vilna

Posene®
~

PRUSSIA ce

#Vienna

HABSBURG EMPIRE

POLAND FACED the first of three
partitions of its territory. This

the Ottoman Turks in the Russo-

alarmed Austria and Prussia.
Frederick Il aimed to shift Russian
expansion from Turkish territory
to the Polish-Lithuanian Union,
which was weakened by civil war.
On August 5, Russia, Prussia, and
Austria signed a treaty—ratified

» patrol near a customs house in
: Boston, and a crowd formed. More
: soldiers arrived and opened fire
: onthe colonists—the majority of
whom were unarmed—killing five
: and wounding a further six. This
* episode became known as the
: Boston Massacre and fuelled
_ resentment between Britain
: and its American colonies.
In Europe, the Dauphin of
France, the future Louis XVI
» (1754-93), married the daughter
: of Maria Theresa of Austria, Marie
| Antoinette. They were 15 and 14
: years old, respectively, at the time.

THE AGE AT
WHICH MARIE
ANTOINETTE
MARRIED
LOUIS XVI

The Industrial Revolution was an economic transformation that
took place in Europe during the late 18th and early 19th centuries,
changing rural, agrarian economies to ones based on manufactured
goods, which were often made in cities. This transformation
began in England, and was facilitated by the arrival of inventions
such as the spinning jenny (see 1765] and the use of steam power
(see 1775], which led to the growth of industries such as textiles
in cities like Manchester. New technologies soon spread
throughout Europe, and other countries such as France, Germany,
and Belgium were seeing similar economic shifts as agricultural
workers left the countryside for jobs in growing urban centers, or
to work in the coal mines that powered the urban factories.

\ ‘eGrodno #Minsk

OTTOMAN
EMPIRE

KEY

RUSSIAN
EMPIRE

.
‘Smolensk

Partition of
Poland

Russia, Austria,
and Prussia

’ recieved parts of
Poland in the first
partition.

by the Polish legislature (Sejm)—

: depriving Poland of a third of its
resulted from Russia’s defeats of =

land, of which all three powers

: took a share.
Turkish War (see 1768), which had
| (1746-92) took the throne, though
: the monarchy had been weakened
© by a government faction wishing

: to limit the Crown's power. In

: response, Gustavus staged a coup
: and issued a new constitution. He
© introduced judicial reforms and

: strengthened Sweden's naw.

_ However, he was unpopular with

In Sweden, Gustavus III

the nobility, of whom he was

i critical, and was denounced for
: his expenditure of public funds.
| He was assassinated in 1792.

In England, a legal case was

: mounted over a slave, James

Somersett, who had been brought

: from Jamaica to England in 1771

| This set a precedent that people

+ could not be taken out of England
: against their will.

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This painting by Vasily Perov shows Cossack leader, Emelyan Pugachev,
holding court and passing judgment on his enemies.

BRITAIN’S AMERICAN COLONISTS
were becoming increasingly
agitated by the number of
restrictions being placed on
them—even if some had
unexpected benefits, such as a
reduction in the price of tea.
Indeed, because of the Tea Act of
1773, which allowed direct
exportation from India to North
America, as well as having it taxed
at source rather than upon arrival,
American colonists would pay less
than anyone in Britain for their
tea. However, there were many
colonial merchants who dealt in
smuggled tea and so faced ruin if
legal tea became cheaper than

Boston Tea Party

Merchants dump chests of tea worth
£10,000 from an East India Company
ship into Boston harbor.

their contraband goods. They put

: pressure on East India ships to

not dock in American ports. The
Dartmouth, however, proceeded
to anchor in Boston. On December

: 16, angry traders took 342 chests

of tea worth £10,000 from the
Dartmouth and tipped it into the
city’s harbor. This was heralded as
a key moment of resistance to
British governance.

Russia also was experiencing
unrest, led by a Cossack called
Emelyan Pugachev (1742-75).
Pugachev served in the Seven
Years’ War, though he deserted in
1762. He traveled around Russia,
claiming to be the deposed
emperor Peter Ill, and promising
to abolish serfdom. Through his
travels he managed to rally about
25,000 willing troops. Despite
early victories against Catherine

the Great's army, his troops were
eventually overpowered. He was
executed on January 10, 1775.

The Ottoman Empire was facing
upheaval in Egypt. Ali Bey
al-Kabir (1728-73) had been
Egypt's de facto ruler, but in 1769
he deposed the Ottoman governor
of Egypt and tried to make the
country independent. He also sent
troops into the territories of
Palestine and Syria, but by 1773
he was defeated by Ottoman
forces and died from his wounds
while in prison in Cairo.

On his ship in the South Atlantic,
Captain James Cook crossed the
Antarctic Circle. He had set
out on another mission the year
before, in a ship called the
Resolution, determined to explore
the vast and unknown areas of the
southern hemisphere.

The funeral procession of Louis XV (1710-74), whose nickname had been “the
well-beloved.” Louis XV ruled France for almost 60 years.

IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES,
representatives from each of the
13 colonies except Georgia met in
Philadelphia to discuss what to do
about a slew of legislation that
became known as the
Intolerable Acts. These acts
were issued in retaliation for the
dumping of tea in Boston harbor
(see 1773) and growing American
rebellion. They stipulated that
Boston harbor must be closed to
all but British ships; that the
colonists must house British
troops if necessary; that British
officials would not be tried for
crimes in the colonies but in
Britain instead, allowing them

to act with impunity; and self-
government in Boston was to be
stopped. Also included was the
Quebec Act, which enlarged the
boundaries of the Canadian
province, permitted a degree of
self-rule through a governor and
appointed councillors, guaranteed
religious freedom for the many
Catholic settlers, and allowed the
continuation of French civil law in
conjunction with British criminal
law. This act added insult to injury
for many American settlers. They
objected to the expansion

of Quebec into territory they
believed was theirs, and many
were suspicious of the type of
government that had been
installed there. The Continental
Congress—a group of delegates
drawn from each of the thirteen
colonies—decided to take action,
and agreed to boycott British
goods and trade, sending a strong
message to the English king,
George Ill.

: Louis XVI

The king of France, Louis XVI,
wearing his coronation robes. He

: came to power at just 17 years old.

In France, Louis XVI became the

Meanwhile, fighting between

_ Russia and the Ottoman Empire
: came to an end. They signed the

Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in July,

Peninsula as independent,
meaning Crimea was free from

aligned itself with Russia.
The Ottomans faced further

» disruption with the death in
© October of Sultan Mustafa III

(1717-74), succeeded by his
brother, Abdul Hamid I

' became ruler, the empire was in

: decline, as earlier economic

disastrous war with Russia.

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44 LET JUSTICE BE DONE
THOUGH THE HEAVENS
SHOULD FALL 99

John Adams, American statesman, December 5. 1777

The opening shots of war between the British troops (in red) and the American colonial militia [in the
foreground) on Lexington Common in Massachusetts, by English artist William Barnes Wollen (1857-1936).

THE ANGRY RECEPTION GIVEN TO
LEGISLATION and discontent over
the issue of “taxation without
representation” in the 13
American colonies had begun

to worry British officials and

they feared an armed rebellion.
On April 18, General Thomas
Gage (1721-87), who

was also Governor of
Massachusetts, sent
British soldiers (known as
“redcoats”] to seize the
guns and ammunition
being stored by the
colonists in the town of

smokestack

Concord, just outside of Boston.

| Aware that the British might

execute such a plan, the colonists
had set up a system of alerts
should any event come to pass.

: Once news was received of the
: planned raid on Concord, Boston

silversmith and engraver Paul

: Revere (1735-1818] set off from
i the city that night to warn fellow

- of steam
|
|

ie
j
|

organizers that British troops

: were on the march. Minutemen
) (militia who were ready to fight
: “ata minute's notice”) grabbed

: their guns and waited for the

i arrival of the redcoats.

On the morning of April 19 the

: “shot heard around the world” was

fired and battle ensued between
colonists and British troops in
Lexington and nearby Concord.

: The American Revolutionary
| War had begun.

Fighting continued through the
summer. Colonial forces, under

= the command of General George
: Washington (1732-99) captured

ee : key points near Lake Champlain,

eentiole | but the British defeated them at
spent steam admission | the Battle of Bunker Hill on June
escapes via andrelease : 17, despite losing half their troops

: in the process.

Within the colonies the war was
divisive, Not all colonists were
willing to fight against Britain and

: soon people were divided into

patriots and loyalists. Some 20
percent of the population of the 13
colonies were estimated to have
supported the Crown. Within this

| number were American Indians
: and slaves. In the case of the

: former, some tribes sided with the
: British because they were valued

trading partners. Many also
thought their interests, such

Steam power

James Watt's work on
steam engines allowed
for the development of
steam-powered trains.

Continental soldier's hat

This style of tricorne was worn by
American colonists fighting for
the Continental army.

as territorial boundaries, stood a
better chance of being protected
by Britain. For slaves, the incentive
to side with the British Crown was
the possibility of emancipation—
they had been told they would

be freed if they fought for the
king. Some residents, such as

the Quakers, opposed warfare.
Many others simply wanted to
avoid participation in either side
of the conflict.

Halfway around the world,
British East India Company troops
were embroiled in the domestic
troubles of the Marathas (see
1758). The First Anglo-Maratha
War [1775-82] was the result of
the East India Company's
intervention into the Maratha
Confederacy, a union of five clans
that came to power after the
collapse of the kingdom of
Maharashtra. This war left many
issues unresolved and tensions
would rise again between the
British and Marathas, leading to
two further wars (see 1803).

In Britain, Scottish inventor
and engineer James Watt
(1736-1819) had struck upa
business partnership with
Matthew Boulton (1728-1809),

: who owned an engineering works.

: Watt had improved the Newcomen

| steam engine, which had been

: around since the turn of the

: century. He developed a separate

: condensing chamber for the

: engine, which made it lose less

: steam and be more efficient. In

i partnership with Boulton, Watt
began to manufacture these

: engines in 1775. At this point

: steam engines were used mostly

: to pump water from mines,
but Watt saw more potential

| uses for steam and continued

: working on engines for the rest
of his life. His inventions allowed

: transportation and he thereby

: effectively laid the foundations of

: modern industry.

THOMAS PAINE

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
was born in Norfolk, England.
He emigrated to America and
advocated independence. He
returned to England and
wrote Rights of Man, defending
the French Revolution, which
cemented his reputation as

a radical propagandist.

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268

Ecstatic colonists tear down a statue of King George III in New York in
celebration of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

46 WE HOLD THESE TRUTHS TO BI
THAT ALL MEN ARE

SELF-EVIDENT,
CREATED EQUAL,

THAT THEY ARE

ENDOWED BY THE

R CREATOR

WITH CERTAI

N UNALIENABLE
RIGHTS, THAT AMONG THESE ARE

LIFE, LIBERTY AND THE PURSUIT
OF HAPPINESS. 99

US Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776

AS THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY |

WAR WAS GAINING MOMENTUM,
on July 4 the First Continental
Congress issued a Declaration of
Independence, formally
announcing the separation of the
North American colonies from
British rule and calling this
collective the United States. The
document outlined reasons for
the decision to separate from
Britain while asserting certain
natural rights. The ideas put forth
in this declaration—that all men
were created equal and had the
right to “life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness”—would not,
however, apply to everyone.
Enslaved Africans—some of
whom had been fighting on the
Americans’ side—were excluded.
The year 1776 also witnessed

the publication of many influential =

works. In January, the writer and
radical thinker Thomas Paine
(see panel, opposite], who had
been living only a short time in
Philadelphia, issued a pamphlet
entitled Common Sense, calling
for American independence and

the establishment of a republican

: initially published anonymously,

: was hugely influential both

: nationally and internationally

: and hada significant role in

: furthering the cause. In Britain,

£ Scottish philosopher Adam

: Enquiry into the the Nature and

: Causes of the Wealth of Nations,

| of asystem of free trade,

: changing the way politicians

: economic expansion.

: Also in this year, the first volume

: of The History of the Decline and

: Fallof the Roman Empire by

= English historian Edward Gibbon

: (1737-94) was published. The

success. It was also noteworthy

for Gibbon’s methodology, which

| was objective and meticulous

| in his use of reference material,
making it the yardstick for

: future historians. A further five

: volumes were published over

: the following decade.

A colonial map of the city Colonia
del Sacramento in Uruguay.

IN BAVARIA, there was unrest over

the succession to the throne.
Elector Maximilian III Joseph
(1727-77), last of the Wittelsbach
line, died, and Charles Theodore
(1724-99], Elector Palatine was
crowned. Charles had no
legitimate heir but several
bastards for whom he sought
land. He signed a treaty with
Joseph II of Austria to cede Lower
Bavaria to Austria in exchange
for part of the Austrian
Netherlands. This angered
Frederick Il of Prussia and

in 1778, the War of the
Bavarian Succession broke
out, ending in 1779.

Spain and Portugal finally settled
ongoing disputes in the Rio dela
Plata region with the First Treaty
of San Ildefonso. Spain ceded
territory in the Amazon basin in
return for control over the Banda
Oriental lin present-day Uruguay).

Charles Theodor

The Elector Palatine, Charles
Theodore, had no legitimate heirs
but he had several illegitimate ones.
He proved an unpopular king.

Aview of ie opulent interior of
Scala opera house in Milan.

Clubs used against Cook
Traditional Hawaiian clubs
like these may have been
used in the attack that
caused James Cook's death.

WITH TWO SUCCESSFUL VOYAGES
TO HIS NAME, Captain James Cook
(see 1773) set out fora third in
1776, this time to search for the
Northwest Passage, a fabled
Arctic shortcut that was supposed
to connect the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. By 1778 he had made the
first European contact with the
Hawaiian islands. He continued
on to the Arctic circle, but failed to
find the passage. He later sailed
back to Hawaii, where a dispute
over a missing boat led to his
being killed by Hawaiians in 1779.

In Milan, a grand opera house
was opened—La Scala. |t was
founded under the patronage of
Maria Theresa of Austria (the city
was under Austrian rule) to replace
a theater that had been destroyed
in a fire. The new theater was built
on the site of the church of Santa
Maria alla Scala and financed by
wealthy patrons. It opened on
August 3 with a performance of
L'Europa riconosciuta, an opera
by Antonio Salieri (1750-1825).

A Xhosa family, from a painting by
French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat.

THE RELOCATION OF THE BOERS
(Dutch-speaking settlers) to
remote regions hundred of miles
north of Cape Town was causing
problems for the Xhosa people.
These tribes had settled in the
territory long before the Boers’
arrival. Both groups were cattle
farmers and competed for rich
pasture land for their herds.
Attempts were made to establish
a border between the Fish and
Sundays Rivers, although both
groups violated any agreement.
Tension turned to violence, with
the Xhosa raiding Boer cattle
and murdering some herdsmen,
possibly in retaliation for the death

Boer house

Dutch settlers in South Africa moved
away from Cape Town, deep into rural
areas where they raised livestock.

of a tribesman. The Boers then
attacked and captured more than
5,000 head of cattle.

These skirmishes, amounting to
the first Xhosa War, did not resolve
the root cause of the dispute—
access to grazing lands and water.
Intermittent battle continued for
almost a century.

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Amural from Daria Daulat Bagh, the summer palace belonging to Tipu

Sultan, ruler of the southwestern Indian kingdom of Mysore from 1782-99.

AS BRITAIN’S EAST INDIA
COMPANY attempted to extend its
reach outside of Bengal, it often
met resistance from Indian
princely states. This was especially
true of the southwestern kingdom
of Mysore, which was under the
rule of the powerful Haidar Ali
Khan (1722-82). Disputes over
territory and had led to the First
Mysore War (1767-69), which was
soon followed by the Second
Mysore War (1780-84). The
fighting did not completely settle
the conflict between them, which
continued until 1799.

Unrest in India was not the only
military preoccupation for Britain,
which was now fighting on many
fronts. In addition to the ongoing
war in North America, dispute
broke out with the Dutch. The
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
(1780-84), which saw no actual

fighting, was a direct consequence =

of the conflict in America. The
Dutch were supplying arms to
the rebelling colonists, and a
dispute erupted over Britain’s
seizure of Dutch ships. The

TUPAC AMARU II [c. 1742-81)

Born José Gabriel
Condorcanqui in Cuzco, Peru,
around 1742, Tupac Amaru Il
renamed himself after the last
Inca leader, who ruled the
Incan Empire from 1545-72.
Of mestizo (Indian and Spanish)
heritage, he fought against the
colonial regime to gain better
conditions for the indigenous
population of Peru.

: Dutch maintained Britain should
: respect their neutrality, but the

British did not agree.
The North American colonists
were not alone in their struggle,

: as their southern neighbors in

Peru took up arms in the Tupac

: Amaru revolt (1780-82), which

was prompted by dissatisfaction

* with the Spanish colonial regime.

Some 75,000 Indians and Creoles

Amaru II (see box, below) was

: captured and killed in 1781, but
: it took another year and 60,000
| Spanish troops to quell the unrest.

In Africa, the kingdom of

: Buganda, located on the northern

shore of Lake Ukerewe (Lake

» Victoria), emerged as a regional

power as it expanded its territory.

| Around the same time, the Masai,

who occupied the southeastern

: becoming a significant presence

: in the region and were moving
farther south and east—helped by

» their large, organized warrior class.

Lord Cornwallis, left, surrenders his sword to George Washington,
right, after the British defeat at the Battle of Yorktown.

THE ONGOING WAR between Britain
and North American colonists took
a decisive turn at the battle of
Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19.
The Continental Army had
received a boost from French
support the previous year, and the
Comte de Rochambeau (1725-
1807] led troops alongside the
American General George
Washington (1732-99). Their
combined force of ground soldiers
meant that when rebel forces took

20 600
American British
52
French

Deaths at the Battle of Yorktown
Yorktown took a high toll on British
troops and proved decisive in the
quest to end British rule in America.

their positions on September 28
General Charles Cornwallis
(1738-1805) was outnumbered by
more than two to one, and his
reinforcements failed to arrive in
time. That, along with a French
naval blockade, gave Cornwallis
no option but to surrender.
Although this was the last major
battle of the Revolutionary War,
official recognition of American
independence would not come
until later.

The politics of the American
colonies was changing. The
Articles of Confederation had
been ratified earlier in the year,
on March 1. The process of
ratification had started in 1777
under the Second Continental
Congress. The agreement set up

_ a “firm league of friendship” for

what were to be known as the
United States of America, while
outlining what the responsibilities
of the central government would
be. The document would
eventually be replaced with the
US Constitution (see 1787).

In Europe, tensions between the
Dutch and British led to a convoy
of British ships setting off from
India on August 9 with orders
to destroy Dutch settlements
in Sumatra. When the British
arrived, the small Dutch
population in the outposts
surrendered immediately
and all the Dutch factories and
warehouses in Padang were
turned over to the British crown.

Meanwhile, colonial subjects
in the Viceroyalty of New

: Granada—which comprised

present-day Colombia, Venezuela,

: Panama, and Ecuador—were

discontent with the Spanish
regime. They revolted over
mounting taxes on tobacco and

American riflemen

: This cartoon depicts an American

rifleman as worn out and badly

: equipped. However, these soldiers
: defeated British regular troops.

+ alcohol in what became known
: as the Comunero Rebellion.

» Plans to march on Bogota were
: abandoned after a deal was

- reached over taxes but the

: Spanish viceroy then attacked

the comuneros and killed two

» of their leaders.

Revolution of an intellectual kind

: was taking place in Prussia with
© the publication of the Critique of

: Pure Reason by the philosopher

| Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). His
» work challenged existing notions
: about the nature of knowledge.

44 SCIENCE IS ORGANIZED
KNOWLEDGE. WISDOM IS
ORGANIZED LIFE. 99

Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, from Critique of Pure Reason, 1781

Chakri Mahaprasad Hall in Bangkok
was built under Rama |.

WHILE THE VICTORIOUS FORMER
COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA
entered into complicated and
protracted negotiations with
Britain over their official
recognition and their future,
Ireland found that it was also ina
position to receive a new political
settlement from the British
government. The Declaratory Act
of 1720 and Poynings’ Law of 1494
were repealed. These laws had
been designed to place Ireland
under the rule of the English
Parliament. With many of the
restrictions in these Acts lifted,
Ireland was able to establish
some degree of Legislative
independence. Despite the new
freedoms, however, political
participation was only open to
Protestants, and the unrest this
arrangement eventually prompted
in the largely Catholic territory
meant that self-rule had a

short life span.

In Siam (Thailand), a new ruling
dynasty was established—the
Chakri—after a power struggle
following the demise of the
previous ruler, King Taksin, who
had left no heir. The Chakri remains
Thailand's ruling house. It was
established by Rama I (1737-
1809), who had been the chief
commander in the army and had
won loyal support fighting against
the Burmese. Rama! spent much
of his reign on the reconstruction
of Siam after years of warfare,
building extensively, including a
royal palace and Buddhist temples,
though he remained a strong
military leader, and repelled five
further invasions from Burma.

: ¥

. ’ is Sei f us
This bronze frieze depicts the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, in which Britain

recognized the independence of its former American colonies.

NEARLY TWO YEARS AFTER THE
SURRENDER at Yorktown, the
Treaty of Paris, which formally
ended the Revolutionary
War, was finally signed on
September 3 between Britain and
its former American colony,
calling for them to “forget all past
misunderstanding and
differences.” The document gave
formal recognition to the United
States and established the
boundaries of the 13 states that
it comprised. Although the
settlement saw the establishment
of the United States, there was
stilla significant European
presence, with Spain holding
large territories to the west.
Another treaty was signed
between Britain, France, and
Spain, in which Britain
surrendered Tobago and
Senegal to France and
agreed to Spain

KEY
Western Territory
©) United States

States of the
Union

This map shows
the 13 original
United States as
recognized by the
Treaty of Paris.
US borders were
extended to the
Mississippi River
under the treaty.

retaining Minorca—which it had
regained the year before—and
its territories in Florida.

In asmall village called
Annonay, in the southeast of
France, two brothers
were about to make

BRITISH.
NORTH AMERICA

NEW HAMPSHIRE

MASSACHUSETTS

\ RHODE ISLAND
\— CONNECTICUT

\__NEW JERSEY

\\_ DELAWARE

MARYLAND

_ NORTH CAROLINA

\___ SOUTH CAROLINA

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Gulf of Mexico

aviation history. On June 4,
Joseph (1740-1810) and Etienne
Montgolfier (1745-99) had the
first public trial of a hot air

: balloon officially recorded. Only
a couple of months later, and after
some design modifications, they

: gave a demonstration of their
balloon in front of Louis XVI and
Marie Antoinette at Versailles. In
the September 19 flight—one of
several flights made in 1783—
they put a sheep, a duck, anda
rooster in the balloon’s basket
to see how the animals would
fare at a high altitude. The first
manned free flight, when the
balloon was not tethered to the
ground, took place on November
21 of the same year.

Balloon ride

This engraving shows a later
Montgolfier balloon, named

Le Flesselles, ascending over Lyon
with seven passengers, on January
19, 1784. One of those on board was
Joseph Montgolfier.

Acartoon depicts the political
implications of the India Act.

BECAUSE THE BRITISH PRESENCE
IN INDIA had evolved through the
East India Company (EIC], the
18th century saw a growing
tension between the EIC and the
British government. The India Act
1773 had already brought the
company under tighter control,
but its demands for government
money to cover the cost of its
many battles had prompted
further action. The India Act
1784, which was ushered in
under the government of British
prime minister William Pitt the
Younger (1759-1806), placed the
EIC under even more scrutiny by
establishing a Board of Control to
look after civil, military, and

44 EVERY RUPEE
OF PROFIT
MADE BY AN
ENGLISHMAN IS
LOST FOR EVER
TO INDIA. 99

Edmund Burke, British politician,
on the East India Company, 1783

financial affairs, which would
include members of the British
government. The Act also
stipulated that trade and
territorial rule were to be two
separate activities. Legislation
that followed in the 19th century
went even further, abolishing
the EIC’s monopoly and opening
up trade, as well as allowing
the settlement of Christian
missionaries in the region.

271

The power loom transformed
the textile industry.

IN 1784, EDMUND CARTWRIGHT
(1743-1823), an English
clergyman, paid a visit toa
cotton-spinning mill established
by Richard Arkwright (see 1771).
What he saw inspired him to
invent similar machines to weave
textiles. By 1785 he had patented
his first power loom. Cartwright’s
loom became an integral part of
the textile industry in Britain. The
design was later improved by the
American businessman Francis
Cabot Lowell, who had seen the
looms in operation on a visit to
Britain, and its use was widespread
on both sides of the Atlantic

after 1820.

In Burma, the Konbaung
dynasty's King Bodawpaya
(1745-1819) had captured the
coastal kingdom of Arakan the
previous year. Bolstered by this
victory, he decided to move to the
east and invade the kingdom of
Siam (Thailand), but was defeated.

Round-the-world expedition
Jean-Francois de Galaup, the comte
de Lapérouse, was sent by Louis XVI
on an expedition to map out the
uncharted waters of the Pacific.

Frederick II of Prussia was feared and admired throughout Europe

for his military prowess.

THE US WAS EXPERIENCING

AN ERA OF TECHNOLOGICAL
innovation. In Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, inventor John
Fitch (1743-1798) had set up the
Steamboat Company with the aim
of designing a steam-powered
boat. Fitch found success ahead
of his rivals in August 1787 when
the Perseverance successfully
sailed on the Delaware River. By
1790, a fledgling steamer service
was running between Philadelphia
and Trenton, New Jersey, but
Fitch struggled as he had trouble
attracting investors. It would take
the more advanced boat designs
and superior business acumen of
Robert Fulton (1765-1815) before
steamboat travel became a viable
commercial enterprise.

| First steamboat

: John Fitch managed to take
steam-engine technology and apply
it to boats. However, commercial
success Was some way off.

Shipping still had its perils and
pirate raids were common. US

: merchants wishing to trade in the
: Mediterranean markets risked

: attack and the Barbary corsairs

: were particularly feared. On

: July 23, the US signed a treaty

i with Morocco which assured safe

| passage for US ships in exchange
| for trading on equal terms.

In Europe, Prussia mourned the
death of Frederick Il. He had
turned Prussia into a formidable

power, and reshaped Europe's
: political balance.

44 AN EDUCATED
PEOPLE CAN BE
EASILY GOVERNED. 99

Attributed to Frederick II, king of Prussia

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This 19th-century engraving depicts the coastal settlement

of Sierra Leone, West Africa.

AFTER THE RULING IN THE
SOMERSETT CASE [see 1772),
which established that slaves who
arrived in Britain were free, many
slaves were abandoned by their
masters and the “black poor” of
London were left with no means
of support. Abolitionist Granville
Sharp (1735-1813) arranged for a
free settlement to be established
in Sierra Leone, West Africa. The
ship Nautilus returned some 400
former slaves to Africa. These
initial settlers were later joined
by slaves from Nova Scotia,
Canada, who had fought for

the British in the American
Revolutionary War. At the same
time, West Africa was still rife
with other European slavers.

In the US, there was a growing
call for astronger central
government and, from May to
September, the Constitutional
Convention met, ostensibly in
order to amend the Articles of
Confederation (see 1781). But

US CONSTITUTION

AFRICA

SIERRA LEONE
.

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Slave settlement
: Sierra Leone is located on the west
: coast of Africa. Previously a trading
: post for slavery it became a place
| of settlement for freed slaves.

: instead, the delegates drew up a

new system of government. They

_ created a bicameral legislature
: in which all states would be
equally represented in the Senate

and proportionally based on

: population in the House of
: Representatives.

In Russia, designs on Ottoman
territory led to the Russo-Turkish
War, lasting until 1792.

The US Constitution is the
oldest written constitution in
the world still in use. It was
adopted on September 17,
1787 and has been amended
27 times to deal with issues
such as freedom of speech.
George Washington (left) led
the Constitutional Convention
and became the first US
president in 1789. During his
presidency, the first ten
amendments, known as the
Bill of Rights, were ratified.

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\

MILLION PESOS

THE AMOUNT OF MONEY SP
RECEIVED ANNUALLY

FROM ITS COLONIES AT THE
TIME OF CHARLES III'S DEATH

AFTER ALMOST 30 YEARS ON

THE SPANISH THRONE, the
“enlightened despot” Charles III
died, and his son, Charles IV
(1748-1819), inherited the crown.
Unlike his father, Charles IV was
not a strong leader. His wife,
Maria Luisa of Parma (1751-
1819), and her political protégé
Manuel de Godoy (1767-1851),
who eventually became prime
minister, ran the country and the
empire, leading it into disaster.
This period was marked by
constant warfare with France,
culminating in an occupation in
1808, when Charles was forced to
abdicate [see 1808).

In France, as in Britain, there
was growing public support for
the abolition of slavery. The
Committee for the Abolition of the
Slave Trade had been established
in Britain in May 1787 with the aim
of ending the slave trade. Shortly
afterward, in February 1788, a
group of Parisian men met to set

778

CONVICTS

First Fleet

Despite its reputation, only about
half of those on the First Fleet were
convicts. The remainder included
marines, crew, and their families.

Colonists arrive in the bay that would

: later become Sydney, Australia.

Native women are shown watching
them on the shore.

: up the Société des Amis des

: Noirs (Society of the Friends of

: the Blacks), which called not only
: for the abolition of the slave trade

and slavery, but also urged

* equality for people of mixed race,
» the treatment of whom was a

growing issue in the French

| Caribbean sugar colonies.

Meanwhile, in Sweden, Gustav

: Iwas trying to realize his

: imperial ambitions by declaring

: war against Russia without the

: approval of parliament. He hoped

to capture Finnish territory while

: the Russians were occupied with
© their war against Turkey.

Gustav's efforts failed initially due

» to aconspiracy by aristocrats and

officers angry at the expansion of

: the Crown's power at the expense

of the Riksdag [parliament] and
the nobility. Officers attempted to

: negotiate with Catherine the Great

of Russia without Gustav's prior

: knowledge. Denmark later joined
_ the Russo-Swedish War (to1790)

as an ally of Russia, and laid siege

: to the key port of Gothenburg, in

the southwest of Sweden.
In the neighboring Habsburg

: Empire, the Magyar (Hungarian]
: nobles were unhappy about

Joseph II's reforms [see 1765], in

: particular the introduction of

German as the official language

planning to restructure the land

A portrait of Charles IV (center right) and his family by Spanish painter
Francisco Goya (1746-1828).

tax system, and had already
abolished serfdom. By the time of
his death in 1790, the Magyars
were on the brink of a rebellion,
and even appealed to Prussia to
support them. However, their
discontent did not escalate to
armed conflict due to the
intervention of Leopold II (1747-
92), who succeeded his brother
and promised to rescind the
previous reforms. He swore to
treat Hungary as an independent
kingdom and allow for it to be
administered under its own laws.

In Britain, Royal Navy Captain
Arthur Phillip (1738-1814) had set
sail on May 13, 1787 with 11 ships
full of convicts destined for
settlement at Botany Bay in
Australia. Captain James Cook
(see 1768) had first come across
the bay in1770, and the British
government was eager to settle
the territory. At the same time,
the shipping of convicts to
Australia presented a way of
relieving Britain's overcrowded
prisons. Known as the First
Fleet, these ships carried more

: than 1,400 people, with convicts
: making up 778 passengers. The
: fleet arrived in Botany Bay in

: 1788, but Phillip soon decided

: permanent settlement and the

: colony moved farther inland to

: Port Jackson, which would later
: become known as Sydney.

: Although the early days of

: settlement were difficult, a

» stream of ships continued to

» bring felons, and less than 50

: years later there were nearly

: 60,000 settlers in Australia.

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273

Beam engine

The engine developed by Thomas
Newcomen and improved by
James Watt works by the beam
at the top rocking back and forth,
which transfers power froma
piston that moves up and down
ina cylinder.

\ 5
\__ beam goes
back and
forth

piston rod
moves up

steam
condensed in
cylinder

James Watt's engine
Scottish inventor James Watt
makes improvements to the
Newcomen engine by adding
a condenser, and develops an
engine that rotates a shaft
instead of pumping.

1698
The high-pressure steam engine
In England, Thomas Savery uses
steam power to create “The
Miner’s Friend” to pump water
out of coal mines, although it
was not a success.

1679
The first boiler

French inventor Denis Papin
designs a device that can
convert liquid to vapor, Papin’s
making it the first cao ‘

pressure cooker. digester ai

2
1st century CE {
Hero's engine
The Greek scientist
Hero describes an
aeolipile, which has a

rotating ball that is
spun by jets of steam.

1769-70

The steam car
In France, Nicholas Cugot invents
aroad vehicle that can run on
steam by converting it into piston
action and rotary motion.

1712
Newcomen’s engine
Thomas Savery joins
forces with Thomas
Newcomen and
they create the
phe ete much-improved
engine

atmospheric steam
pumping engine.

Newcomen’s
atmospheric engine

connecting
rod

large flywheel
— rotates

crankshaft
connects
to piston

Trevithick’s engine
English mine engineer

Richard Trevithick develops
a smaller, lighter steam engine
and puts it on wheels, creating

a “road locomotive.”

1802-07

The steamboat

In the US, Robert Fulton applies
steam power to a passenger
boat, and it proves a success

in sailing against currents.

THE STORY OF STEAM POWER

Although the power of steam was not harnessed until the 17th century,
scientists had understood its potential for hundreds of years. As far back as
the 1st century cE, the Greek scientist Hero of Alexandria had discussed a
device—the aeolipile—that illustrated the possibilities of water vapor.

The aeolipile worked by heating water in a mounted
sphere that had two bent nozzles. When steam was
released through the nozzles, the sphere would
rotate. Although it had no practical use at the time,
this was the first indication of experiments with
steam power. More dramatic developments took
place in the 17th century, when the first boiler
was invented. Although it was little more than
a pressure cooker, from this point onward, a
steady stream of innovations followed.

POWERING INDUSTRY

By the 18th century, engineers had realized
how steam-powered devices could be used
to pump water out of mines—an important

issue in light of the growing demand for coal

in Europe during the Industrial Revolution.
Scientists soon realized that steam could also be
used to power engines. Thomas Newcomen had
invented a steam engine in 1712, but it was the
improvements made by James Watt that made

the device more efficient. Watt's key innovation
consisted of condensing steam, so that the engine
did not need to heat and cool the cylinder, making
it far more efficient. Soon, steam power was being
used to fuel ships and locomotives, enabling them
to travel farther and faster. By the 19th century, it
was being used to produce electricity, something
that continues to the present day, using much of the
technology developed over the preceding centuries.

Richard Trevithick

In addition to developing
the world’s first steam
railroad locomotive,

the English engineer
Richard Trevithick also
adapted his high-
pressure engine for

use in iron mills and
steam-powered barges.

44 IN THE WHOLE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY
IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO FIND A GREATER
SINGLE ADVANCE THAN THIS. 99

L. T. C. Rolt, English writer and engineer, Thomas Newcomen: The Prehistory of Steam, 1963

Savannah
steamship

1819
Crossing the Atlantic
The US vessel Savannah
becomes the first ship
to cross the Atlantic
using steam power as
well as sails. The era of
sails ends soon after.

1829
Stephenson's “Rocket”
English engineer
George Stephenson
applies steam power
to locomotives, and his
“Rocket” becomes a
commercial success.

Stephenson's
“Rocket

1867
The water-tube boiler

In the US, George Babcock
and Stephen Wilcox
invent the water-tube
boiler, in which
water circulates in
tubes. It is used to
make electricity in 1882.

Babcock and Wilcox
steam boiler

1884-97
The steam turbine

Sir Charles Algernon Parsons
develops a steam turbine
generator, which produces
huge amounts of electricity.
Itis used to power large
ships, such as the Titanic.

The Titanic powered by Parson's
steam turbine

Early 20th century
Geothermal power
Scientists in Lardarello,
Italy, discover
“geothermal,” or

“dry steam,” energy
and build the first
power station of its
kind in 1911.

—
pam, ar

Geothermal power station

20th century
Steam turbines

and nuclear power
Controlled nuclear chain
reactions create heat in
reactors, which boils water
to produce steam and drive
a steam turbine in order to
produce electricity.

46 LIBERTE,
EGALITE, _
FRATERNITE! 99

“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”
Rallying cry of the French Revolution, 1789

Representatives of France's “Third Estate” —the people—swore the “Tennis Court Oath”
not to separate until they had established a constitution in France.

BY 1789, FRANCE’S LOUIS XVI was
facing multiple crises: he was
bankrupt from endless warfare,
there was popular unrest, and the
failure of the 1788 grain crop
meant riots over bread. The
decision was made to summon
the Estates-General, France's
representative assembly. It had
not met since 1614, so between
January and April elections were
held to select deputies. The
Estates-General was composed of
three “estates” or orders: the

The three estates

These figures (from left to right)
symbolize each of the estates
representing France: the nobility,
the people, and the clergy.

First Estate (the clergy]; the
Second Estate (the nobility]; and
the Third Estate—the people.
The assembly met at Versailles on
May 5. The immediate issue was
how much voting power to give
the Third Estate; the First and
Second Estates wanted voting to
be by estate rather than a vote per
head, so that they would not be
outnumbered by the public's
representatives. By June 17 the

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276

: 20 to remain united until they

: from Castelnaudary refused to
: endorse it because it was not
: sanctioned by the king.

: nobility and clergy to join what, by

; troops were on their way into the
: Assembly. In response, on the

: people armed with weapons
: seized from the Hotel des

= a medieval fortress used asa
: prison. The Bastille held only
» despotism of the monarchy and

: contained ammunition the people

» which was now underway.

frustrated Third Estate declared

| itself a National Assembly and
: decided to proceed without the

nobles and clergy. This prompted
officials to lock them out of their
usual meeting place, so they
occupied Louis XVI's indoor tennis
court and swore an oath on June

- THE NUMBER

OF PEOPLE
WHO STORMED
' THE BASTILLE

produced a constitution for
France, a pledge that became
known as the Tennis Court Oath.
All but one of the 577 deputies

signed; Joseph Martin Dauch Storming of the Bastille

| The crowd of around 600 people that
gathered outside the prison calling
for its surrender was peaceful at

: first, but violence soon broke out.
Louis XVI felt he had no option

but to give in to the demands of

the Third Estate and urged the

July 9, was named the National
Constituent Assembly [though
it continued to be called the
National Assembly).

A few days later, Paris was
awash with rumors, including that i

city to disperse the National

afternoon of July 14, some 600
Invalides attacked the Bastille,

seven prisoners at the time of
the attack, but it symbolized the

wanted to seize. The uprising, in
which a whole garrison and 98
attackers died, became a defining
moment of the French Revolution, =

During late July and early August,

rumors spread throughout the
French countryside, which was
already in a state of unrest due to
grain shortages. There were fears
of bandits sweeping the land and
stories of crops being burned.
During this period, known as the
Great Fear, panic set in among
many peasants, who armed
themselves and attacked nobles
and their chateaux.

By August 4, the National
Constituent Assembly sought
to control the situation and
so decreed the abolition of
feudalism and the tithe. This was

followed on August 26 by the

| publication of the Declaration

of the Rights of Man and of the

: Citizen, which proclaimed that

“men are born free and remain

: free and equal in rights” and that

“the source of all sovereignty lies

_ essentially in the Nation.”

Throughout this period of

i upheaval, uncensored newspapers
» reported events and political

clubs formed where people could

: voice their opinions. Despite the

onslaught of new freedoms and

: monumental social reform, the
» Revolution was in its infancy—
: France's future was far from clear.

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NEWS OF THE EVENTS IN PARIS
spread to French colonies. As the
National Assembly knew, slavery
did not sit well with the ideas
espoused in the Declaration of the
Rights of Man. Neither did the
inequity that free people of color
faced in France and its empire.
Part of the French Empire was

the island of Hispaniola—the
other half of the island, Santo
Domingo (Dominican Republic],
belonged to Spain. In 1790, two
wealthy mixed-race planters from
Saint-Domingue, Vincent Ogé
(1750-91) and Julien Raimond
(1744-1801) were in Paris, where
they argued that because they
were property owners, they ought
to be given full rights. Ogé was
frustrated by the Assembly's
failure to confront white planters
on this issue and continued his
protest back in Saint-Domingue.
He led a revolt of some 200
supporters in the town of Grande-
Riviere. It was quickly suppressed,

constitution, pushing through the
official ban on the nobility and

46 MEN ARE

against a coalition of American Indians in the Northwest Territory.

Saint-Domingue (Haiti), half of the

: the French Revolutionary emblem

: equality, and fraternity or death.

» Harmar (1753-1813) had been

suppressing the religious orders.

BORN AND REMAIN
FREE AND IN EQUAL RIGHTS.
SOCIAL DISTINCTIONS MAY
BE FOUNDED ONLY UPON THI
GENERAL GOOD. 99

Article 1, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789

jounted a campaign

Revolutionary cartoon
This illustration shows a version of

issuing the famous call for liberty,

In the US, General Josiah

ambushed by a coalition of
American Indians. The attack near
the Maumee River (Ohio) in the

expedition against the Indians, but
his force of 1,100 militiamen and
320 troops was forced to retreat.

Plantations go up in flames in Le Cap in tl
(Haiti) during the slave rebellion.

IN JANUARY, VINCENT OGE and
Jean-Baptiste Chavannes

(c. 1748-1791), who had helped
Ogé organize the 1790 revolt, were
in hiding in the Spanish colony,
Santo Domingo. They were,
however, returned by the Spanish
to Saint-Domingue, where their
bones were broken on a wheel
and their heads placed on
stakes. This was met with outrage
in France, and by May political
rights were granted to free people
of color, if born of two free parents.

Slaves in Saint-Domingue had
also been hearing a mixture of
news and rumors about events in
Paris and begun to hope they
would see abolition. In the end,
they decided not to wait for France
to grant it to them.

One hot August evening, a slave
leader named Dutty Boukman
(?-1791] gathered slaves at a
religious voodoo ceremony in
Bois-Caiman and told them to
“Listen to the voice of liberty that

=
DOM

Gonive

escrémic— port-au-Princee

eCayes

Haitian revolution

The slave revolt in French Saint-
Domingue later become an
international conflict when Britain
and Spain went to war with France.

jspaniola

he north of Saint-Domingue

500,000

SLAVES

30,000
Settlers
Slaves vs. settlers
The high number of slaves imported
to Saint-Domingue to work in the
sugar industry became a liability
when they launched a rebellion.

speaks in all of us.” A week later,
Boukman and his followers

launched a massive revolt in the
north of the island. They attacked
estates, killed slave owners,

destroyed tools, and torched cane
fields. They had numbers on their

side: the slave population in Saint- :

Domingue was more than

‘San Franciscolde’Macoris

SANTO
DOMINGO

.
Santo Domingo

KEY

@ 1791: original centre
of the slave revolt

— 1790: border between
Saint Domingue (French)
and Santo Domingo (Spanish)

~~ 1820: border between
the Republic of Haiti and

Santo Domingo (Spanish)

would prove unstoppable.
In France, Louis XVI and his

: family had tried to flee to the
© royalist stronghold of Montmédy
© on the eastern border. They

reached Varennes, in the

_ northeast of the country, before

being stopped and forcibly
returned to Paris. After this failed
attempt at escape, Louis lost all

credibility as a monarch.

Haitian Voodoo (or Voudou) is
a religion that was born out
of slavery. It draws on a
range of African traditions,
especially those of Benin, the
ormer home of many slaves.
it also incorporates
Catholicism, the religion

and Ogé fled to Santo Domingo. —_—- Northwest Territory was led by Tortuga ATLay forced on the slaves by their
Throughout 1790, the National Chief Little Turtle (1752-1812). Port-de-Paix.e Le Cap Fortibertés The leg captors, and may also have
Assembly continued working ona | Harmar was ordered to lead an . es 4n inks to the practices of the

indigenous Arawak people.
The Catholic practices slaves
adopted enabled them to
disguise their true religion
rom their masters, with
Catholic saints standing in
or Loa (spirits) worshiped
in Voodoo. This new system
of belief allowed slaves to
form their own identity and
also provided a way of
organizing resistance, as in
Saint-Domingue.

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Adetail from the painting Battle of Valmy, by French artist
Emile-Jean-Horace Vernet, shows Prussia’s defeat by France.

EVENTS IN FRANCE TOOK A
DRAMATIC TURN on April 20, 1792
when the National Assembly
declared war on the Holy Roman
Empire, perceiving it as a threat.
Emperor Leopold II had signed
the Declaration of Pilnitz with
Frederick William Ii of Prussia,
swearing to defend Louis XVI and
destroy Paris should anything
befall him. Provoked by the
French call to war, Austrian and

Prussian troops set off for France. ¢

News of this enraged the French
people, who thought they had
been betrayed by their king and
the aristocracy, and on August 10
a group of revolutionaries found
Louis XVI when they stormed the
Tuileries Palace. The king and
the rest of the royal family were
jailed in the Temple prison.

By early September, fears that
royalist prisoners were organizing
a counter-revolutionary plot were

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-97)

Mary Wollstonecraft was an
English writer and early
advocate for women’s rights.
Deeply influenced by events

in France and subsequent
debates in Britain, she
published, A Vindication on the
Rights of Woman, in 1792. The
work, calling for the education
system to allow girls the same
advantages as boys, was
controversial. It would be many
years before any changes were
enacted, but the book has
endured as a work of early
feminist philosophy.

: growing, and on September 2

: anarmed group of Parisians

: attacked and killed some
prisoners who were being

| the September Massacres, in

: elsewhere took suspects from
prison and executed them.

: Around 1,200 people were killed

The war began with setbacks for

| France, but by September 20, the

| French successfully held off the
Prussians at the Battle of Valmy,
in northeastern France, then

: attacked the Austrian Netherlands

+ winning a victory at Jemappes in
what is now Belgium. In Paris, a

» newruling body, the National

» Convention, met and the
following day abolished the
constitutional monarchy in favor

: of establishing a republic.

1792-93

: Tea export

| The British public's taste for tea

: became evident, as the pounds of

: tea the East India Company exported
: from China doubled.

: By this point the rest of Europe
was concerned about events

: within France and its boldness

: beyond its borders, so Holland,

: Spain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia

: established the First Coalition,
with Britain joining in 1793. They
fought against France throughout
the following six years during the

| War of the First Coalition.

i Meanwhile, halfway across the

: world, the East India Company

: had found that supplying the

| British with Chinese tea—for

: which they were paying China in

opium produced in Bengal—was

» proving a profitable trade. Exports

: doubled in a decade as the hot

: drink became popular in Britain

: and North America. Conducting

: business with China, however,
was complicated for the Company.

: access through one port, Canton

i strict controls on the entry of
foreigners to the rest of the country.

This image shows the execution of Louis XVI by guillot

‘ine in the Place de la

Révolution, Paris. His wife Marie Antionette was executed a few months later.

ON JANUARY 18, THE NATIONAL
CONVENTION OF FRANCE
condemned Louis XVI to death. On
January 21 he was taken to the
Place de la Révolution, Paris,
where he was guillotined. His
wife, Marie Antoinette, remained
in prison until October, when she
appeared before a Revolutionary
tribunal. She met the same fate
as her husband on October 16.
Marie Antoinette’s death
occurred during the Reign of
Terror, which was the result of a
decree on September 5 that made

“terror” the means of governance. :

A couple of weeks later the Law

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278

: of Suspects was passed, which

: established Revolutionary

: Tribunals. Anyone suspected of
: being an enemy of the Revolution
» was tried and if deemed guilty

received a death sentence.
The activities of hundreds of
thousands of people were

: Monitored, and many were

arrested. The Committee of

: Public Safety, led by Maximilien

seeds from the plant's fiber more
quickly than if done by hand, which

: increased cotton production greatly.

—_—

I DIE INNOCENT! 99

Louis XVI of France, before his execution

Robespierre (1758-94), was,
in effect, in control of the
government. Members of the
same political club as
Robespierre—the Jacobins—
also become involved in the
surveillance of potential suspects.
In Saint-Domingue (Haiti),
fighting on the island was
complicated by the arrival of
British troops. Prompted by the
French declaration of war in 1792,
Britain hoped to seize control of

the island and add it to their other :
+ over the Nootka Sound in the

: Pacific, northwest of the American
: territory, by signing the Second

» Nootka Sound Convention.

| Another agreement was signed

: the following year in which Spain

Caribbean sugar islands, such
as Jamaica. The struggle lasted
for five years.

In the US, Eli Whitney (1765-
1825) perfected a machine called
the cotton gin, which he patented
the following year. Many planters
wanted to diversify into the cotton
trade, but the long-staple variety
of cotton grown—which yields
long, silky fibers—could only be
cultivated near the coast. Heavily
seeded short-staple cotton—

producing shorter fibers—was the |
: in that territory.

only other option, but removing
the seeds was a laborious and
time-consuming task. Whitney's
machine, however, combed cotton
very quickly, and it led to the
development of the cotton
industry in the American South.
Back in Europe, Poland faced a
second partition, this time with
Prussia and Russia taking some
115,000 square miles (300,000 sq
km], leaving Poland a fraction of
its former size. Poland ceded
eastern provinces fram Livonia to
Moldavia to Russia, while Prussia
was given Great Poland, Torun,
and the port city of Gdansk.

THE NUMBER

OF PEOPLE

_ EXECUTED
_ DURING “THE
_ TERROR”

Britain and Spain averted a war

capitulated to British demands.

: The diplomatic standoff—which

: eventually involved the European
: allies of both sides—had started
: in 1789 when Spain seized three
© British ships sailing nearby. This

escalated into a battle of words
over who had the right to settle

In China, East India Company

» officer George Macartney [1737-

» 1806) had arrived in Beijing

» (Peking) in 1792 with a party of

the emperor Quinlong (1735-99)
in September 1793. The British

: government and the East India
: Company were eager to expand

trade between Britain and China,

~~ z

THE REIGN OF TERROR in France
eliminated the enemies of the
Committee of Public Safety on
the left and right by 1794.
However, the committee felt
the need to go further and
suspended a suspect's

right to public trial and

legal assistance, with juries
instructed to issue either
acquittal or death. This
measure was passed in June,
but little more than a month
later a revolt in the National
Convention ended the reign of
Robespierre. Known as the
Thermidorian Reaction, it refers
to 9 Thermidor Year II (July 27,
1794), the date in the French
Revolutionary Calendar. This
change to the calendar system
began in 1792 and lasted until
1806. The calendar began on the
year of the anniversary of the

Maximilien Robespierre

Safety tried to eliminate his
enemies, but he ended up dying
on the guillotine.

This detail from a fresco depicts the battle of Raclawice on April 4, 1794, when
Polish troops led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko defeated the Russians.

The head of the Committee of Public

Revolutionary coin

The French king Louis XVI was
replaced on the country’s coinage by
the figure of Hercules, flanked by
Liberty and Equality.

proclamation of the Republic
(September 21, also the autumn

long, and was divided into
“decades” of 10 days.

On July 27, Robespierre was
arrested and he and another 100
supporters faced the same
guillotine used on their enemies.

This was a turning point in the

Convention asserted its strength,
but the Terror had exacted a high
price—some 17,000 people were
officially executed and hundreds
of thousands arrested.

In Saint-Domingue, the former

i slave turned military leader,

: General Toussaint Louverture,

: was persuaded to leave the

: Commissioner Léger-Feélicité

» Sonthonax (1763-1813] to lead

: French Republican troops—though

| he later broke with the French

: the island under control after the

: slave rebellion, and to enforce the

i National Convention's ruling that

| free people of color were to have

£ equality. However, France's

: had complicated the situation, and

» Spain and Britain fought alongside

» the former slaves. This prompted

: Sonthonax to look to existing

| slaves as possible troops. In 1793

equinox). Each month was 30 days :

» the island freedom if they fought

: for the French cause, and by that

: August he decreed the abolition

: of slavery, ratified by the National
Convention on February 4, 1794.

he promised slaves in the north of

Meanwhile, in Poland, anger

: had mounted over the devastating
French Revolution, as the National :
» patriots organized the Polish

: Rebellion of 1794. Despite an

£ initial victory in Russian-held

i Warsaw, the Poles were crushed
: by Russia's forces.

partition the previous year, and

44 [WAS BORN A SLAVE,
BUT NATURE GAVE ME A
SOUL OF A FREE MAN... 99

Toussaint Louverture, former slave and military leader

THE SECOND PARTITION OF
POLAND had sparked an uprising
in 1794 led by Polish officer
Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746-1817).
After eight months of fighting,

a Prussian-Russian alliance
defeated the Poles, and the Third
Partition of 1795 occurred. This

divided among Russia, Prussia,
and Austria. After this final
partition, Poland ceased to exist.
Elsewhere in Europe, the War of
the First Coalition was drawing to
aclose, negotiated partially with
three treaties under the Peace of
Basel. These agreements gave
German lands west of the Rhine
River to France, and ended
Franco-Spanish fighting around
the Pyrenees mountains through
Spain's cessation of Santo
Domingo to France. This meant
the French now had control of

Maroon colony, Jamaica

This engraving shows a maroon
settlement in Jamaica. Maroons
were former runaway slaves who
had established their own autonomy.

Aview of the island of Penang, north of the Dutch settlement of Malacca. The
Strait of Malacca remains a key trade route linking Europe and Africa to China.

_THE NUMBER
_OF NEWSPAPERS

SOLD EACH

saw the remaining Polish territory DAY IN
_ REVOLUTIONARY
| FRANCE

_ AROUND 1795

: the whole island of Hispaniola,

although the fighting that had
begun in Saint-Domingue showed

» few signs of abating.

In Jamaica, the peace that had

: been established in 1739 between
: the British and former runaway

_ slaves, known as maroons [from
: the Spanish word for runaways,

» cimarrén) ended. Maroons had

initially invaded and raided

colonists but, on signing a treaty

_ that granted them land and

* autonomy, had largely desisted.

: However, in 1795, an incident in

: which the British severely whipped
© two maroons for stealing pigs

triggered a revolt. Fearful that the

| island could follow the example of
© Saint-Domingue, the governor

brought in troops to suppress it.
Upon surrender, some maroons

: were shipped to Nova Scotia.

Farther afield, the Dutch-
controlled Cape of Good Hope in

: South Africa and the port of
: Malacca in the Strait of Malacca,
© which connects the Indian and

Pacific Oceans, were seized

: by the British.

OVER A YEAR AFTER SETTING OUT
to find the Niger River, Mungo
Park (1771-1806), a Scottish
surgeon and explorer, finally
located it. He had been sent on
the expedition by the Association
for Promoting the Discovery of
the Interior Parts of Africa, in
order to “ascertain the course”

of this large African river. He
embarked from the River Gambia
in 1795, and on July 20, after
prolonged illness and four months
spent captive, he reached Ségou
{in present-day Mali), which lies
on the river.

The first documented
inoculation was completed by
British physician Edward Jenner
(1749-1823) on May 14. In an
attempt to prevent the deadly
smallpox virus, which had killed
thousands across Europe, Jenner
experimented by using cowpox, a
similar but less lethal virus often
contracted by milking infected
animals. His experiment entailed
inoculating eight-year-old James
Phipps with cowpox taken from
Sarah Nelmes, a dairymaid. The
early success of this experiment
led to the development of the
modern vaccine.

In Europe, French army
commander Napoleon
Bonaparte (see panel, right) took
charge of the French army in
northern Italy in March. He was
given orders to seize Lombardy,
and went on to win many victories
over the Austrian army,
subsequently forcing Austria into
peace negotiations. The result
was the Treaty of Campo Formio,
signed the following year, in which

One of a series of portraits depicting the Persian Shah's family and harem.
It was commissioned by Fat’h Ali Shah, the second Qajar ruler.

Austria recognized the French
puppet state, the Cisalpine
Republic, and ceded the Austrian
Netherlands (Belgium) to France.

In Persia, a new dynasty—the
Qajar—was established. The
leader, Agha Mohammad Khan
(1742-97), had spent the past
decade attempting to unite
disparate factions in the region,
eventually asserting his authority
over territory as far as Georgia in
the Caucasus mountains. He
declared himself shah (king) in
1796, but died the next year. His
family continued to rule until 1925.

Farther east, China was in the
throes ofa rebellion. The White
Lotus, a secret Buddhist sect,
sought to overthrow their Manchu
rulers and restore the previous
ruling dynasty, the Ming. The
White Lotus attracted much
support, but ultimately failed after
eight years of fighting.

A painting of Marquis Wellesley
viewing an elephant fight.

A PERIOD OF AGGRESSIVE
EXPANSION of Britain's territorial
claims in Bengal began when
Irish nobleman Richard Wellesley
(1760-1842) was appointed
Governor-General of Bengal

in 1797. He left for Calcutta in
November and set about
increasing British territory
through both military and
diplomatic channels.

During his term as governor
(1797-1805), some of the most
powerful rulers in India were
defeated—including Tipu Sultan,
who was known as the Tiger of
Mysore [see 1761 and 1799).

This period also saw efforts to
professionalize the East India
Company. These included setting
up a college in order to teach
junior clerks subjects such as
Indian languages, though some of
these measures were considered
controversial at the time.

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1769-1821)

Napoleon Bonaparte was

born in Corsica and educated
in France, where he became
an army officer in 1785. His
successful campaign in Italy
(1796-97) was followed by
further military and political
victories. In 1804, he was
declared emperor and led
France on to more battles,
though with diminishing
success, draining the nation’s
resources and ultimately
leading to his downfall. He died
in exile on the remote island of
St. Helena, in the South Atlantic.

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This painting shows the destruction of the French flagship L’Orient during the

“a7

Battle of the Nile, Egypt, where Britain’s Royal Navy destroyed France's fleet.

DESPITE THE TERMINATION OF
the War of the First Coalition in
1795, France still considered
Britain an enemy. The French
mooted the idea of a possible
invasion, but it was ultimately
rejected due to Britain's superior
sea power and naval defenses.
Seeking a way to get around the
Royal Navy—as well as disrupt
valuable trade—Napoleon
proposed to attack the British on
the colonial front in India, via
Egypt, which he also hoped to
conquer. Setting off from France,
he took 35,000 troops, capturing
the Mediterranean island of Malta
along the way. Upon reaching
Alexandria in July, Napoleon
quickly defeated Mameluke
troops at the Battle of the
Pyramids. However, on August 1,

Irish Revolt

Protestant prisoners, suspected of
being loyal to British rule, were
executed by Irish nationalists in
Wexford during the revolt.

ESTIMATED
NUMBER
OF IRISH

_ DEAD AFTER

THE REBELLION

French forces were completely
destroyed by the British navy,
under the command of Horatio
Nelson (1758-1805), at the Battle
of the Nile. Napoleon and his
troops were left stranded in Egypt,
but the defeat and humiliation
did little to hamper the French
commander's imperial ambitions.
In 1796, the British had taken
advantage of warfare in Europe to
wrest the island of Sri Lanka from
Dutch control, meeting with very
little resistance. The British

named the island off India’s coast
Ceylon, and ran its administration
from Madras. By 1798, the British
had begun to realize the strategic
importance of the island, and
Frederick North (1766-1827) was
sent there as the colony's first
governor. Not all of Ceylon was
under British control, however.
The kingdom of Kandy, whose
subjects occupied the interior of
the island, remained independent.
Their autonomy would become a
cause for concern for British
governors in Ceylon.

At the same time, in Ireland,
resentment at British rule had
turned to rebellion, led by
nationalists called the
Society of United
Irishmen. Headed by
Theobald Wolfe Tone
(1763-98] and James
Napier Tandy (1740-
1803), the group had
made numerous
attempts to enlist
the support of
Revolutionary France,
but the British,
learning of these
plots, had forced the
rebels to change their
plans. They decided
to rise up, although
lacking French
reinforcements, and
managed to seize
control of County
Wexford. A French
expeditionary force sent
to assist them was intercepted by
British troops and the revolt soon
collapsed. Tone committed suicide
while awaiting his execution.

46 THE REVOLUTION
IS OVER. I AM THE
REVOLUTION. 99

Napoleon Bonaparte, 1799
ale Ai cx.

ONCE NAPOLEON BONAPARTE had
returned to France from Egypt,
he began to focus on his political
future, and was soon plotting a
coup d’état that involved
dissolving the Directory, the body
that had been governing the
country since 1795. The outcome
of the 18 Brumaire Coup of
November 9 was that the
Directory was replaced with the
Consulate, and Napoleon took
charge of France as First Consul.

The Rosetta Stone
The translations between three
different scripts on this large piece
of granite unlocked the world of
hieroglyphics and ancient Egypt.

While in Egypt, French soldiers

» had unearthed an object that
i transformed the understanding of

the ancient world. A block of black

writing, it was named the Rosetta

: Stone after the town where it
: was found. It fell into British

possession by 1801, although

© it took years of study before
anyone was able to translate it.
+ Eventually scholars established
: arelationship between the

| three scripts on the stone:

hieroglyphics, demotic script
(Egyptian handwriting used
in everyday life), and Greek.
It became clear that this
discovery would permit
the transcription of
hieroglyphics, a type of
communication not used
since the 4th century CE.
Deciphering the stone
provided a window into
Egyptian antiquity.
In India, soldiers
for the East India
Company emerged
victorious from a
violent battle with the
fearsome Tipu Sultan
(1750-99), the ruler of
Mysore. Tipu had
made alliances with
French troops in India,
and on this pretext the
British Governor-General

Richard Wellesley [see 1797)
: authorized the Fourth Mysore
: War, intent on driving out the

French and annexing the territory.

: Tipu was killed in battle, and the
East India Company took half
: of his territory.

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281

1750-1913 |

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

Understanding of the human body and disease made important advances
during the 18th and 19th centuries, laying the foundation for modern
medical care. Ancient practices, such as bloodletting to cure illness, were
replaced with ones that were born of a more rigorous scientific approach.

People have attempted to treat disease since
prehistoric times, but until the 18th century
medicine was based largely on superstition,
natural remedies, and unscientific practices and
theories, such as the theory that the body had four
fluids (humors) that needed to be in balance for
health. There had been progress in anatomy and
surgery, but overall, medicine remained primitive.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MEDICINE

In the 18th century, medicine started to become
more scientifically rigorous, and significant
advances were made, such as the development of a
vaccine for smallpox in 1796. The 19th century saw
the establishment of the germ theory of disease,

the introduction of antiseptic techniques and
anesthetics, and the use of X-rays to image the
body. Around 1900, pharmacology began to make
great progress, with the invention of aspirin in 1897
and the first synthetic antibacterial drug in 1908.
During the 20th century, more vaccines and drugs
were developed, such as antibiotics and anticancer
drugs. Surgical techniques also became more
sophisticated; successful organ transplants were
performed, and keyhole surgery became routine. In
diagnosis, scanning techniques were invented, and
screening became widely used. From the late 20th
century, genetics also began to have a significant
impact on medicine as genetic causes of diseases

were discovered and genetic testing was developed.

44 THE DEVIATION OF MAN FROM THE
STATE IN WHICH HE WAS ORIGINALLY PLACED
BY NATURE SEEMS TO HAVE PROVED TO HIM
A PROLIFIC SOURCE OF DISEASES. 99

Edward Jenner, English surgeon, An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, or Cow-Pox, 1798

c. 5100-4900 BCE
Neolithic trepanation
Trepanation, which
involves drilling holes
in the skull, is used
as far back as the
Neolithic period to
treat a variety of
health problems.

c. 1550-700 BCE
Ancient Egyptian surgery
Medical and especially
surgical knowledge
advances due to

the practice of
mummification, which
gives doctors greater
insight into anatomy.

c. 420 BCE

Hippocrates develops
diagnostics

Hippocrates, the Greek
physician considered to
be the father of modern
medicine, moves health
away from religion and
into the realm of science.

Egyptian knives and curettes

1543

Andreas Vesalius

The Brussels-born
surgeon writes his
influential anatomical
work, with accurate
diagrams of human
anatomy based on many
dissections and operations.

c. 1000-1300
Arab medical advances

The Arab world adds to medical
progress with the development
of pharmacists, who work
with plants and use them

to find new cures.

Arabic medical manuscript

De Humani Corporis Fabrica

unit
housing
sound
sensor

Electronic
stethoscope

Monaural
stethoscope

The stethoscope was invented in 1816 by French
physician René Laennec, who used a simple tube
(a monaural stethoscope) to listen to a woman's
chest. In 1851, British physician Arthur Leared
invented the binaural stethoscope, with an earpiece
for each ear, and, in the 1940s, Americans Maurice
Rappaport and Howard Sprague developed the
modern acoustic stethoscope, which has two
“bells,” one for listening to the heart, the other for
listening to the lungs. The latest development is
the electronic stethoscope, which uses an
electronic sound sensor and amplifier.

1818
First blood transfusion
British obstetrician
James Blundell performs
the first successful
human-to-human blood
transfusion, using a
syringe to transfer blood
between the patients.

1796 } fy
Vaccination f ;
British scientist Edward

Jenner develops a vaccine
for smallpox. It is the ,
first vaccine created ‘

for any disease, and
Jenner's work saves
countless lives.

+4
Jenner's
inoculation point

THE STORY OF MEDICINE

lockwarlamat gears for
— clockwork motor powering fan
| lie

crank for winding
_— clockwork motor

housing of fan
outlet for
antiseptic

spray hammer to tap

antiseptic powder Antiseptic machine

container Patented by British surgeon Anthony Bellin 1879,
this device was used to make the air in operating
rooms free of disease-causing microorganisms.

container for Using a clockwork-powered fan, the machine blows

antiseptic powder antiseptic powder and carbolic acid into the air.

1865-67 1881 1954 Late 20th century 21st century
Antisepsis Blood pressure Organ transplant Keyhole surgery Robotic surgery
British surgeon Joseph measurement The first successful organ Laparoscopic (keyhole) Developments in

robotics allow for
more precise, less
invasive surgery,
with faster healing
and less pain for a
the patient. Robotic suturing

Samuel von Basch
invents a noninvasive
way of measuring blood
pressure using a bulb
connected to an
anaeroid manometer.

Lister pioneers
antiseptic surgery by
using a solution of
carbolic acid to kill
infectious organisms
during operations.

transplant between living
patients [a kidney transplant
between identical twins) is
carried out in Boston by a team
led by Joseph Murray, J. Hartwell
Harrison, and John P, Merrill.

surgery becomes widely
used after the first
laparoscopic appendix
removal using a
microchip camera Is
performed in 1981.

Blood pressure
apparatus

1846-47
Practical anesthesia

In 1846, US dentist Henry Morgan
publicly uses ether for
anesthesia. In 1847, Scottish
doctor James Simpson

uses chloroform.

1901
Blood types identified

US scientist Karl
Landsteiner publishes his
discovery of the four main
human blood groups (A, B,
AB, 0}, which allows for
more successful ¢
transfusions.

1971 and 1977
CT and MRI scans

British scientist

Godfrey Hounsfield

invents the first

commercial CT scanner

in 1971. The first MRI

Blood scan of a human is
bag carried out in 1977.

Chloroform inhaler MRI scan

The Battle of Marengo was a victot
for France over Austria.

AS A NEW CENTURY BEGAN, unrest
in Europe continued. Despite
previous treaties, French military
action increased in aggression.
Mistrust of France prompted the
formation of the Second Coalition
in 1798; by 1799, it comprised
Austria, Britain, Russia, Portugal,
Naples, and the Ottoman Empire.
On 14 June, Napoleon scored a
significant victory against Austria
in the Battle of Marengo, the
result of which was French control
of northern Italy.

Spain, meanwhile, had done
little to develop its Louisiana
territory in North America, lacking
the resources to settle it. So when
Napoleon put pressure on Charles
IV to return Louisiana, the Spanish
monarch obliged. Under the terms
of the secret Treaty of San
Ildefonso, Napoleon agreed
not to give the land to .

a third power. gi

Napoleon's

sabre used at
Marengo

Sabres were much
in use during
Napoleon's wars and
were carried by both
cavalry and infantry.

= *

Anengraving depicting peace celebrations in Milan, Italy, after the Treaty of
Lunéville, in which Austria was forced to recognize France's growing borders.

IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE IRISH
REBELLION (see 1798), British
prime minister William Pitt the
Younger concluded that the
solution to the “Irish question”

was a political union. In 1800 a bill :

outlining these plans was
presented to the Irish parliament.
After much controversy, the bill
was passed. The Act of Union,
also approved by the British
Government, came into effect on
1 January 1801. It saw the Irish
parliament closed down and
representation moved to London,
where 32 Irish peers were put in
the House of Lords and 100 MPs
in the House of Commons. Pitt
had hoped the move would allow
the granting of concessions to

Catholics, but the bill maintained a :

ban on their holding public office.
In Europe, Austria's defeat at

Marengo in 1800 forced them to

accept the Treaty of Lunéville,

which recognized France's frontiers :

to the Rhine, Alps, and Pyrenees.
Russia, meanwhile, was
expanding to the south,
encroaching on the kingdoms of
Kartalinia-Kakhetia (present-
day eastern Georgia]. Ina 1783
treaty, the ruling Bagratid

ig ee agreed to Russian

protection, in return for
assurances that its territorial
— integrity would be
i preserved. However,
~ 4 Russian emperor Paull
(1754-1801), who had
succeeded Catherine the
Great upon her death in
1796, decided to
formally annex
the territory.

THOMAS JEFFERSON
(1743-1826)

Virginia-born planter and
slave-owner Thomas
Jefferson was a leading
republican and one of the
primary authors of the
United State’s Declaration of
Independence. He remained
politically powerful all
through his life, serving as
vice-president (1797-1801)
and president (1801-09). Yet
for all the influence of his
writings on issues like liberty,
he did not free his own slaves
during his lifetime.

In Vienna, composer Ludwig

: van Beethoven (1770-1827)

: finished composing his Piano

: Sonata 14 in C-sharp Minor Op. 27
: No 2, known as the “Moonlight

: thought to be dedicated to his

: pupil, the Countess Giulietta

: his affections.

The United States saw the

_ election of Thomas Jefferson
| [see panel, above) as the country's
: third president.

Thercrenth |

The mausoleum of emperor and
Nguyen dynasty founder, Gia Long.

AFTER 30 YEARS OF CIVIL WAR,
Vietnam was united under the
leadership of Nguyen Phuc Anh
(1762-1820), a powerful general
who, with the help of French
mercenaries, was able to defeat
the rival Trinh family. Nguyen Anh
declared himself emperor,
taking the name Gia Long, and
reestablished the Nguyen family
as the ruling dynasty.

Ongoing warfare in Europe
and further afield came to
an end with the Treaty of
Amiens. Signatories included
Britain, France, Spain, and the
Netherlands (which was known
as the Batavian Republic from
1795 until 1806).

Under the terms of the treaty,
Britain kept the colonies of
Trinidad, which had been taken
from Spain, and Ceylon, which
had been captured from the
Dutch. Egypt was restored to the
Ottoman Empire, and France
agreed to relinquish Malta. This
state of affairs was short-lived.

LTE

France and Britain at the table
A political cartoon of Britain's
William Pitt and France’s Napoleon
Bonaparte carving up the globe
around the Peace of Amiens.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines who fought
for Haitian independence.

IN SAINT-DOMINGUE (HAITI), THE
ONGOING WAR TOOK A DECISIVE
turn with the capture and exile of
General Toussaint Louverture
in 1803. He had joined the French
Republican cause ten years
earlier (see 1793] and drove out
the remaining British forces on
the island, before taking up the
title of governor in 1801.
Napoleon was, however,
displeased with Louverture’s
successes and was infuriated
when he defied orders, riding into
Santo Domingo - then under
French control - and freeing the
slaves. In 1802, Napoleon
reinstated slavery and sent
25,000 troops to reclaim the
island. After months of fighting,
Louverture was invited to
negotiate a settlement. He was
then seized and exiled. The battle
for abolition then fell to his deputy
Jean-Jacques Dessalines.

With most of Napoleon's troops
in Saint-Domingue killed on the
battlefield or ravaged by yellow
fever, Dessalines’ men drove out
the remaining soldiers. French
reinforcements were held up by a
British blockade of French ports
as part of the ongoing war, and
France abandoned the island.

The cost of fighting in Haiti had
put further strain on France's
troubled finances and it occurred
to Napoleon that he could raise
revenue by selling the large and
mostly undeveloped land
controlled by France in North
America. The US had become
interested in the Louisiana
territory, especially the port of
New Orleans as more people

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Asketch of an evergreen shrub leaf from William Clark’s diary. He and
Meriwether Lewis spent years exploring the vast Louisiana territory.

This painting shows the aftermath of the Battle of Trafalgar, in which France
and Spain suffered heavy losses at the hands of Britain’s Royal Navy.

Fort Cpe AFTER FINALLY and William Clark (1770-1838) FRANCE’S DEFEAT IN THE
Baa DRIVING THE FRENCH = —Set off on an expedition through | CARIBBEAN at Saint-Domingue UK
€ OUT of Saint- the newly acquired Louisiana was soon overshadowed by victory = Dead
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by US from i 4 aks : Spain
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Territory gained by the US

The massive Louisiana territory
almost doubled the size of the US.
The following year it was extended
south to include New Orleans.

settling further west came to
depend on trade along the
Mississippi River. On May 2 a deal,
the Louisiana Purchase, was
signed in which the United States
bought the territory stretching
from the Gulf of Mexico to the
Rocky Mountains—an area of
829,000 square miles (2,147,000
square kilometres). The price
agreed was $15,000,000, but,
including interest, the total paid
was closer to $27,000,000.
Napoleon faced further
challenges in Europe as Britain
declared war on France,
beginning the Napoleonic Wars.
Meanwhile, British East India
Company troops were waging
another war involving the internal
politics of the Maratha
Confederacy, the Second Maratha
War (to 1805). The Company's
attempt to gain control of the
territory in India only laid the
ground for further conflict.

Despite this, its birth was met
with a wary reception—some in
the slave-owning US did not
want Haiti setting an example to
the southern states, a concern
shared by Britain, whose slave
colony of Jamaica was also in
close proximity.

The defeat in the Caribbean
did little to weaken Napoleon's
stranglehold on power in
Europe. In 1804, he made
France a hereditary empire,
ostensibly to ward off any
assassination attempts,
but also to showcase his
own might. The coronation
ceremony on December 2
was remarkable as
Napoleon was not
crowned by Pope Pius VII
(1742-1823) who officated, but
placed the crown on his own head,
crowning himself Napoleon I. In
this year he also made sweeping
reforms to the legal system in
France and French territories,
known as the Napoleonic Code
(see panel, right).

In the US, two explorers—
Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809)

In West Africa, Usman dan
Fodio (1754-1817), a Muslim
scholar and teacher, began a
four-year jihad (holy war]
that resulted in the creation of the
Sokoto Caliphate in 1808 and
the Fulani empire in Hausaland
(in present-day northern Nigeria).

CODE CIVIL

one
PRANCAIS

One of Napoleon Bonaparte’s

most far-reaching reforms was

to codify French law. Enacted
in 1804, the Napoleonic Code
(Code Napoléon) was a civil
code created with the intention
of breaking from the
institutions of the past. Based
on reason, it was also heavily

Bonaparte sent forces to Ulm,
Bavaria (September 25-October
20), where he was victorious.
However, the day after the Battle
of Ulm ended, France suffered a
humiliating naval defeat at the
hands of the British in the Battle
of Trafalgar, under the command

influenced by Roman law, and
declared all men equal, ending
any hereditary nobility. Women
fared less well, as they were
put under male control.

The laws also dealt with
issues such as property rights,
marriage, and civil rights. The
Napoleonic Code was
disseminated throughout
French-controlled territory in
Europe and beyond, making it
highly influential - an adapted
version is still in force in the
Dominican Republic today.

It was also later adopted by
some of the new Latin
American republics,

including Bolivia and Chile.

CASUALTIES

i Casualties of Trafalgar
| This sea battle saw heavy losses for
: France and Spain, though British

Admiral Horatio Nelson was among

: the dead.

i of Napoleon's ald enemy, Horatio
© Nelson (see 1798). The battle,
: fought near Cape Trafalgar,

| between Cadiz, Spain, and the
: Strait of Gibraltar, saw the
: meeting of 18 French and 15
© Spanish ships against 27 British
| vessels. Britain was victorious,
: capturing or destroying 18 ships,
: but Nelson, fatally wounded in
: action, died before the end of the
: battle. Napoleon decided to

change tactics and turned to

: Europe, occupying Vienna and
: defeating Russia and Austria
: at the Battle of Austerliz on

| December 2.

In Egypt, the Macedonian-born

» soldier Muhammad Ali (1769-
: 1849) was named viceroy, or

: pasha, to the Ottoman sultan.
: Ali had arrived in Egypt in 1801
: as part of aregiment sent to

? drive out the French.

Napoleon after his victory at the
Battle of Jena in Saxony.

PRUSSIA SUFFERED A
DEVASTATING defeat against
France at the Battle of Jena on
October 14. Fought in Jena and
Auserstadt in Saxony (southeast
Germany), 122,000 French troops
and 114,000 Prussians met in
combat. As a result, Frederick
William Ill (1770-1840) decided
that internal reform in Prussia
was necessary in order to bolster
the country’s flagging fortunes.
Among the numerous measures
taken, serfdom was abolished.
Although the transition later proved
profitable for agriculture, it took
years to implement the changes.

In addition to his other
conquests, Napoleon wanted
control of the Holy Roman
Empire, which would expand his
territory in Germany. Emperor
Francis Il (1768-1835) was in
no position to challenge France
and abdicated, officially ending
the empire, of which France
took possession.

In the Middle East, the Islamic
holy pilgrimage site of Mecca was
invaded by members of the
Arabian Saudi dynasty who
practiced a strict version of the
religion known as Wahhabi. In
1805, they had captured Medina,
which, like Mecca, was under the
control of the Ottoman Empire.
They also made incursions into
the Arabian Peninsula, sacking
the city of Karbala, in Iraq (also
under Ottoman rule), and
extending their influence south
to Yemen, a cause for concern
among Ottoman officials.

44 YOU MAY CHOOSE TO LOOK
THE OTHER WAY BUT YOU CAN
NEVER SAY AGAIN THAT YOU
DID NOT KNOW. 99

William Wilberforce, to the English parliament prior
to the vote on the Abolition Bill, 1789

Francisco Goya's painting The Third of May depicts the French troops
executing Spanish insurgents involved in the Madrid uprising.

THE LONG BATTLE LED BY English
abolitionist and politician William
Wilberforce (1759-1833)—and
the thousands of members of the
British public who supported his

campaign—finally came to fruition |
: while Prussia signed the other

: on July 9. Under the terms of

: the treaties, France and Russia

: formed an alliance, while the

: territories of Austria and Prussia
were significantly reduced.

in 1807 as the bill to abolish the
slave trade was passed with an
overwhelming majority. The
legislation, however, only ended
the trade in Britain. It did not end
the practice of slavery.

Russia, alongside Prussia, had
reentered the hostilities against
France with the Battle of Eylau
(February 7-8) in eastern Prussia.
The battle was inconclusive and
resulted in a stalemate, with both
sides losing more than 20,000
troops. After a decisive Russian
defeat at the later Battle of

Elite force

A Janissary, left, in Cairo. Initially

| the bodyguards of the sultan, the
_ Jannissaries became the elite
© troops of the Ottoman Empire army.

the Treaties of Tilsit on July 7,

In the Ottoman Empire,

» auxiliary troops called Yamaks

» erupted into a revolt over

| attempts to introduce European-
i style reforms to the military.
| They were soon joined by the
» elite Janissary soldiers. The
© unrest culminated in the
: assassination of Selim III

ALREADY IN CONTROL OF MOST of
western and central Europe,
Napoleon now turned toward the
Iberian Peninsula. Enraged by the
Portuguese refusal to back a
French boycott against Britain, he
sent troops into Portugal via
northern Spain. The presence of
French troops, as well as previous
unpopular concessions to France,
provoked the Spanish people to
rise up, calling for the abdication
of their monarch, Charles lV, in
favor of his son, Ferdinand VII
(1784-1833). Ferdinand took the
throne, but it was to be very
short-lived.

Lured to Bayonne, France, by
Napoleon's offer to mediate,
Ferdinand VII was forced to
abdicate. As Charles VII had
already abdicated, Napoleon was
now able to declare his brother,
Joseph Bonaparte (1768-1844),
the new king of Spain, triggering
the Peninsular War. When news
of these events reached Spain's
colonies, there were furious
outbursts. In Santo Domingo,
loyalists mounted the War of
Reconquest (to 1809), driving out
the occupying French troops and
declaring the island once more
under Spanish control.

LONG-STANDING ENEMIES, Spain
and Britain now fought alongside
each other as they united against
France. British troops met early
defeat at the Battle of La Corufa,
northwest Spain, fighting French
troops under Napoleon's direct
command. Britain was
subsequently victorious at the
Battle of Talavera (July 27-28),
southwest of Madrid, under the
leadership of Arthur Wellesley
(1769-1852), later known as the
Duke of Wellington.

The Spaniards, while fighting the
French, had also been establishing
provincial bodies, called juntas, in
order to organize their resistance.
The central junta in Spain had
also issued a decree declaring the
American territories to be more
than just colonies, but still a part
of the monarchy. Across the
Atlantic it was obvious that there
was a crisis of legitimacy in
Spanish rule—without a king, to
whom did allegiance lie? While
debates about this were underway,
similar American juntas were set
up, and it soon it became clear that
not all the colonies would stay on
the path of loyalty to the Crown.

Pistol from Peninsular War
Flintlock pistols were widely used in
this period. The term “guerrilla” also
arose, named for Spanish tactics.

Friedland, Russia signed one of ~~: (1761-1808).
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A mural by José Clemente Orozco (1883-1949) depicting Miguel Hidalgo,
whose anticolonial document sparked the Mexican War of Independence.

KEY
© Spanish territory

Portuguese territory

UNITED STATES

Acaricature compares the Luddites
to mobs of the French Revolution.

ON JULY 5, THE SOUTH AMERICAN
TERRITORY of Venezuela joined
New Granada [see map, left) and

When Napoleon Bonaparte’s troops arrived in Moscow, they found the city
ablaze, as portrayed by this painting by Jean-Charles Langlois (1789-1870).

RUSSIA, LIKE PORTUGAL, DECIDED
to resist Napoleon's Continental
System, measures intended to

: humiliating retreat in December.
| Only around 30,000 French
: soldiers survived.

ATLANTIC Mexico in declaring independence | damage the economy of Britain In North America, merchants
a | OCEAN from Spain. One of the rebels Russia had withdrawn fromitin = prospered in their trade with
CUBA . Fi . + : re
Santo involved in the deliberations for 1810, and Napoleon resolved to France, claiming to be a neutral
Latin America on the Regemingo independence, Simén Bolivar mount an invasion in retaliation. party in the dispute between the

eve of independence

Caracas BRITISH GUIANA

(see panel, below}, had recently

He sent more than 500,000

i British and the French. Britain

ee Hane anes still FRENCH GUIANA | returned from England, where troops to Russiain June and won | refused to recognize this
Faces ee meen eae “4 he had tried to elicit British early victories at the battles of : neutrality and began to seize
America during the acenevaua support for their cause, but he Smolensk on August 17 and i American ships, often capturing
early days of the PACIFIC OF BRAZIL ¢ <\yo4or was unsuccessful. Borodino on September 7, : the American sailors and pressing
Peninsular War. OCEAN Bolivar's trip was confined arriving with his forces in Moscow __ them into service with the British

USING THE EXISTING POLITICAL
CHAOS as an opportunity for
reform, Spanish politicians called
a congress, known as a Cortes,
on September 24 in the port of
Cadiz. Deputies numbered 104,
with 30 representing the colonial
territories, although more arrived
later. The Cortes declared itself
the source of national sovereignty
and began to draw upa
constitution, although Spaniards
were divided as to the extent they
wished the government to be
restructured. There was also the
question of how much political
representation to allow overseas
territories. The colonies
represented a population far
greater than Spain’s, meaning
they could, in theory, dominate the
Cortes. The peninsular politicians
wished to avoid this, yet needed
the colonies’ continued support.
Some members of the public in
the colonies began taking matters
into their own hands. In Dolores,
Mexico, a parish priest named
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
(1753-1811) distributed a

VICEROYALTY

Rio de Janeiro
.

OE PERU VICEROYALTY OF THE

RIO DE LA PLATA
lontevideo

document calling for the end of
Spanish rule, while advocating
racial equality and land
redistribution, an act known as
the Grito de Dolores (Cry of
Dolores}. Thousands responded to
his call and set off for Mexico City,
where they were put down by
loyalist troops the following year.
But Hidalgo’s actions had sparked
the Mexican struggle for freedom.
In other Spanish colonies,
similar upheavals took place. The
viceroyalty of New Granada also
declared its independence on July
20, and there had been uprisings
in Quito and Buenos Aires.
Meanwhile, on the Hawaiian
islands in the Pacific Ocean, King
Kamehameha (1758-1819)
became the first ruler of a united
Hawaii, helping the islands
withstand European incursions.

to London, but had he traveled
farther north, he would have
seen rebels of another kind: the
group known as the Luddites,
who were attacking textile mills
in the industrial north of England.
The Luddites aimed to destroy the
new machinery in the mills. They
feared the machines would
eventually replace them, thereby
forcing them into unemployment
and poverty.

SIMON BOLIVAR (1783-1830)

Simon Bolivar was born in
Caracas to a wealthy family.
He was sent to Europe at 16,
where he was inspired by the
writings of Enlightenment
thinkers on the issue of
liberty. Soon after returning
to South America in 1807,

he became involved in
independence conspiracies.
Later known as El Libertador,
he led much of northern South
America to independence from
Spain. He also ruled Gran
Colombia, but the political
union ultimately failed.

on September 14. There they
found the city gutted, and its
inhabitants gone. Russian troops
held off any further advance, and
as the brutal Russian winter set
in, Napoleon's troops began to
falter. The Grand Armée was
running short on food and

many soldiers, unaccustomed

to such extreme cold, died.
Napoleon had no other option
but to make a

Royal Navy. This triggered the
» War of 1812 (to 1814), which also
© included battles on the mainland
: where Britain persuaded
: American Indians loyal to the
Crown to attack settlements in
: the Northwest Territory.

In Spain, the Cortes had finally
© produced a constitution. It limited
: the power of the monarchy—

: although Ferdinand VII was still in
: exile—and did not provide any
special representation in the
: Cortes for the nobility or the
» clergy. Its liberal ideas provoked
: an angry reaction among some
: supporters of the Crown and
Church, and triggered
a long-running fight
LA, between liberals
and conservatives,
which would continue
for decades.
In Egypt, Muhammad
Ali was ordered ona
campaign to reestablish
Ottoman rule in the holy
city of Mecca, and drive
out the Wahhabis, who had
: seized much of Arabia. His troops
: took Medina in 1812, and Jeddah
and Mecca the following year.

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46 THE BULLET
THAT WILL KILL
ME IS NOT YET
CAST. 99

Napoleon Bonaparte, statement at
Montereau, February 17, 1814

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, AFTER
HIS HUMILIATING RETREAT IN
Russia (see 1812), began to
experience the rapid decline of
his military might. This was driven
home by the decisive defeat at the
Battle of Leipzig (also known as
the Battle of the Nations) fought
October 16-19. France had nearly
185,000 troops, but the allies
outnumbered them with more
than 300,000 soldiers from
Austria, Russia, Prussia, and
Sweden. Even after this loss,
Napoleon still refused to sign

a peace deal that would put
France's boundary back to the
Rhine River and the Alps.

While Russia was caught up in
the Napoleonic conflict, it was
also entangled with territorial
deals further east; Russia and
Persia signed the Treaty of
Gulistan, in which Russia was
given a large area of Persian
Caucasus territory. The deal
brought to an end the Russo-
Persian War (1804-13), which
had been triggered by Russia's
annexation of Georgia and the
Karabakh [a region in present-
day Azerbaijan). The territories,
which had been a dominion of
Persia, had appealed to Persia's
shah for help in resisting Russia.

In Venezuela, Simon Bolivar
(see 1811] had won an important
victory against the Spanish and
captured Caracas, though Spain’s
forces would later defeat him,
forcing him into exile for two
years. During this period he went
to Jamaica and Haiti to regroup
and enlist further support before
returning to Venezuela in 1816.

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oot sr
x

An engraving of a palanquin (litter)
being carried in Mauritius.

ALLIED TROOPS PURSUED

Napoleon to Paris, where he was
captured. He abdicated on April 6
and was exiled to the island of
Elba, off the Tuscan coast of Italy.
o replace him, Louis XVIII
1755-1824]—brother of the
beheaded Louis XVI—was placed
on the French throne. Afterward,
the European powers convened
the Congress of Vienna
September 1814 to June 1815).
Part of the resulting settlement
gave Prussia two-fifths of Saxony;
sel up a German Confederation;
and allowed Britain to retain
France's Indian Ocean islands

of Mauritius and the
Seychelles, whichit «@
had captured.

A painting depicts the 17th-century Temple of Tooth, located in the kingdom of

Kandy, where one of Buddha’s teeth is preserved.

ALTHOUGH HE WAS EXILED FROM
FRANCE, Napoleon rallied enough
supporters to help him mount his
return, and he entered Paris on
March 20—just 11 months after
his forced departure. Louis XVIII
fled, and what became known

as the “Hundred Days” began.
Once he had an army assembled,
Napoleon mounted attacks
against his enemies, defeating
Prussia at Ligny [in present-day
Belgium) on June 16. He fared
much worse two days later at the
Battle of Waterloo, against
British troops led by the Duke of
Wellington, who had brought the
Peninsular War (see
1808) to an end
the previous

year. Napoleon had been on the
verge of victory, but the arrival of
Prussian reinforcements secured
his defeat. Napoleon was forced to
abdicate once again, but this time
he was to be exiled much further
away—the island of St. Helena,
a British outpost in the South
Atlantic, where he died in 1821.
At the same time, Britain’s
troops in Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
had taken control of the kingdom
of Kandy, which meant the entire
island was under British rule.

Battle of Waterloo

This clash was the definitive defeat

of Napoleon Bonaparte, after which
he was forced to abdicate and

go into exile.

A native inhabitant in Alaska,
territory which Russia had claimed.

A RUSSIAN ORTHODOX PRIEST,

Father Sokoloff, was sent to Sitka,

in the Alaska territory, to build a

church in the town as part of

Russia’s bid to colonize the region.

Alaska had lingered as an outpost

but settlements began to grow as P

trade in sea otter furs flourished.
In southern Africa, Shaka

(c. 1787-1828), a fierce

warrior, took over the

rule of the Zulus. He

reorganized the army,

leading his tribe to

military victory, and

incorporated

conquered

tribes into

the Zulu

nation.

44 LET US BE
FREE. THE REST
MATTERS NOT! 99

José de San Martin, revolutionary leader

A depiction of the Peterloo Massacre in which a peaceful political protest
in Manchester, England, was attacked by armed cavalrymen.

Argentine general José de San Martin with his
horse and officers.

121
dead or
, injured

1,100
dead or
injured

THE BATTLE IN ARABIA, ongoing
since 1811 between Egypt and the
Wahhabi sect of Islam, drew to a

| close in 1818. Egyptian forces led
by Muhammad Ali recaptured the
holy cities of Mecca and Medina.
Wahhabi power had spread
quickly, and from their Arabian
base they had secured control

of Mecca, Medina, and Jedda.
Syria was under threat when
Muhammad Ali received his
orders to defeat the Wahhabi

and return the cities to Ottoman
rule. A final siege of the capital
Diriyah (in present-day Saudi

ON AUGUST 16, A POLITICAL
RALLY of around 60,000 people on
St. Peter's Field in Manchester,
England, turned from a protest
about high food prices and lack
of popular suffrage into the
Peterloo Massacre. Magistrates,
concerned about the size of the
crowd, ordered the Yeomanry
(voluntary cavalry officers) to
arrest the speakers, but they
attacked the crowd when they dominance of trade routes

refused to make way. A regiment, between China and India (see 1795)
the 15th Hussars, was then sentin, © the British East India Company
and an estimated 15 people were sought a new base in the Malay
killed and more than 500 injured. _: peninsula. Stamford Raffles

: 1819, he led his troops from

: Venezuela over the Andes to
launch an attack. The Spanish

: were defeated at the Battle of

» Boyaca on August 7 and Bolivar

: marched south to Santa Fé de

: Bogota, which secured the

» independence of New Granada.
Bolivar was named the president

: of the new Republic of Colombia.

In a bid to challenge Dutch

FORCES

Rebels

Royalists

Battle of Chacabuco

A bold risk by rebel leader José de
San Martin resulted in a highly
successful ambush against the
Spanish, who sustained heavy losses.

THE FIGHT AGAINST SPANISH rule
took a decisive turn when
Argentine-born General José de
San Martin (1778-1850) led
around 3,000 troops from Argentina
into Chile through treacherous
passages in the Andes mountains,
and launched a surprise attack on
royalist forces on February 12—
the Battle of Chacabuco. He then
moved on to take Santiago. He
refused the offer of governorship
of Chile, passing it instead to fellow
soldier Bernardo O'Higgins
(c. 1776-1842], who became the
territory's “supreme director.”
Serbia had also been fighting
once more for independence,
after being invaded by the Turks
in 1813. The Second Serbian
Uprising was successful, and
most of their former rights were
regained by 1817.

Arabia] put a temporary end to
Wahhabi ambitions.

In South America, the effort led
by José de San Martin at the
Battle of Maipu on April 5 secured
independence for Chile when
loyalist troops suffered a crushing
defeat. With a small naval fleet of
seven ships under the command
of British mercenary Lord Thomas
Cochrane, the rebels also
managed to break the Spanish
hold on the coastline.

In Paris, German inventor Baron
Karl von Drais de Sauerbrun was
impressing crowds with a
display of his draisienne, a
two-wheeled machine that was
the precursor to the modern
bicycle. Made of wood and
propelled by pushing the feet
along the ground, rather than by
pedals, it was known in German
as the Laufmaschine, or “running
machine.” While testing the
design the previous year, he had
managed to ride it? miles (14km].
The idea was soon picked up
and modified by other inventors,

Mary Shelley
The English novelist Mary Shelley
published her first novel,
Frankenstein, in 1818, and it
remains a literary classic today.

including Briton Denis Johnson
(c. 1759-1833), a coachmaker by
training, who designed a
“pedestrian curricle,” later
known as a dandy horse.

In England, Mary Shelley
(1797-1851), the daughter of
writer Mary Wollstonecraft (see
1792) and wife of poet Percy
Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822),
published the novel Frankenstein;
or, The Modern Prometheus. The
novel concerns a scientist who
artificially creates another human
being, and the consequences
they both suffer. The work was an
instant success, and is considered
a classic work of Gothic literature
as well as one of the earliest
examples of science fiction.

Venezuelan general Simon Bolivar —
had begun to make considerable
headway against royalist forces. In

Upon his return from exile, arrived in Singapore, which was
then part of the Riau-Johor

: empire. He negotiated a deal with
: the local ruler and founded a port.

—

The East India Companies monopolized trade between Europe
and Southeast Asia, India, and the Far East from the early 17th
century. However, the French Compagnie Francaise des Indes
Orientales ceased trading at the time of the French Revolution
(see 1789]. The charter for the Dutch Vereenigde Oost-Indische
Compagnie was revoked in 1799 when the government took
control of it. Sweden’s Svenska Ostindiska Companiet folded in
1813, while Britain's East India Company (above) traded until 1874.

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3

Necklace of trade beads
Late 19th century ¢ ORIGIN UNKNOWN
This necklace has different types
of blue and yellow beads threaded
together into a design. Trade beads
were obtained from white traders.

beading

intricate
beading

beaded tails

Blue-beaded arm band

Late 19th century « SARCEE

This arm band from the Sarcee
people, a nation of Plains Indians,
is beaded into a pattern using blue,
pink, black, and yellow polka dots.

Glenary hat

¢. 1860 » IRoqUOIS

Made of black velvet, this
Iroquois hat has intricate
beadwork and a floral pattern
woven around the bottom.

For thousands of years, millions of aboriginal people
lived in North America, but their world was shattered
and their population declined drastically when the
Europeans arrived, bringing new diseases and weapons.

European explorers encountered diverse cultures in the North American
continent, ranging from the Arctic world of the Aleut, Innu, and Inuit to the hot,
dry home of the Hopi in the southwest. Trade was one way Europeans exerted
their influence on native populations, and tribes such as the Sioux, Blackfoot,
Sarcee, and Arapaho in the Great Plains, and the Iroquois and Mohawk of
the Great Lakes were soon in regular contact with the European settlers.

pelt pouch to

_— hold needles wooden handle

Hide-working tool

c. 1890 e ALEUT

Skinning and butchering
was uSually a woman’s
task. This hide-working
tool scrapes the hides
of sea otters and whales
hunted by the Aleut.

carved wood
used as hook
{ metallic blade to
{ sewing
| implement
! Fish hook

Sewing kit

C. 1880 © INNUAND INUIT

This sewing kit consists of
tools made by carving bones
and a pouch made from seal
skin and animal fur.

19th century ¢ ALEUT

Wood, bone, and fiber

were used to make this
fishhook. The wood is carved
into a U-shape, with points
of bone at both the ends.

decoration
on fur

velvet

head made
of iron

War club
Late 19th century

Apart from war clubs,
Plains Indian raiding
parties were often
armed with bows and

and scalping knives.

wooden
handle

Tomahawk
Late 19th century A
© PLAINS INDIANS

Used in warfare

and ceremonies, this
tomahawk has an iron
head, a wooden handle,
and a feather for decoration.

arrows, shields, lances,

feather indicates

success in
hunting or war _-~

horsehair

Chieftain’s headdress
c. 1930 © ARAPAHO

This headdress of Yellow Calf,

the last chief of the Arapaho, was
made with feathers and decorated
fur. It was worn close to the head,

double-edged
stone head

detailed
beadwork

leather cover
on handle

rawhide
tassel

rawhide y
Sere Pipe bag

Late 19th century + sioux
American Indians smoked
tobacco in pipes. The

tobacco was believed to

have special powers and

was used to please spirits. /,

feather used
as ceremonial
decoration

AMERICAN INDIANS

é oe *

z
ty
g { / |
beading ;
on leather =
Wooden bears

Early 20th century e Inuit
These wooden polar bears were

Beaded moccasins made by the Inuit people, who
\ Late 19th century « sioux live in the Arctic and subarctic

Leather moccasins with decorative regions of North America.

beading were worn by Sioux hunters

and traders. The sole extends over 4

fates 4

— inner fur lining

buckskin

Jacket exterior
c. 1890 & sioux carved
This jacket is made of buckskin from wood

and decorated with beads, which
were brought in by white traders.

painted with
bright colors

seal or reindeer
skin on the exterior

fur-lined hood
for warmth

Sashes

Mid-19th century

* MOHAWK

These sashes display
intricate beadwork. The
one on the left has a
floral motif, which was
often copied from white
settlers in the area.

Kachina figure

20th century «Hop!

Hopi kachina figures of this type
were used to teach children
about the world of spirits.

Mukluks

Early 20th century « Inuit

These boots for children have seal
or reindeer skin on the outside and
fur on the inner lining.

intricate
beadwork

carved tooth __

skin is waterproof Carved and pierced teeth
19th century « INUIT

Used by shamans—or medicine
men—in their practices, these

Winter coat

Late 19th century ¢ INNU
Anoraks were winter coats,
typically loose at the bottom
to allow the wearer to draw
in cold air if ventilation

was needed. teeth, some shaped into birds,
are strung together along a ring.
seal skin
insulates body
from cold

cavities stuffed
with sage and
grass were an
offering to
the buffalo

Buffalo skull

19th century e BLACKFOOT

Used in the Sun Dance ritual of
the Plains Indians, this Blackfoot
buffalo skull has horns and is
decorated with polka dots.

AS THE UNITED STATES began the
settlement of western territories,
the issue of slavery could not be
ignored. Most of the northern
states had abolished the practice,
but the southern states had
become increasingly dependent
on slave labor. When the Missouri
territory petitioned for statehood
in 1817, it caused a political crisis
over whether the federal
government had the right to
restrict slavery in this territory.
The solution was the Missouri
Compromise, which allowed
slavery in Missouri, but not in any
new state north of 36°30’ latitude.
Much of Europe, meanwhile,
was convulsed by political unrest,
with revolts in the Italian states,
Portugal, France, and the Low
Countries. In Spain, Ferdinand VII
had returned to the throne in 1814,

rejecting the new constitution (see =
1812] and arresting liberal leaders. ©

Following public unrest, Ferdinand
was forced to accept the 1812
Constitution, marking the start of
the Trienio Liberal—three years
ofa liberal regime (1820-23). In
1823, France's Louis XVIII—who

Egyptian Mameluke soldiers were former slaves. By invading
Sudan, Egypt hoped to add Sudanese captives to their ranks.

10,200
Missouri

1,538,022

Southern states

small in Missouri, the question of

: permitting slavery in the state
: caused a political crisis in the US.

i had been restored to the throne
1 (see 1815)—sent in troops to
: “free” Ferdinand. These soldiers

toppled the liberal regime, and

returned Ferdinand to power.
Egypt invaded its southern

neighbor, Sudan. Pasha

» Muhammad Ali wanted Sudanese
| gold and slaves for his army. By
: 1821, Sudan had fallen and the

Egyptian Empire extended down
the Nile to what is now Uganda.

464. THIS MOMENTOUS
QUESTION, LIKE A FIRE
BELL IN THE NIGHT,
AWAKENED AND FILLED
ME WITH TERROR. 99

Thomas Jefferson, third president of the US, on the implications
of the Missouri Compromise in a letter to John Holmes, April 22, 1820

=~
A woodcut illustrates the battle
for independence in Mexico.

IN GREECE, A FIGHT FOR
INDEPENDENCE FROM THE TURKS
began. Resentful at years of living
under oppression, people from
across Greek society—including
the Orthodox Church—began to
plot their liberation. Some rebel
groups had been organizing
through secret patriotic societies
such as the Philiki Etaireia
(Society of Friends). These
organizations involved people
living on the islands, but also had
significant support from the large
Greek diaspora.

At the same time, rebels in the
Americas were able to take
advantage of Spain's internal
crisis and weakness to make the
final push for independence.
Mexico managed to secure its
liberation after Mexican royalists,
upon hearing the news of events
in Spain {see 1820), decided that
self-rule was the only way to
avoid a liberal regime as had
happened in Spain. On August 24,
a treaty was signed recognizing
Mexican independence, and on
May 19 the former royalist Agustin
de Iturbide (1783-1824) crowned
himself emperor Agustin I.

Farther south, the Congress of
Cucuta was formed and formally
established Gran Colombia,
consisting of present-day
Colombia, Panama, Venezuela,
and Ecuador. Simon Bolivar was
named president and Bogota was
made the capital.

In Peru, José de San Martin
led his troops into Lima and
declared Peru independent,
though fighting to secure its
freedom continued.

Adepiction of the coronation of Pedro | as emperor of Brazil. Pedro, the

son of the king of Portugal, had declared the colony's independence.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL had been
fundamentally affected when the
Portuguese court, fleeing
Napoleon, arrived in Brazil in
1808. After John VI (1769-1826)
returned to Portugal in 1821, he
left his son, Dom Pedro (1798-
1834], in charge of the kingdom of
Brazil, as Prince Regent. Dom
Pedro, frustrated by the attempt
of the Portuguese Cortes to
reduce Brazil to its pre-1808
colonial status, issued his Grito
de Ipiranga (Cry of Ipiranga)
declaring Brazil's independence
and crowning himself Emperor
Pedro |.

Even the loyalist Santo
Domingo, on the island of
Hispaniola, was swept up in the
revolutionary spirit of the time,
declaring independence in 1821,
though it failed to realize a plan
to join Gran Colombia. Santo
Domingo’s neighbor, Haiti
(previously Saint-Domingue),
grew concerned that France or
Britain might sneak through the

AFRICA

LIBERIA

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Liberia

Located on the West Coast of Africa,
alongside slaving ports, a colony for
freed slaves was established by the
American Colonization Society.

-THE NUMBER
_OF FREED
SLAVES
-RELOCATED TO

LIBERIA FROM

1822 TO 1862

now poorly guarded ports in Santo
» Domingo and launch an attack to

: recolonize and re-enslave the

| island. With this pretext—and the
: fact that slavery still persisted in

: Santo Domingo—Hhaiti’s president,
Jean-Pierre Boyer [in office

» 1818-50), arrived in Santo

: provisional government turned

» control over to Boyer, who united

both sides of the island under

» Haitian rule.

The issue of slavery remained

: how to treat freed slaves. The

: American Colonization Society,

: founded in 1816, advocated they

| be returned to Africa. The society
| secured agreements with local

rulers in West Africa, near Cape

: Mesurado, establishing a
: settlement that would become
: known as Liberia.

The Alaungpaya dynasty’s invasion of northern India led to Britain declaring
war and eventually capturing the coastal city of Rangoon, pictured.

IN HIS ANNUAL MESSAGE TO THE
US Congress on December 2,
President James Monroe (see
panel, below) outlined a new
diplomatic policy: the Monroe
Doctrine. Concerned about the
possibility of European incursion
into the new republics of Latin
America, Monroe attempted to
set boundaries between Europe
and the Americas. The doctrine
stated that the US would not
interfere in the internal affairs or
wars of European powers, nor in
any colonies in the Americas, but
likewise declared the western
hemisphere now closed to any
further European attempts at
colonization. Interference with
territories in the Americas would
now be viewed as hostile acts
against the US.

Earlier in the year, another
republic had joined the Americas:
the United Provinces of Central

US ISOLATIONISM

James Monroe (1758-1831, see
right) was the fifth president of
the United States, serving from
1817-25. His time in office was
a period during which the US
began to emerge as a serious
global power. This period was
known as the “era of good
feelings,” and was marked by
significant economic growth
and general public optimism.
With its aversion to interference
in other nations’ affairs set out
in the Monroe Doctrine, the US
began to pursue a policy of
isolationism.

America, which was composed

| of Guatemala, El Salvador,

Nicaragua, Honduras, and

Costa Rica. They had achieved
independence from Spain in 1821,
but were joined to the empire of

: Mexico. The local leaders decided
: to break away and establish a

federal republic, with the capital
in Guatemala City.

The Alaungpaya Dynasty of
Burma (present-day Myanmar,
see 1752), had been making
incursions into the northern
Indian state of Assam, bringing
them into contact with the British,

an effort to protect their interests
in India, Britain launched the First

: Anglo-Burmese War the

following year (1824-26). This
resulted in the British capture of

: much of the territory of Burma,

including Rangoon, which was
taken in 1825.

Lord Byron

The Romantic poet Lord Byron was
inspired by the Greek struggle for
independence from the Ottoman
Empire, and went to Greece to fight.

AS THE FIGHT FOR GREEK
INDEPENDENCE INTENSIFIED,

it attracted the public's attention
across Europe, especially among
writers and artists. One such

person was the English Romantic

poet Lord Byron (1788-1824),
famed for his poem Don Juan.
Byron had arrived in Greece the
previous year to help fight in the
struggle. However, while he was
abroad, he contracted a serious
illness and died on April 19 in
Missolonghi.

In Peru, a decisive victory at the
Battle of Ayacucho, December 9,
meant the end of Spanish rule,
though to the north, in the
territory known as Upper Peru,
loyalist forces were still holding
out against rebel troops, in one of
the last bastions of fighting.

THE TERRITORY OF UPPER PERU
received a much-needed boost
with the arrival of Simon Bolivar
(see 1811) and Antonio José de
Sucre (1785-1830), whose troops
helped to defeat the Spanish.
Bolivar wanted this territory to
unite with the rest of Peru, but
Sucre had already agreed with
the rebel leaders that it would
become a separate republic. In
honor of Bolivar’s help, the rebels
named the new nation Bolivia,
and they invited Sucre to be its

Technological innovations in the

to power engines had led to
the development of railroad
locomotives, such as the one
designed by English inventor
John Blenkinsop in 1812.

. George Stephenson [1781-1848],

a colliery mechanic, improved
on that design and caught the

first president, which he accepted. |

With the creation of Bolivia, all the
former Spanish colonies—with
the exception of Cuba, Puerto
Rico, and the Philippines—had
become independent nations.

In England, there was great
excitement over the opening, on
September 27, of the Stockton to
Darlington railroad line, in the
industrial north of the country.

ek ss iat oleae

Stockton and Darlington.
Darlington was in the middle
of a coal mining region and the
Pennine mountains made

: transportation difficult. The
: 25-mile (40-km] line opened the
© way for further rail development.

- Crowd puller

The opening of the Stockton to

| Darlington rail line marked the first
: time that a locomotive was used to
+ pulla passenger train.

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293

The signing ceremony at the Treaty of Turkmanchai, in which Persia
returned contested land in the Caucasus region to Russia.

TENSIONS BETWEEN RUSSIA AND
Persia restarted (see 1813] over
the Caucasus region, with the
Persians attempting to take back
the territory of Georgia in 1825.
However, a crushing defeat at the
Battle of Ganja on September 26,
1826 halted the Persian advance.
Russian troops then marched into
Persia, eventually taking Tehran,
leaving the Persians no option but
to accept defeat. They negotiated
the Treaty of Turkmanchai,
which put the Russian border

at the Aras River, returning the
Caucasus territory to Russia.

In Hawaii, US missionaries had
started to settle on the islands
and America had become one
of the kingdom's largest trading
partners. The US was looking
to protect its growing interests
there by formalizing trade
arrangements in the face of
possible European competition,
so it convinced the regency
government of King
Kamehameha III (1813-54) to
sign the Hawaii-United States
Treaty of 1826. The treaty
stipulated that there would be
peaceful and friendly political and
trading relations between the two.

In France, inventor Joseph-
Nicéphore Niépce (1765-1833)
took the world’s first photograph,
known as View from the Window
at Le Gras, which was of
a barnyard in France. His
technique involved making an
eight-hour exposure onto a
pewter plate using a camera
obscura, which was a dark box
with a tiny hole—a forerunner
of the modern camera.

AS GREECE'S BATTLE AGAINST
the Ottoman Empire continued,
neighboring powers began to call
for an end to the conflict. Britain,
France, and Russia joined
together to sign the Treaty of
London on July 6, which
demanded the establishment

of an independent Greek state.
The Ottomans refused, confident
they had the land and sea power
to defeat the Greeks.

By autumn, the Ottoman
resources were put to the test as
a Turkish-Egyptian fleet went up
against a naval force comprising
British, French, and Russian ships
at the Battle of Navarino on
October 20. The Russo-European
ships sunk three-quarters of
the Ottoman fleet, and this
humiliating defeat led to the
eventual withdrawal of Turkish
troops from Greece, which won
independence in 1832.

A one-sided battle

A Turkish warship burns fiercely at
the Battle of Navarino, in which the
Ottoman fleet was devastated but
nota single allied ship was lost.

José Gervasio Artigas

Artigas was the father of the
Uruguayan independence movement,
but had been in exile for several
years when it was finally liberated.

THE TREATY OF MONTEVIDEO
RECOGNIZED the independence of
Uruguay in August 1828. The area,
then known as the Banda Oriental,
was disputed between Brazil and
Argentina. It had been under
Spanish control but during the
wars of independence in South
America, under the leadership of
José Gervasio Artigas (1764-
1850), the territory established
its independence from Spain and
Argentina in 1815. However, the
following year, Brazil invaded and
occupied it. This led to a further
war, led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja
(1784-1853) and his group known
as the “thirty-three immortals.”
Lavalleja, with Argentinian support,
defeated Brazilian troops and
founded an independent Uruguay.
Territorial disputes were
also behind another conflict
between the Ottoman Empire
and Russia, with the Russians
capturing Vidin and Varna
lin present-day Bulgaria).

1 MILES PER
HOUR

THE TOP SPEED

OF THE FIRST
US STEAM
LOCOMOTIVE

DEBATE OVER IRELAND HAD
intensified after the Act of Union
(see 1801). Daniel O'Connell, a
Catholic lawyer, called for England
to repeal its anti-Catholic laws,
arguing that it could not claim to
be representing the people of
Ireland. In addition, he staged
mass meetings about the issue of
Catholic emancipation. In 1828,
O'Connell stood for parliament and
won, though he was not allowed
to sitin government because
of his Catholicism. His victory,
however, attracted the attention of
the British prime minister, Arthur
Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington
{see 1815], who was Irish though
not Catholic. He oversaw the
Catholic Relief Act 1829, which
allowed Catholics in Ireland
and England to take seats in
Parliament and hold public office.
Elsewhere in England, inventor
George Stephenson (see 1825]
unveiled a new locomotive engine,
known as the Rocket, which
reached speeds of about 36 miles
(58km) per hour. He had entered
the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway competition for best new
engine. The Rocket was the victor.
This year also saw progress of
the railroad in the US, with the
first American-built steam
locomotive, Tom Thumb. In 1830,
arace was staged against a
horse-drawn cart to prove the
superiority of steam power.
Although the horse won on this
occasion due to a techinal fault
with the train, the point was made
and the owners of the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad agreed to
switch to steam trains.

A depiction of the uprising that led
to the Belgian independence.

EUROPE HAD SCARCELY
RECOVERED from the unrest of the
previous decade (see 1820) when
France was convulsed by the July
Revolution, an insurrection that
forced the abdication of Charles X
(r. 1824-30}, who was replaced by
Louis-Philippe, duke of Orléans
(r. 1830-48). The rebellion had
been triggered by Charles's
attempt to enforce repressive
ordinances, such as suspending
the freedom of the press and
modifying electoral law so many
people lost their right to vote.

Louis-Philippe's succession to
the throne signaled the arrival of
power for the bourgeoisie, who
were his chief support, rather
than the aristocracy, and he
remained in power until 1848.

Around the same time, revolts
were taking place in the Italian
and German kingdoms; in the
Netherlands; and in Russia, as
the Polish living under Russian
rule rose up against the czar.

8,000

PEOPLE DEAD

Cherokee deaths on Trail of Tears
Thousands of American Indians
were forcibly relocated from the
Southeast US, traveling a route later
called the Trail of Tears.

294

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Also during this period, French
troops arrived in Algiers, with
the intention of taking control.

A few years earlier, in 1827, the
provincial Ottoman ruler, or dey,
Husayn (r. 1818-38], had struck a
French consul with a fly whisk,
giving the French a pretext for
war. The source of the tension was
an unpaid debt between France
and the dey. During a French

Liberty leading the people

This famous painting by French
artist Eugéne Delacroix (1798-1863)
was inspired by the July Revolution,
and depicts “Liberty” as a woman.

blockade of Algiers, matters
escalated. By July 5, the French
had raised their flag over the
kasbah in Algiers and this marked
the start of French control over
this North African territory.

In South America, political
alliances were also fragile. Before
his death in 1830, Simén Bolivar
(see 1811) had witnessed the
secession of Venezuela and
Ecuador from Gran Colombia,
which ended his dream of political
unity among the new republics.

Farther north, more settlers
in the US were making their way

: west, and this was known as

the era of the wagon train.
Settlers, traveling in groups of
horse-drawn wagons carrying
all of their possessions, headed
out to unknown territory to set
up farms and settle the land.
Meanwhile, to facilitate
settlement in the east, the US
government passed the Indian
Removal Act in 1830. This
stripped American Indians of legal
rights, and forced them to leave
their desirable territory in the
southeast of the country and
relocate to sparsely populated
land west of the Mississippi. The
moves resulted in many deaths.

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we 2

THE KINGDOM OF
THE NETHERLANDS:
was caught up in
the turmoil across
Europe. The
Congress of Vienna
(see 1815) had
forced the Belgian
territories, which
had been under
French control,

to unite with the
Dutch, thereby
creating a buffer
between Russia and France.

This move proved unpopular

and tensions grew over the
intervening years.

By August 1830, inspired by
events in France, the Belgian
Revolution had begun. The
result was a clear break from the
kingdom of the Netherlands.
Later that year a constitution
was issued, which created a
constitutional monarchy and
a parliamentary system. On
January 20, 1831, the new state of
Belgium was officially recognized
by Britain and France, though not
the Netherlands. The Belgians
were forced to choose a monarch
with no direct connection to other
major European powers. They
finally elected Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld—the uncle
of Britain's Queen Victoria—and
he ruled as Leopold I until 1865.

The same year, Syria was
annexed by Egypt until 1840,
when the latter was finally
forced to return the region
to the Ottomans.

464 NO MINISTER
EVER STOOD, OR
COULD STAND,
AGAINST PUBLIC
OPINION. 99

Robert Peel, British politician,
on the Reform Act, 1834

The English Reform Act

A cartoon shows the reformers
attack on the "Old Rotten Tree,"
which symbolizes the corrupt “rotten”
boroughs. They wanted a fairer
distribution of parliamentary seats.

BRITAIN ALSO SAW UPHEAVAL
AND SOCIAL CHANGE in the 1830s.
There had been growing public
discontent over the outdated
voting system (see 1819]

A bill was drafted, aimed

at transferring votes and
redistributing seats from small
“rotten” boroughs controlled by
the nobility to the more populous
industrial towns. The first
Reform Bill failed to be passed
in parliament. This caused
serious riots in many cities, as
wellas a political crisis with the
prime minister, Charles Grey
(1764-1845), who threatened to
step down over the matter. The
bill finally became law on June 4,
1832. This legislation allowed
more middle-class men the vote,
but the working class and
women were still excluded.

. 295

wy _ : ih Ng

cotton spinning machines meant they were best operated by children.

, THE MAXIMUM

/ HOURS PER WEEK

, CHILDREN AGED

) 9-12 COULD WORK
” IN ENGLISH MILLS

IN BRITAIN, INDUSTRIAL
development and urban growth
progressed rapidly. Laws were
introduced to address exploitation
of labour and the growing cost of
providing for the poor. The 1833
Factory Act appointed inspectors
to monitor factories and limited
the hours that children could work.
In England, local parishes
provided some relief for the elderly,
ill, and impoverished. Out of this
grew a system of workhouses,
aiming to give employment to

the able-bodied. The Poor Law
Amendment Act of 1834
stipulated that the poor could only
receive assistance if they went to
workhouses, which were to be
built in every parish. Conditions in
the workhouses were deliberately
harsh and the legislation
immediately proved unpopular.

In China, British merchants
were granted permission to
engage in trade after legislation
ended the East India Company's
monopoly. Although there had
been private traders in Canton
before the act, now more were

allowed to sell their wares and
export Chinese goods, such
» as tea, the imports of which
§ rose 40 per cent after the
beginning of free trade.

In 1832, Egypt invaded
Syria. Muhammad Ali, the
pasha, was angered by a
failed promise from the
Ottoman sultan to give him
the territory. Ali took Gaza
and Jerusalem in the First

Turko-Egyptian War, and by
1833 the Ottoman government
' begged Russia for help, and
18,000 troops were sent to
Constantinople. Britain and

France got involved, demanding
: asettlement, in which Egypt was

given Syria, and Russia withdrew.

Commemorative coin

The Slave Emancipation Act outlawed
the buying or selling of people, set
free young children, and compensated
planters in most of the British Empire.

This engraving shows children working in an English mill. The size of the first

A Galapagos cactus finch, one of the
species noted by Charles Darwin.

IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN, almost
600 miles (1,000km) from

the coastline of South America,
English naturalist Charles Darwin
(1809-82) took extensive notes on
the nature of the Galapagos
Islands. Darwin had accepted a
post ona scientific voyage aboard
the Beagle, which left England on
December 27, 1831, arriving in the
Galapagos in September 1835
(see also 1839]. It was in the
Galapagos where Darwin first
noticed the difference in the
species of wildlife on the island
compared with mainland South
America. This discovery laid the
foundation for his later scientific
work on the evolution of different
species (see 1859].

In Britain, the National
Colonisation Society had been set
up to facilitate the settlement in
Australia of people who were not
convicts. Founder Edward Gibbon
Wakefield (1796-1862)—who had
served time in prison—came up
with a scheme for populating
colonies based on the sale of land
anda tax on the price, which
would pay for the transportation
to the colony. A fleet set off for
South Australia, where the city
of Melbourne was established in
1835, and Adelaide a year later.

46 IT SEEMS TO
BE A LITTLE
WORLD WITHIN
ITSELF. 99

Charles Darwin, from Journal of
Researches, September 1835

The Alamo, the site of a key battle
for Texan independence.

AS SETTLERS IN THE US MOVED
WEST, many decided to live in
the Texas territory, which was
part of Mexico. However, Mexican
authorities wanted tighter control
over this large territory and the
settlers rebelled in October 1835,
launching the Texas War of
Independence. The following
March, after months of unrest,
General Antonio Lopez de Santa
Anna (1794-1876) marched into
Texas with 5,000 Mexican troops
Although massively outnumbered,
the rebels managed to hold them
off during a battle at a San
Antonio fortress, called the
Alamo. The rebels were eventually
defeated but the Alamo proved a
rallying point for Texans bent on
revenge. Soon after, General
Samuel Houston (1793-1863)
led a Texan army with the

battle cry "Remember the
Alamo!” and beat Santa Anna
at the Battle of Jacinto on April
21, forcing Mexico to recognize the
new republic of Texas.

| Texans

Battle of the Alamo
Texans were vastly outnumbered by
Mexican forces in the battle fought

between 23 February and 6 March
and there were very few survivors.

A painting of Queen Victoria’s
coronation in Westminster Abbey.

Long-distance communicator
This is a single-needle electric
telegraph machine, which later
developed into double-needle and
four-needle instruments.

EXPERIMENTS had been taking
place for decades over the
question of how to transmit
electric current through wires.

In 1837, two British inventors,
William Fothergill Cooke and
Charles Wheatstone, made

a breakthrough and secured a
patent for an electric telegraph
device that allowed for
communication through wires and
had needles that could point to
specific letters and numbers.

At the same time in the US,
Samuel Morse received a patent
onan electromagnetic transmitter
that could transfer information

using dots and dashes. Morse’s
telegraph was far simpler than
the Cooke Wheatstone design,
and soon became the standard
instrument worldwide,
revolutionizing the global
movement of information.

When Britain's King William IV
died on 20 June, he had no
surviving legitimate heir, so the
crown passed to Victoria, his
niece (see panel, below). She was
the daughter of Edward, Duke of
Kent, and granddaughter of
George III. Her reign was viewed
as a time of growing prosperity,
technological innovation, and
colonial expansion.

In Japan, Tokugawa leyoshi
(1793-1853) became shogun.
At the time of his rule Japan
was experiencing social and
economic decline. He introduced
measures known as the Tempo
Reforms, restricting migration
to urban areas and instigating
price controls—but they failed.

QUEEN VICTORIA (1819-1901)

Ruling for 63 years and 216
days, Queen Victoria remains
the longest-reigning monarch
of Britain. In 1840, she married
her cousin, Albert of Saxe-
Coburg and Gotha (1819-61).
She adored him and they had
nine children together. The
Victorian era contrasted
sharply with the excesses of
previous Hanoverian rulers,
and Victoria’s domestic life was
held up as the model for
families in this period.

44 HE’LL HAVE US GOING

TO THE MOON YET. 99

Great Western Railway director, on Isambard Kingdom Brunel

TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGY
was rapidly changing. Along with
the expansion in rail transport,
travel by sea was also being
revolutionized by many
innovations. The power of steam
was finally harnessed in an
efficient way that allowed for
much quicker sea crossings [see
1786). On 8 April 1838, the Great
Western left Bristol for its

maiden transatlantic voyage, and

Brunel's Great Western

The Great Western steamship
shown off the west coast of England.
The sails helped to propel the ship
and keep it on an even keel.

arrived in New York 15 days later;
the paddle-wheeled steamship
had cut the voyage time in half
and arrived with fuel to spare. The
ship had been designed by leading
British civil engineer Isambard
Kingdom Brunel (1806-59), who
had also been involved in other
engineering projects, including
the Great Western Railway. The
idea for the steamship started as
a suggestion by Brunel to Great
Western Railway directors that
the train line could be extended to
New York by way of a regular
transatlantic service. Soon after,
the Great Western Steamship
Company was set up to facilitate
the construction of the ship.

In the Americas, Guatemala,
Honduras, and Nicaragua
became independent nations.

WHILE BRITISH TRADE IN CHINA
CONTINUED TO EXPAND, so too

did the Chinese opium problem.
Decades earlier, the East India
Company had started exporting
the drug, produced from poppies
grown in Bengal, to China in order
to trade it for tea, which it then
sent to Britain. Despite numerous

attempts to ban the importation of |

the substance, British ships
continued to import it. On

March 30, 1839, one frustrated
Chinese commissioner ordered
British warehouses and ships in
Canton to be destroyed. Britain
sent warships in retaliation,
attacking China's coastline in the
First Opium War.

Meanwhile, tensions between
Egypt and the Ottoman sultan
erupted again in the Second
Turko-Egyptian War. This time
it was triggered by an Ottoman
attempt to invade Syria, which
it had previously ceded to Egypt
(see 1833).

At the same time,
British political
meddling in Afghanistan Ee
triggered the First
Afghan War (to 1842).
Worried about Russia’s

Galapagos
Islands

The East India Company's steamer, Nemesis, attacks Chinese war junks in
Anson's Bay, at the mouth of the Peart River, China, during the First Opium War.

growing influence over the Afghan

_ emir, Dost Muhammad Khan
(1793-1863], Britain attempted to
replace him with an emir more
sympathetic to British interests
in northern India, including the
protection of overland trade routes

: through the region.

Darwin [see 1835] published an

: account of the diary he kept while
on the Beagle. The journey had
taken Darwin around the world.
He had set off from Plymouth in

: 1831 for the Cape Verde Islands,

» Coast of South America, stopping
at the Galapagos Islands, before
going onward to Tahiti, New
Zealand, Australia, Mauritius, and

: helped make his name in science.

a prna0"
Zz
i= SOUTH
calzo | AMERICA
‘seLima :
Planalto de eit
Mato Grosso

PACIFIC

" OCEAN bE Rio de Janeiro
DARWIN'S JOURNEY hy
Corian ®
Feb 1832 pent» Sep 1835 mat
Valparaiso
oe Buenos Aires
Darwin's Beagle Goncepeléh Alcritauides:
voyages
Charles Darwin's five-year ee AT DANTE
Isla de Chiloé OCEAN
voyage (1831-36) on end
the Beagle, a warship Archipelago.
carrying ten cannons, led Strait of Magellan ralisland Islands
him to consider scientific a South
eagle Channel Georgia

evidence in new ways.

1750-1913 | THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

THe ORO

When Thales, a mathematician and philosopher in ancient Greece,

experimented with a piece of amber—known as “elektron” in Greek—Little

could he have known that his initial observations would still hold a significant iy
place in science more than 2,000 years later.

What Thales noticed was that if he rubbed a piece
of amber against fur it would attract bits of dust
and feathers lying nearby—although he did not
know it, he had stumbled on what we know today
as static electricity. Over the following centuries,
scientists all over the world experimented with

metal brushes
move charges

metal foil sectors
produce a charge

static electricity
is stored in
Leyden jars

600BCE

Amber

Thales of Miletus rubs a
piece of amber against
fur and notes that it
attracts bits of nearby
feathers.

1600
Gilbert's De Magnete
English physician
William Gilbert
publishes his
famous work on
magnetism.

Leyden Jar

1700-10

Electrostatic generator
English inventor Francis
Hauksbee develops a
device that can generate
static electricity by
using a glass globe

and wool threads. pile

Pieter van Musschenbroe
and Ewald Georg von Kleist
independently invent a
device that allows static
electricity to be stored.

this form of electricity, as well as magnets and
magnetism. By the 17th and 18th centuries,
technological leaps had been made, although
the connection between electricity and
magnets would not be clear until the

19th century (see panel, right).

POWER TO THE PEOPLE
As the 1800s progressed, understanding about
electricity rapidly increased, and new innovations
were rolled out in quick succession. By the dawn
of the 20th century, many of the technologies
were in place that are still with us today—such

as batteries and light bulbs—though they have
since been further adapted and refined. Today, the
scientific challenge is to find ways of generating
electricity that do not cause pollution.

Wimshurst machine

The English inventor James Wimshurst developed
a device that could generate static electricity and
store it in a vessel called a Leyden jar. For many
years, scientists studying electricity used
Wimshurst machines to produce electric charge.

Voltaic

1765-46
The Leyden jar

1752
Lightning conductor
US scientist Benjamin Franklin
flies a kite during a storm, with
a key tied to the string, and
proves that lightning is a

form of electricity.

1799-1800
The first voltaic pile
The Italian inventor
Alessandro Volta
creates the first
battery, known as
the voltaic pile—the
unit “volt” is later
named after him.

Edison’s screw-in light bulb
Although US inventor Thomas Edison is
often credited with inventing the light bulb,
what he really did was improve an existing
idea (see below]. He spent years working
out a way—using incandescent bulbs—to
make electric lighting practical and safe
for public use.

1820s-30s
Faraday experiments
English scientist
Michael Faraday
further illustrates the
relationship between
electricity and
magnetism with

his induction ring.

Faraday’s
induction ring

1820

Electromagnetism discovered
Danish physicist Hans Christian
Orsted notices that a magnet

is affected by a nearby wire
connected to a battery, and
discovers the relationship between
magnets and electricity.

THE STORY OF ELECTRICITY

46 GENIUS [S ONLY ONE PERCENT
cumee cymimm» INSPIRATION, AND NINETY-NINE
“armen” DE RCENT PERSPIRATION. 99

without catching fire

Thomas Edison, US inventor, c. 1903

wires carry
electricity to

™ and from metal end
filament screws into
— lamp

’ contact

transmits

electricity

This English inventor played an important role in
carbonized bamboo furthering knowledge about the relationship between
filament moves magnets and electricity. His discovery of what he
electrons “ : ae 5 4
called “electromagnetic rotation” was a vital step in
the development of what would become the electric
motor. Faraday worked out that the interaction between

filament becomes

di it ee
Rae Pete electricity and a magnet would lead to the constant
passes through it rotation of current, something he tested using a wire
carrying electricity, a magnet, and a bowl of mercury.
1878-79 1882 Early 21st century
The electric light bulb Hydroelectric power Sustainable electricity

British inventor Joseph
Swan creates an
incandescent “electric

Scientists begin
to realize that the
force of water can

Growing worries about
pollution caused
by the older ways

lamp.” The idea is generate electricity, pleam turbine 1884 of generating
improved by US and build dams and Electricity from steam energy lead to the
scientist Thomas Edison, hydroelectric power Like liquid water, steam is also development of
and the light bulb plants to harness harnessed for electricity by devices like “green” technology,
is born. Hoover Dam this energy. the turbine, created by Charles Patton. such as wind turbines. Wind turbines
fi _\
|
1825 | 1881 1883-84 1950s
The electromagnet ] The world’s first public The Tesla coil Nuclear power
This device, built by | electric lighting Serbian-American Scientists discover that atoms
Joseph Henry, uses two The English town of inventor Nikola Tesla can be used—in controlled nuclear
metal plates, which are Godalming, Surrey, develops a coil that can reactions—as a source of energy
put in acid in order to brings to a close the era transmit electricity over to heat water, which then generates
form a voltaic cell. of the gas lamp when it long distances—it is a electricity. By 1951, the first
= wires its streets with crucial discovery that aids nuclear power plant is built

Henry's electromagnet electric lighting. Tesla coil the spread of electricity. in Arco, Idaho, in the US.

Horse and coach at a London station leaving to deliver mail. The development
of stagecoaches meant post could be delivered all over Britain.

EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT OF New
Zealand had gradually increased
over the previous decade, and
included the introduction of many
missions. Settlers traded with the
Maori, who were already living on
the isLand—exchanging European
muskets for Maori crops and
livestock. This had led to an arms
race between rival tribes in the
Maori Musket Wars (1820-35).
The British wanted to establish a
colony and the New Zealand
Company was set up, selling land
for settlement (see 1835). A ship
of settlers left for New Zealand in
1839, All involved were aware of
potential hostility from the Maori.
In 1840, William Hobson (1792-
1842], lieutenant-governor of New
Zealand, approached Maori chiefs
with the Treaty of Waitangi. This

offered protection by the British in

exchange for ceding sovereignty.

2,050
non-Maori
population __s

New Zealand’s population in 1840
The European population was still
very small at the end of 1840, though
the Treaty of Waitangi opened the
way for further settlement.

| Tamati Waka Nene

| Nene was a warrior and chieftain of
| the Maori Ngatihoa tribe in the early
+ 19th century. He spoke out in favor

: of the Treaty of Waitangi.

The Maori would keep their land

= onthe basis that if they sold it only

: the British Crown could buy it.

: There was much opposition to

: the treaty but some Maori chiefs

: believed that the British presence

: would bring stability to the

: country. On May 21 sovereignty
was proclaimed over the territory.

In Britain, the postal system

i was reformed. Improved

: transportation made it possible to
© deliver mail all over the country,

: but costs rose as postage was

: paid for on receipt, based on

: distance traveled. A “penny post”

system was proposed, whereby

: any letter could be sent anywhere
: in the country for a penny, and
© postage would be prepaid using

stamps. These measures came
into force in 1840 and was the first

: system of its kind in the world.

The port of Hong Kong was key to
Britain’s trade in the East.

AS CHINESE AND BRITISH TROOPS
continued to fight in the Opium
War, Britain’s ships sailed up

the Pearl River, capturing forts
around Canton, followed by the
ports of Amoy and Ningpo. The
British also occupied the key port
of Hong Kong. A preliminary
agreement to end the war, drafted
in January and known as the
Convention of Chuenpee, ceded
Hong Kong to the British, but the
document was written amid
continued hostilities and was
never ratified.

Egypt and the Turks, meanwhile,
ended their second war over
Syria (see 1839], with Egyptian
troops withdrawing from Syria.

ote is haya tay ota!
Aes th he horse
tpt ool Mirenth pooh

the Amy dormer of Peeters

=. = KG awe \
An illustration depicting a caravan of African sl.

laves. The slave trade remained

prevalent in many parts of the world despite a growing effort to eradicate it.

THE OPIUM WAR between Britain
and China finally came to an end
after British troops took further
territory, reaching Nanking in
August. Chinese officials sued for
peace, resulting in the Treaty of
Nanking on August 29. China was
forced to pay an indemnity of $20
million to the British and officially
cede Hong Kong. It was also made

to open the ports of Canton, Amoy, :

Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai
to British trade. These cities
became known as ‘treaty ports.”
Industrialization and the mining
industry resulted in many children
being forced to work under dirty
and dangerous conditions. In
Britain, social reformer Anthony
Ashley Cooper, seventh earl of
Shaftesbury (1801-85), became a

ae a 4) eee

a
7
~
7s

2
?
2
5
na

*
>
aed

SPAPRVae Ther

: driving force for the Mines Act of
| 1842, prohibiting children under
: ten and women from working in
: mines. In the US, the state of
: Massachusetts passed legislation
© to limit a child’s work day to ten
: hours. Belgium’s King Leopold |
: also tried to regulate child and
: female labor conditions, but his
plans were rejected.
The slave trade and the practice
of slavery still persisted in many
: countries. France had brought
» slavery back to its colonies [see
: 1803], and while Spain had signed
a treaty over abolition in 1817 with
the British, who had abolished the
: Slave trade in 1807, it was not
: enforced for decades. Likewise,
Portugal's 1818 treaty with Britain
© and subsequent treaties were
i not honored, nor was
slavery abolished in its
colonies. However, in
1842, a further treaty
allowed British ships to
attack Portuguese slave
ships off East Africa.
The Portuguese colony
of Mozambique was a
huge slave port, with
15,000 slaves a year
taken from 1820 to 1830.

emp heRAEP SH

Treaty of Nanking

This treaty ended the
three-year Opium War,
gave Britain control of
Hong Kong, and opened
up five “treaty ports” to
traders.

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44 WHAT
HATH GOD

WROUGHT? 99

Samuel Morse, American
artist and inventor, in his
telegraph message

A portrait of Abdul Rahman. His
father, Faisal, revived Saudi fortunes.

THE OTTOMAN DESTRUCTION OF
the first Saudi state (see 1818),
established by the Wahhabi
movement and Saud family, did
not prevent the founding of a
second Saudi state in 1824. After
initial upheavals, Faisal al-Saud,
second leader of the second state,
resumed his rule in 1843, and led
the state successfully until 1865.
In South Africa, after a series
of victories against the Zulu
people, Boer settlers (see 1880)
established the Republic of Natal
in the southeast of the country.
The territory was annexed by the

12,000

THE NUMBER
OF BOERS WHO
MIGRATED
FROM THE
CAPE COLONY

British in 1843. Many Boers
decided to move farther north to
what later became the Transvaal
and the Orange Free State, joining
the emigration of Boers from the
Cape Colony, in a move known as
the Great Trek.

Despite the treaty between the
Maori and the British in New
Zealand (see 1840], the issue
of illegal land sales caused
increased tensions, culminating in
the Wairau Massacre on June 17,
in which a chief's wife and 22
Europeans were killed.

With the backing of the US Congress, Samuel Morse managed to have
wires built that could transmit messages.

Friedrich Engels

The Prussian philosopher wrote
about the condition of the working
classes in England. His work with
Karl Marx made him famous.

FRIEDERICH ENGELS (1820-95)

was the son of a prosperous
businessman who owned textile
mills in Prussia and a cotton mill
in England. He went to work at the
family firm in Manchester in 1841,
but he lived a double life. In his
spare time he met workers and
studied the economic conditions
of people in England, and the
result of his work was a book, The
Condition of the Working Class in
England in 1844, in which Engels

described working-class life.
Around this time he also began

a lifelong friendship with fellow
writer and philosopher, Karl

Marx (1818-83), and the two went
on to publish hugely influential
works about capitalism and
communism.

In the Caribbean, a group of
conspirators known as La
Trinitaria, led by Juan Pablo
Duarte (1813-76), launched their
fight for the independence of the
Spanish-speaking side of the
island of Hispaniola (see 1822).
With neighboring Haiti distracted
by its own civil war, Duarte and his
fellow rebels were able to eject
the Haitians and declared the new
Dominican Republic independent
from Haiti on February 27.

Meanwhile, Samuel Morse (see
1837] had managed to get funding
from the US government to build
the first telegraph line in the US
from Baltimore to Washington.
The line was completed in 1844.
In his first public demonstration
of the telegraph that year he sent
a message that famously read
“What hath God wrought?”

Glass and iron

The Palm House at
the Royal Botanical
Gardens, Kew, UK,
was built in 1844,
constructed with
plate glass and iron.
It was the first
large-scale structure
to be made using
wrought iron.

A painting depicts sufferers of the Irish famine. One million died when the potato
crop failed over successive years, while millions more left the island forever.

POPULATION IN MILLIONS

1841

1851 1901

Population decline in Ireland
Partly due to famine deaths, but
mostly due to massive emigration
to escape deprivation, Irelands
population had halved by the 1900s.

SUCCESSIVE FAILURES OF THE
potato crop in Ireland triggered a
famine that lasted five years and
left more than one million people
dead. The crop failure, due to late
blight [see panel, right), was
particularly devastating because
for millions of the rural poor, the
potato was their staple food. The
British government's response
was limited. Rather than intervene
directly, it directed landlords to
shoulder the burden. However, as
many small tenant farmers had

No crops to sell, rents went unpaid
and landlords ran their tenants off

the land. Landowners soon were
unable or unwilling to provide
local poor relief. To compound
matters, many larger farms
continued to export grain, meat,

and other foods to Britain as there ©

was no market for them in Ireland,
given that there was little extra
money available for the purchase
of such goods. The fact that these
foods were not given to the
millions who were starving in
Ireland, further strained relations

between the Irish people and the

: British government. Many Irish

decided to emigrate and more

: than two million people left for
© Britain, Canada, and the US,

: population from 8 million to 6.5
: million between 1841 to 1851.

On the other side of the Atlantic,

the Republic of Texas had been
© trying unsuccessfully to join the
: US since 1836. When it became
© clear that Britain had a stake in
' keeping Texas independent, to halt

US westward expansion, the suit

: was finally approved in December.

a .

POTATO BLIGHT

The blight responsible for the
failure of Ireland's potato crop
was Phytophthora infestans, a
mold that caused rot within
two weeks. Blight spreads
quickly when humidity stays
above 75 percent and
temperatures above 50°F
(10°C) for two full days; both
factors were present during
the summer of 1845. By
autumn the crop was lost and
people abandoned the land.

ae
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ee oti! Reus
Pra eek he ees
COE ye Oe
Saher

we
as 2 sa! &
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at y%o™ SS = Soe
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Oe AW 3 ny
weer Eo ooo
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so <i

301

The Battle of Palo Alto, the first battle of the Mexican War, fought near

“Te

Brownsville, Texas. The war was triggered by a boundary dispute.

DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BETWEEN =

MEXICO AND THE US became
strained after Texas became

the 28th state (see 1845). The
Mexican government did not want
to accept this annexation and
refuted the US claim that the new

Rio Grande, stating it lay farther
north, at the Nueces River. A
diplomatic mission was sent to
Mexico City in 1845 to settle the
matter, as well as to attempt the
purchase of the New Mexico and
California territories, but these
efforts were met with a snub.
The following year, on April 25,
Mexican troops crossed the Rio
Grande and attacked soldiers
stationed there. The US President,
James K. Polk (1795-1849)
declared war, and fighting lasted
until Mexico surrendered in 1847.

The US also faced boundary
disputes with the British, over
the Oregon Territory, which lay
between 42° N and 54°40’ N. The
US claim for land as far north
as 54°40’ N gave rise to Polk’s
campaign slogan of “Fifty-four
Forty or Fight!” However, under
the 1846 Treaty of Oregon the
boundary was set at 49°N.

In Britain, the control of the
import and export of grains—
known as the Corn Laws—had
been the source of controversy

for decades. Poor harvests,

: blockades, and disruption to

supplies during wartime had

: led to fluctuating wheat prices.

Legislation to protect domestic

proved unpopular and led to the
establishment of the Anti-Corn
Law League in 1839. The League

* argued that the laws impeded

prosperity as restrictions on grain

: imports caused a price increase
© and a consequent rise in the cost
© of wages. The control of exports

also limited the external market
for British goods. A combination

+ of pressure from the League and

the failure of the potato crop in

Ireland (see 1845] led to the
: repeal of the laws.

In Japan, there was
international pressure for the

: isolationist nation to open up its
: ports to foreign trade. The Dutch,

who were the only Europeans

» allowed limited access to trade
© in Japan, sent a mission in 1844

urging the country’s rulers to
open up trade. This was followed

: by the French and British
: requesting trading rights. In 1846,

a US delegation arrived and was

4 also sent away empty-handed, but
© the US would soon try again in its

quest for access to Japanese
ports (see 1853].

44 FIFTY-FOUR
FORTY OR FIGHT! 99

William Allen, Governor of Ohio, during his election campaign

Algerian troops

Rebellion of Abd al-Qadir
Although the Algerian troops were
hugely outnumbered by the French,
Abd al-Qadir made effective use of
guerilla tactics.

IN THE YEARS FOLLOWING
FRANCE’S ATTACK and
colonization of Algiers (see 1830),
the French faced much resistance
from Algerians, including emir
Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri (1807-
1883]. He gained the support of
Algerian tribes who aided him

in his fight against the French.
After a series of defeats, he was
forced to surrender in 1847.

He was taken prisoner, but

was later freed.

In Germany, a telegraph line
connecting Frankfurt to Berlin
was installed by a firm owned
by Werner Siemens (1816-92),
who had developed a technique
for seamless insulation of
copper wire.

Meanwhile, English author
Emily Bronté (1818-48) published
Wuthering Heights. Although not
met with much critical acclaim,
it later became one of the most
influential literary examples of the
Romanticism movement.

Aposter from 1848, showing the Parisian public facing the municipal guards
during the February revolution against the government.

FRIEDRICH ENGELS AND KARL
MARX (sce 1844] joineda
revolutionary group of Germans
known as the League of the Just
who soon changed their name to
the Communist League. Engels
and Marx were charged with
developing a program of action
for the group, and the result was
a pamphlet that became known
as the Communist Manifesto.
This called for the overthrow of
the bourgeoisie, with the cry of
“working men of all countries,
unite.” Marx believed the gulf
between rich and poor in Europe
meant conditions were ripe for a
socialist revolution.

Europe in revolt
Republican uprisings in 1848 saw
an end to the monarchy in France,
although revolutionaries in

other countries were less
successful in their aims.

In February, only a couple of

: weeks after the manifesto’s

: publication, the streets of Paris

: erupted into revolution. Although
i it was dramatic and violent, it was
© nota socialist insurrection.

: France had been suffering an

: economic depression and a

government's inability to alleviate

: the situation. The monarchy fared
: little better as the king, Louis-

: Philippe (see 1830], was also very
© unpopular with the public. Fighting
| broke out on February 22 and

: quickly became violent, with

: soldiers opening fire on the

SWEDEN

DENMARK ee

EAST

PRUSSIA
RUSSIAN

EMPIRE

Pecracow
Bay of AUSTRIAN
Biscay EMPIRE
Buda gePest
HUNGARY
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SPAIN Lucca_/ \_ MODENA
TUSCANY og
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Rome off EMPIRE
KEY SARDINIA Naples £
Small German states é?
@ Areas in revolt against ss
Louis-Napoleon in 1851 Palermoa®.So
=~ German Confederation 2S ~

@ Revolution in 1848-49

COMMUNISM

With the publication of the Communist Manifesto Marx and Engels
laid the foundation of a political movement that sought to share
the means of production, such as land or factories, equally among
the public. Communists aimed to create a classless and stateless
society, as well as abolish the capitalist trappings of private

property and wage labor.

crowds.The following day, Guizot
was forced out of office and Louis-
Philippe abdicated from the throne.
A provisional government was

set up and the Second Republic
established, eventually producing
a constitution and extending the
vote. However, internal power
struggles led to a workers’
rebellion in June. By the end of
the year, another Bonaparte was
in power—this time Napoleon's
nephew, Prince Louis-Napoleon
Bonaparte (1808-73}, who had
been elected president.

This unrest was not limited to
France. The rebellions had started
in Sicily in January, and spread
from there. There were a number
of factors involved: high food
prices, economic depression,
nationalist movements, desire
for constitutional reforms, and
frustration with monarchies. The
revolutions varied in intensity and

success. In some places,
they amounted to large-scale
protests, such as the Chartists’
demonstrations for changes to
the voting system in Britain, or the
call for institutional reforms in
Belgium and the Netherlands.

It was in France, the Austrian

i Empire, Germany, and the Italian
: States where the real agitation
: lay. In the Kingdom of the Two

Sicilies [see map, left), the king
was forced to grant a constitution.
Germany saw street fighting in
Berlin in March, with the king

Germany a constitution. Austria,
too, saw fighting break out in
Vienna, and a new government
was appointed, while many of its
territories, such as Hungary,
called for more autonomy. In
broad terms, however, the events
of 1848 ended in failure and

: further social repression.

44 DISGRACED BY THE
STINK OF REVOLUTION,
BAKED OF DIRT AND MUD. 9y

Frederick William IV of Prussia, on the Crown after the 1848 Revolution

WITH THE END OF THE WAR
BETWEEN THE US AND MEXICO in
1847, the US gained—through the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
—a vast area of land that included
California. The following year, a
carpenter named James Wilson
Marshall noticed shiny metal
nuggets in a river near present-
day Sacramento, which he soon
realized were gold. News of this
discovery spread throughout the
country—aided by President
James K, Polk’s announcement—
and by 1849 the rush had begun.
That year some 40,000 people
arrived in San Francisco by boat
and another 40,000 by wagon
train from around the US and
other countries. Most of the
prospectors ended up empty-
handed but many stayed in
California, making the West
Coast a booming region in the
mid-19th century.

In southern Africa, a British
explorer and missionary named
David Livingstone (1813-73) had
finally reached a lake in the
interior that he had heard
about—known today as Lake
Ngami. He had been living in
South Africa since 1841 and had
been traveling extensively in
the region. In order to find this
body of water, Livingstone had to
cross the Kalahari Desert, where
he also encountered the Botletle
River, which he thought could be
“the key to the Interior.”

In India, the previous four years
had seen two wars between the
British East India Company troops
and the Sikhs in the northwest.
The First Sikh War (1845-46] had

Merchant ships crowd the bay at San Francisco during the gold rush years, when
tens of thousands of fortune-seekers arrived in California.

been triggered by the death
of their ruler Ranjit Singh
(1781-1839). Previously, the
Company considered Singh's
force of 100,000 Khalsa
warriors far too powerful

to confront. But after his
death, British troops

moved in and took areas

near the border, seizing the
city of Lahore by 1845. A
treaty between the two forced
the Sikhs to give up even more
territory. A revolt against the
British in 1848 triggered the
Second Sikh War, and by 1849 the
Punjab region had been annexed
by the British.

Yemen, at the foot of the
Arabian Peninsula, was fighting
against imperial advances from
the Ottoman Empire, which was
trying to reassert its authority in
the Tihama region, on the Red
Sea. In the south of the country,

PRE-RAPHAELITES

Three young artists frustrated
with the state of British
painting at the Royal Academy,
where they were students,
decided to create a movement
to bring a moral seriousness
into art—in contrast to the
pomposity and frivolity they
perceived in Victorian art.
Known as the Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood, Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, William Holman Hunt,
and John Everett Millais painted
religious and romantic subjects
with realist clarity, although
their work was also symbolic.

Livingstone’s compass

The magnetic compass used by
David Livingstone, who spent much
of his time as a missionary exploring

: the British East India Company
: had already taken control of the
port of Aden a decade earlier

in order to set up a coaling
© station for British ships en
» route to India.

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A depiction of one of the many bloody
battles during the Taiping Rebellion.

IN THE SAME WAY CHINA HAD
TRIED TO KEEP European ships
from its ports, it had also tried to
drive out Christian missionaries,
thereby limiting the influence of
Christianity. Despite this, by the
mid-19th century some 200,000
Chinese had been converted, and
thousands more were familiar
with the religion.

In 1850, officials sent troops to
disband a religious society whose
beliefs were loosely based on
Protestant ideas. This sect was
led by Hong Xiuquan (1814-64)
who, believing himself to be the
younger brother of Jesus Christ,
launched a revolt that became the
Taiping Rebellion. Drawn by his
call to share property, many
starving peasants joined the ranks
and fighting went on for 14 years,
claiming millions of lives.

MILLION
THE NUMBER
OF PEOPLE
KILLED OVER
THE COURSE
OF THE
TAIPING
REBELLION

IN LONDON, THE WORLD WAS ON
DISPLAY. An exhibition had been
organized, billed as the “Great

of all Nations.” The Great
Exhibition, as it became known,
was housed in the Crystal Palace,
an exhibition hall made of glass
and iron built for the occasion.
Some six million people pored
over the 100,000 exhibitions
between May 1 and October 31.
Of the 14,000 participating
exhibitioners, almost half were
from overseas. An enormous
variety of agricultural and
manufactured items were

on display, ranging from the
Koh-i-Noor diamond from India
to tapestries from Persia, and
British engineering equipment.

In the same year as this global
event, a telegraph cable was laid
across the English Channel,
facilitating rapid international
communication.

Britain by this point had seen
a large population boom and
become more urbanized as
agricultural workers moved to
the cities to work in the growing
number of factories [see 1771).
Detailed censuses showed that
the population of London had

A hand-colored lithograph shows the Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of
1851 in London’s Hyde Park. Some six million people visited it in six months.

46 IT ISA WONDERFUL
PLACE—VAST, STRANGE,
NEW, AND IMPOSSIBLE
TO DESCRIBE. 99

Charlotte Bronté, English novelist, on visiting the Great Exhibition

: surged from about one million in
| 1801 to over two million by 1851.

Exhibition of the Works of Industry :
: Wales the same year prompted a

POPULATION [IN MILLIONS)
S

*% .

In Australia, the discovery of
gold in Victoria and New South

In Siam (Thailand), King Mongkut

» West. During this period, he

» employed an English governess,

: Anna Leonowens (1831-1915),

: whose memoirs inspired the 20th-
: century musical The King and I.

25:

N
Ss

1801 1851

: Rise in Britain’s population

: The population of England, Scotland,
: and Wales nearly doubled in fifty

i years, from 10.6 million in 1801 to

: almost 27 million by 1857.

The Royal Navy played a significant
role in the Anglo-Burmese War.

HOSTILITIES HAD ONCE AGAIN
flared up between British troops
and the Burmese. After making
extensive territorial gains in the
last war against Burma (see
1823}, Britain was eager to control
more of the area. Wider control
would create an overland coastal
connection from Calcutta in
Britain's Indian territory to the
British port in Singapore. The East
India Company also wanted
access to the teak forests in
Burma. In 1852, the British seized
a ship belonging to Burma's king,
and this was enough to start the
Second Anglo-Burmese War.
Lasting only a few months, British
troops were able to take southern
territory, ousting the reigning
king, Pagan Min (1811-80), and
installing his brother, Mindon Min
(1814-78), who was willing to
accept British control of the
southern portion of the kingdom.

In West Africa, in present-day
Senegal, Muslim Tukulor chief
Umar Tall (1797-1864) capitalized
on unrest between the Dinguiraye
and Bambara people to wage a
jihad (holy war) on part of upper
Senegal, taking control of the
territory. His empire would
eventually stretch to Timbuktu in
present-day Mali. His rule was a
time of further entrenchment of
Islam in West Africa.

In South Africa, the British
acknowledged the independence
of the Transvaal after refusing to
accept the previous Boer Republic
of Natal {see 1843]. This was
followed two years later with a
similar acceptance of the settlers’
new Orange Free State.

Commodore Matthew Perry brought
Japan a railroad car as a gift.

Us COMMODORE MATTHEW PERRY
(1794-1858) had been charged
with opening up trade between
the US and the secluded Japan.
Japan had been under
international pressure to open up
its ports to foreign merchants for
years. The Dutch, who were the
only Europeans allowed very
limited access to trade in Japan,
sent a mission in 1844 urging the
country’s rulers to allow in more
ships. This was followed by
French and British requests for
trading rights. A delegation from
the US was sent away empty-
handed [see 1844). However, the
US government was eager to
secure trading rights in East Asia
and so sent Perry to further
negotiate. He arrived on July 8
and refused to leave until he had
delivered his letters. The
Japanese relented after a few
days and took his papers, which
requested a trade treaty. They
eventually consented to the
terms, and the Treaty of
Kanagawa was concluded the
following year.

As China was contending with
the Taiping Rebellion (see 1850),
another uprising broke out in the
central and eastern provinces.
The rebels were composed of
many outlaws, as well as
peasants from famine-stricken
areas. With the government
otherwise engaged, the rebels
were able to form armies and
begin the Nien Rebellion. Over
the course of the next 15 years
they gained control of much of
northern China, although they
were eventually defeated.

\. 4 MEN, REMEMBER THERE IS NO
RETREAT FROM HERE. YOU MUST
Ea) DIE WHERE YOU STAND. 99

Colin Campbell, Commander of the Highland Brigade, at the Battle of Balaclava, October 25, 1854

THE TENSIONS THAT HAD BEEN
mounting between Russia and
the Ottoman Empire in the
previous year spilled over into a
war. Britain and France joined the
fight from October. The conflict
was fueled by the decision of Czar
Nicholas | (1796-1855) to declare
the right to protect Orthodox
Christians living under Ottoman
rule. When this claim was rejected
by the Ottomans, Nicholas sent
troops into Moldavia and

The Crimean War

Brigadier Scarlett leads the British
Heavy Brigade uphill at Balaclava,
on October 25, 1854 against the
Russians during the Crimean War.

Wallachia, and the Ottoman
Empire declared war. By March
1854, Britain and France had also

: declared war on Russia, and in

September they landed troops in
Russia’s Crimea territory and
began a siege of Sevastopol. In
October, a brigade of British
troops at the Battle of Balaclava
misinterpreted orders, charging
down a valley instead of up it,
allowing Russians to bombard the
673 soldiers on all sides. Had it
not been for French intervention,
the casualty rate would have
been higher than 40 percent. This
incident was memorialized in the
poem by Lord Alfred Tennyson,
The Charge of the Light Brigade.

Austria threatened to enter the
war against Russia in 1856 anda
preliminary peace was arranged
on February 1, followed by the
March 30 Treaty of Paris.

The Crimean War was the
first conflict to be covered by
newspapers, which were taking
advantage of the new telegraphic
and photographic technology. The
war also established the
reputation of the “Lady with the
Lamp,” British nurse Florence
Nightingale (1820-1910), whose
reforms to field hospitals caused
a dramatic reduction in deaths
from disease during wartime. She
helped promote nursing as a
respectable career for women.

“

~~ ;

“a Ki 3 Y
A painting of King Mongkut of Siam,
who was also known as Rama IV.

MISSIONARY DAVID LIVINGSTONE
was exploring the interior of
Africa [see 1849) on his second
expedition. He was convinced a
trade route to the sea existed, and
sailed up the Zambezi River in
November 1853 to find it. Two
years later, he and his party came
across a gigantic waterfall, known
as Mosi-oa-Tunya, “the Smoke
that Thunders.” He was the first
European to see the falls and
renamed them Victoria Falls.

To the East, in Siam (Thailand),
King Mongkut (see 1851), known
for his interest in the West, signed
commercial agreements with
Britain and the US in an effort
to open up Siamese trade.

US filibusterer William Walker
surrenders to Costa Rican troops.

IN NICARAGUA, US-BORN WILLIAM
WALKER (1824-60), who had
arrived in the country in 1855
with 58 men, declared himself
president. He was initially invited
by Francisco Castellén (1815-55),
who had been trying to organize a
liberal revolt. This was a period
of filibustering: attempts by
privately funded mercenaries to
take over small countries and
annex them to the US. Walker
intended to establish Nicaragua
as a Slave state; southern US
states wanted to enlarge slave-
holding territory as abolitionism
grew. Walker was eventually
captured by invading Costa

Rican forces and later shot.

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English painter Thomas Jones Barker's The Relief of Lucknow completed in 1859, depicts British
forces defending this colonial city after the end of a prolonged siege during the Sepoy Rebellion.

44 A FREE NEGRO OF THE
AFRICAN RACE... IS NOT

A ‘CITIZEN’ WITHIN THE
MEANING OF THE
CONSTITUTION OF

THE UNITED STATES. 99

Chief Justice Roger Taney in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case, April 1854

IN 1857, ARUMOR SPREAD
THROUGH THE INDIAN TROOPS—
known as sepoys—in the Bengal
Army stationed at Meerut,
Northern India. Their new rifle
cartridges were reputed to be
greased with pork and beef fat.
The cartridges were for a new
type of rifle, the Enfield, and to
load them the ends of the paper
cartridges needed to be bitten off.
For Hindu and Muslim soldiers,
allowing beef or pork fat in

their mouths went against their
respective religions beliefs. Added
to this rumor were various other
grievances, together with a

British Indian

311,000

British-Indian army in 1857
Amuch larger proportion of Indians
than British served in the army,
making an uprising involving the
Indian troops a serious threat.

Enfield rifle and cartridges

The paper cartridges contained powder and a bullet. After paper cartridges \ = muzie-loading =
removing the cartridge’s end, the powder was poured out into containing SS Barrel :
the barrel. The cartridge and bullet were then rammed in. powder and bullet

: growing suspicion that the British
: were also trying to undermine

Indian culture and traditions.
The soldiers refused to use the
cartridges, and the subsequent
dispute that broke out between
Indian troops and British

: commanders sparked the revolt
: known as the Sepoy Rebellion
(also known as the Indian Mutiny). °

The unrest lasted for more than

: ayear, as the mutineers were

joined by peasants angry at their

: exploitative landlords, as well as

those who resented the recent

: British annexation of the north

Indian region of Oudh. The rebels
managed to capture Delhi and

: “restore” an aging Mughal

: emperor, Bahadur Shah II

» (1775-1862), to power, while

: killing the British in Delhi and

the nearby cities of Kanpur and

: Lucknow. The retaliation by the

British army was similarly brutal,
and they recaptured Delhi in
September and Lucknow the

: following March. The revolt was

suppressed by June 1858.

This conflict was the culmination =
: greater freedom of trade in China
: in the wake of the Treaty of Nanjing
: (see 1842), but the Chinese

» resisted. In 1854, the British sent

: attack China's ports, culminating

: in the Second Opium War.

of frustration with the East

: India Company's rule as well
© as creeping westernization as

Britain annexed more territories
and sent out more officials. The

: uprising provoked deep concern
: in Britain, and the East India

: Company was stripped of its

: power to control India. The

: Company by this point was hated
© throughout India, and the British
government thought it could

no longer be relied on to keep

stability (see panel, 1858). The
» Mutiny had shown the level of
| Indian discontent and anger,

: which would continue to grow
: under British rule, while at the
: same time helping to fuel the

: independence movement.

In additon to the conflict in India,

: British troops had returned to

battle in China. Britain demanded

Anglo-French forces attacked
Canton in 1857. By the following

negotiated between China,
Britain, and France, as well as
with Russia and the US. These
agreements called for China to
open more ports and to legalize
opium importation. In addition,
foreign diplomats were given
the right to live in Peking. The
Chinese refused to ratify these

: agreements until 1860.
In the US, the abolitionist cause
suffered a serious setback when a

Supreme Court ruling in the case
Dred Scott v. John F. A. Sandford
declared slavery to be legal in
all US territories. The case was
brought by Dred Scott. He was

taken by his owner, John Emerson,

from the slave state of Missouri

{see 1820) to the “free” Wisconsin

‘

: Dred Scott

: Aslave in the US, Dred Scott sued

: his owner for his freedom. The case
» went to the US Supreme Court,

: where his emancipation was denied.

: territory, later returning to

i Missouri. Scott, with the aid

: of abolitionists, filed a lawsuit

: Claiming the move from slave to

: free state had broken his chain of

: servitude. The case reached the

+ Supreme Court in 1857, where

: the justices voted against freeing

| Scott on the grounds that he was

| not entitled to rights as a US.

: ina court of law. The judges also

: declared the Missouri Compromise
: (see 1820] unconstitutional

| because Congress could not

| Itwas up to the states to decide

: to ban slavery, and there was

: nothing to stop new territories

: becoming slave states.

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A contemporary oil painting illustrates the 1860 Battle of Guadalajara

during the Mexican Reform War between liberals and conservatives.

AFTER MEXICO’S DEFEAT BY THE
US (see 1846), many Mexicans
were in favor of reform, including
the middle-class liberal Benito
Juarez (1806-72). Installed in the
government as justice minister,
Juarez and other liberals,
including president Ignacio
Comonfort {1812-43}, drafted

a new constitution curbing
military and ecclesiastical
privileges, such as the allocation
of special courts for civil trials,
and some landholding rights. The
constitution, which also prohibited
slavery and called for a democracy
in Mexico, went into effect in 1857.

RISE OF THE RAJ

With the end of the East India
Company's administration in
1857, India was governed
directly from London by the
Viceroy. This was brought
about on November 1, 1858
by governor-general Charles
John Canning (1856-62) who
became the first Viceroy of
India. The period, known as
the Raj, lasted until Indian
independence in 1947.

However, the Catholic Church

: these reforms, and the antagonism

| conservatives in charge of the

: military, the liberals found
themselves pushed out of Mexico
City, and were eventually forced
to make a new capital at the port

: of Veracruz in 1858. The US

: decided to intervene in the

» conflict, recognizing the liberal

: government at Veracruz in 1859
and sending it much-needed
arms. This aided the rebels

: in their retaliation, and they
managed to defeat conservative

| forces. Juarez returned to Mexico

| Cityon January 1, 1861 as

: president, taking control of the

: whole country, and he once again

: put the constitution into effect.

France, meanwhile, was

= embroiled in battles not only in

: China, but in other kingdoms in
East and Southeast Asia where

| the French sought a foothold in

: trade. France was concerned

: about the rise of Siamese power,
as wellas the continuing attacks

: on French missionaries in

: Vietnam. By the end of 1858,

: a Franco-Spanish expedition

» had seized the city of Da Nang in
Vietnam, starting the Cochinchina

: Campaign. In 1859, the coalition

: captured the key port of Saigon,

: where a garrison of 1,000 troops
later faced a year-long siege from

: 1860 to 1861. The war finally

» ended in a settlement with

: in 1863, in which three provinces
were ceded to France.

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“int,

Throughout the 19th century European powers vied for control
of the profitable trade routes from China through Southeast Asia.
Goods such as spices were imported to Europe from colonies in

Asia, while textiles were exported. The opening of the Suez Canal
in 1869 made trade between Europe and Asia quicker and cheaper.

CONSTRUCTION WORK HAD
FINALLY BEGUN ONA CANAL that
would link the Mediterranean Sea
and the Red Sea. It would cut
voyages between Europe and Asia
by thousands of miles by allowing
ships to avoid sailing around the
Cape of Good Hope. In 1854,
French official Ferdinand de
Lesseps (1805-94) managed

to obtain permission from the
khedive [viceroy] of Egypt, Said
Pasha (1822-63], to construct a
canalat Suez. In 1856, the Suez

Canal Company {Compagnie
universelle du canal maritime de
Suez) was set up and given the
right to run the canal for 99 years
after its completion.

In the US, abolitionist John
Brown (1800-59) attacked a
federal armory in Harpers Ferry,
Virginia on the night of
October 16. He also took more
than 60 slave owners hostage,
hoping that the slaves of these
people would join his cause. They
were attacked by the local militia

464 ..THE CRIMES
OF THIS GUILTY
LAND WILL NEVER
BE PURGED BUT
WITH BLOOD! 99

John Brown, American abolitionist,
before his execution, December 2, 1859

and the rebellion was finally
ended by federal troops, led by
Colonel Robert E. Lee. Of the 22
men who participated in the raid,
10 were killed, including Brown's
two sons. Brown himself was
later hanged.

Meanwhile, in England,
naturalist Charles Darwin
(see 1835, 1839] cemented his
reputation with the publication
of On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection. The
work explained the process of
evolution and he set out his ideas
about species adaptation and the
survival of the fittest.

In the US, Abraham Lincoln
(1809-65) won the race for
presidency as the candidate
for the newly formed Republican
party, which had been established
to curtail the power of existing
slave states and stop the creation
of new ones. The Democrats had
split and fielded two candidates.

18%
Breckinridge

40%
Lincoln

30%
Douglas

Aclear majority
The Democratic candidates, Douglas

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Pw yw et ab” oi Oo 55
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‘4

The Confederate battery at Fort Moultrie firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor
on April 12, 1861. The attack triggered the Civil War, which devastated the US.

THE SPLIT IN THE US DEMOCRATIC
PARTY ahead of the 1860 election
precipitated a much larger, more
dangerous fracture that came in
1861—the secession of Southern
states to a confederacy. Many
northerners, President Lincoln
included, initially thought that
slavery might just die out if it were
not allowed in any new territories.
But a gradual approach was not
possible, since abolitionism kept
growing, with more of the public
supporting it over the 1850s.

The US was economically
divided, which intensified the
debate over slavery. The South
was mostly rural, and slave labor
was used to grow cotton, tobacco,
and rice. The more urban Northern
states, in contrast, hada high
population of immigrant workers.

Lincoln's presidential victory
was the last straw for Southern
slave owners, and by December
1860 South Carolina had seceded
from the Union. Over the next few

Confederate
Army

US CIVIL
Union WAR

soldiers

killed

360,000 © Confederate 958.000

soldiers killed __.

Costly civil war

The conflict between the North's
federal government and 11 Southern
states was brutal and bloody with a
high rate of casualties and deaths.

Union cap

Forage cap, with regiment badge,
as worn by northern Union soldiers
during the Civil War. Confederate
soldiers wore the color gray.

months, it was followed by
Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Texas, and Florida.
These states formed the
Confederacy and elected
Jefferson Davis (1808-89) as their
president. They were soon joined
by Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee,
and North Carolina in the spring,
although the slave-holding states
of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland,
and Delaware did not secede.
One of the underlying causes of
secession, besides slavery, was
the issue of the states’ rights

versus that of federal government. i

South Carolina and the other
Confederate states argued that

states held the right to own slaves :

and to leave the Union.

The situation grew increasingly
tense. The continued presence of
Union forces at Fort Sumter, in
the harbor of Charleston, South
Carolina, made many people there
feel that their new sovereignty

was being compromised. So, at

: General P. G. T. Beauregard gave
: the order to fire on the soldiers

» stationed there. These would be

| the opening shots of the

» American Civil War.

Meanwhile, the second Italian

: War of Independence, which

: Sardinia had formed an alliance to
: drive out Austrian rule in Italy,

which they achieved through a

: during negotiations of the Peace
: of Zurich, Napoleon III of France
: allowed Austria to retain Venetia
: (mostly Venice], causing uproar
' among supporters of Italian

independence. In the south,
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82),
an Italian military commander,

: attacked the Kingdom of Two

: Alexander II

: Alexander was the emperor of

: Russia from 1855-81. He freed the
: serfs and reformed the judicialand
: education systems.

The Southern Confederacy
equated to a new nation, and
as such, needed a flag. The
national flag of the Confederacy,
known as the “Stars and Bars,”
closely resembed the northern
states’ Union flag. To avoid
confusion on the battlefield,

a new battle flag [right] was
adopted, first by the Army of
Northern Virginia, and later,

by all Southern forces.

Sicilies, seizing Palermo in 1860.
With most of the Italian kingdoms
in a degree of upheaval, Victor
Emmanuel II (1820-78) of
Piedmont-Sardinia was declared
“king of Italy.” The struggle was
not yet over, however, as France
occupied Rome while Venice was
under Austrian rule. Garibaldi’s
attempt to liberate the Papal
States (Rome) in 1862 at the
Battle of Aspromonte on

August 29 ended in defeat,
leaving the project of unification
still incomplete.

In Russia, serfdom was

: abolished in wide-reaching

: changes by Russian emperor

| 1854), wanted to reform the

: country, starting with labor. He set
: out the Edict of Emancipation in

: 1861, despite opposition from

: landowners. Earlier attempts to

: abolish serfdom had been made

around 1818, but with little

success. Some 10 million people

were freed on February 19 and

| were promised their own land.

44 IT IS BETTER TO ABOLISH
SERFDOM FROM ABOVE

, THAN TO WAIT FOR IT

TO ABOLISH ITSELF FROM

BELOW. 99

Czar Alexander II of Russia

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308

IN MEXICO, AN EXPEDITION OF
British, French, and Spanish
forces arrived to collect payment
on the money they were owed.
After the War of the Reform (see

declared in 1861 that he was
placing a moratorium on the
payment of interest on foreign
debt for two years. The lending
countries disputed his decision,
and soon resorted to armed
conflict. France sent in troops,
‘\. which faced a defeat

+1
OTTO VON BISMARCK
(1815-98)

One of Prussia’s most
influential leaders, Otto von
Bismarck came into power
as prime minister in 1862
and he masterminded the
unification of Germany (see
1871). Bismarck built up the
army and also tried to develop
a German national identity;
he fought against the Catholic
Church and tried to stem the
growth of socialism.

44 POLITICS IS THE ART
OF THE POSSIBLE. 99

Otto von Bismarck in a remark to Meyer von Waldeck, August 11, 1867

1858) President Benito Juarez had =

early on, but reinforcements

Napoleon III saw an opportunity to

| establish an empire in Mexico.

Farther north, in the American
Civil War, Union troops attempted,
but failed, to capture the
Confederate capital, Richmond, by
advancing up the peninsula east
of Yorktown. This was followed by
the Second Battle of Bull Run
(August 28-30, see p.310), which
saw 70,000 Union troops defeated

: by 55,000 Confederates. A few

weeks later, on September 17,
one of the bloodiest battles of the
war took place at Antietam, in

: Maryland, where Union troops

: suffered around 12,000 casualties
: and the Confederates around

: 11,000. Farther west, Union troops

under General Ulysses S. Grant

: (1822-85) won a crucial victory at
: the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee.

In Japan, the Tokugawa regime
had become increasingly
suspicious of foreigners (see

: 1853), taking measures that

included the passing of anti-
foreigner acts and efforts to
expel people. This precipitated
attacks on ships from the US,

: Britain, France, and the
_ Netherlands. In retaliation, in
1863 the US fired on two Japanese

ships and French warships fired

: on—and subsequently burned
: down—a small village. The
: following year, France, Britain, the

Netherlands, and the US sailed
into the Straits of Shimonosekei

: and destroyed Japanese batteries
along its coast. They eventually
: secured a treaty giving them free

passage and the right to trade.

THE SITUATION IN MEXICO became
more complex as conservative
Mexicans, still angry about their
defeat in the War of the Reform
(see 1858), capitalized on the
fighting between French and
Mexican troops (see 1862) and
conspired with Napoleon III to
overthrow the government. As
a result, Austrian archduke
Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph
(1832-67) was invited to become
emperor of Mexico. He accepted,
thinking that he had been voted in
by the people, and became
Maximilian | the following year.

In the US, Abraham Lincoln tried
to persuade Confederate states to
return to the Union by giving them

v=
Emancipation proclamation
Abraham Lincoln reads the
Emancipation Proclamation before
his cabinet members. The decree
abolished slavery in the US.

Workers hurry to catch their morning train at the Gower Street station
on the Metropolitan (underground) railroad in London.

| PASSENGERS ON THE
_) FIRST DAY OF THE
~ METROPOLITAN LINE

the option of abolishing slavery

gradually, rather than immediately.

Not one state took up his offer, so
on January 1, he followed through
with his plan and issued the
Emancipation Proclamation,
abolishing slavery in the South.
On the battlefields, Union troops
were making serious gains in the
south, as General Grant captured
the Mississippi port of Vicksburg
in July, giving Union forces control
over key parts of the Mississippi

River. The Union Navy, meanwhile,

had captured the port of New
Orleans, and occupation of the
city followed. Farther north,
Confederate defeat at the Battle

: of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania,

from July 1-3, had
marked a turning
point in the war.

In Britain,
Londoners were
thrilled by the
opening of the
Metropolitan
Railway, which ran
underground, from
Farringdon Street
to Paddington. This
was the first part
of what would eventually become
the London Underground, also
known as the Tube. Other train
companies soon followed suit.

Prussia and Denmark went to war
over Schleswig and Holstein.

IN THE ONGOING AMERICAN CIVIL
WAR, President Lincoln made
General Grant commander-in-
chief of the Union forces. A few
months later, Union general
William T. Sherman (1820-91),
began his “march to the sea.”
Sherman pursued a “scorched
earth” policy, destroying rail lines
and setting towns on fire from
Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia.

Relations between Denmark
and Prussia, part of the German
Confederation, had soured. A brief
war was the result of a revolt by
the Germans in the duchies of
Schleswig and Holstein, which
were living under Danish rule.
Prussian troops occupied the
territory and by August 1,
Denmark gave up rights to the
duchies, which were to be placed
under joint Austrian and Prussian
rule—a situation that would
become a future source of conflict
(see 1866).

38,000
Danish troops

61,000
German
Confederation

The Prussian—Danish War

The war began when Prussian
forces crossed the border into
Schleswig, and Denmark was forced
to relinquish control of the duchy.

1750-1913 | THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL WAR
As the US expanded, the issue of which states would be allowed to have slaves
became the central political focus between North and South. By 1860, the 7

18 free states of the North and the 15 slave states were on the brink of war. TERRITORY

MINNESOTA

TERRITORY, WISCONSIN

MICHIGAN

MICHIGAN MAINE 1820: THE MISSOURI vat) American
TERRITORY — VERMONT, he COMPROMISE rernirory Indian
PENNSYLVANIA HAMPSHIRE territory,
= Slavery became a more Raa
MASSACHUSETTS |" bracsing political issue as TERRITORY.
-. gia the US began to settle its
ILLINOIS seettreeedl western territories. When
N 3 ES tine the Missouri territory
wissourr KENTUCKY AERA) Perenee eae: a state
ARKANSAS TENNESSEE NORTH CAROLINA We DISSES SEW
TERRITORY prompted a political crisis. KEY

ad aay The outcome was the
MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA 4 = i . fl Free states BH Slave states
Missouri Compromise, which

Cone | ncruenired allowed slavery in Missouri Bl Free territories J Territories where slavery legal
| territory i

de but not in any new state

north of 36°30’ latitude.

FLORIDA

ARKANSAS

KEY
1 Free states I Slave states

Gi Free territories Antietam Harpers Ferry

ll Territories where slavery legal Sep 17, 1862, Sept 12-15, 1862

Bull Run Gettysburg a

Jul 21, 1861, Jul 1-3, 1863

; 29-30, 1862
Columbus Chancellorsville sug
ILLINOIS Indianapolis Apr 30-May 6, 1863
eee . The Wilderness
Cincinnati Apr 30, 1863

INDIANA May 5-6, 1864

Louisville — ‘< >
R Staunton .

Jun 8-9, 1862 Richmon

Saint

. Cold Harbor.
VIRGINIA Jun 3, 1864

Bentonville SESE TENNESSEE 4

Stones River S€ Knoxville

1850: ANEW COMPROMISE
Thirty years after the Missouri
Compromise, the debate over
slavery intensified as the US
extended farther west. Senator
Henry Clay organized a series
of bills that were considered a
compromise. California was to
be admitted as a free state but
the controversial Fugitive Slave
Act, which penalized officials
who did not arrest alleged
runaway slaves, was also
passed, angering abolitionists.

NEW
)JERSEY

Washington

Fredericksburg
Dec 13, 1862

Spotsylvania
Court House
May 8-12, 1864

Seven Days Battle
Jun 25-Jul 1, 1862

Fort Monroe

Jun 26-Jul 2, 1862

Columbia

(a)
“4,
; Dec 314186; Nov 17-29, 1863: 4? wa
Memphis Jan2, 163 City besieged Ny 4 tt Haters
Jun 5, 1862
ARKANSAS hattanooga Z ‘Aug 29, 1862
Franklin
Fort Macon
Nov 30, 1864 S. CAROLINA Mar 23-Apr 26, 1862

Shiloh/
Pittsburg Chickamauga — Mets eee

Landing Sep 19-20, 1863 7 Wilmington
Apr 6-7, 1862 — : - i
‘March to the sea Charleston

MISSISSIPPI / Atlanta — Fort Sumter

Jul 20-Sep 2, 1864 » 2 — Apr 12-14, 1861
LOUISIANA € Vicksburg : ——
BM ee ALABAMA Fort Pulaski Feb 17, 1862

pty Resieded Apr 12, 1862
Port Hudson i
s Fort Mobile
May 21-Jul 9, 1863 Pickens __ Apr 12, 1865 GEORGIA Fernandia
Pensacola yeu

Baton Rouge May 9-10, 1862 Jacksonville
Aug 5, 1862 Z = Tallahassee Mar 11, 1862

e, >
, << \\_ Mobile Bay ay a Su Mee
New Orleans SS ee , Mar 9, 1862
Apr 18-29, 1862 ,
Ship Island
fom act son a ror Sep 17, 1861
St Philip Se

FLORIDA

Gulf Of Mexico
ATLANTIC

OCEAN

1861: CIVIL WAR

The bombardment of Fort
Sumter in South Carolina
triggered a ferocious
conflict that would
consume the whole
country for four brutal,
bloody years, until the
Confederacy had no
choice but to surrender.

KEY
BB Union States 1861
I Confederate states 1861
] States that voted to join Confederacy
Union front line to December 1861
Union front line to December 1862
=~ Union front line to December 1864
Union movements
~-» Confederate movements
Union forts
1) Confederate forts
Union naval blockade
Union victory
+< Confederate victory
Inconclusive battle
~& City destroyed by Union forces

—

1854: THE KANSAS-
NEBRASKA ACT

One of the compromise acts in
1850 was to allow the Utah and
New Mexico territories to
reach a decision on slavery
when they became states, The
Kansas-Nebraska Act applied
this principle for people in

SEs) KANSAS
TERRITORY

those states, allowing them to

vote on the issue. This act also
American

veindian controversially repealed the
eee Missouri Compromise, causing
further anger in the North.

WASHINGTON
TERRITORY

NEBRASKA
TERRITORY

OREGON
TERRITORY

KEY KEY

i Free states i Territories where slavery legal I Free states
Bl Freeterritories J Territories newly opened to slavery 1854 I Slave states
BB Slave states BB Area not subject to standard territorial laws

AMERICAN

CIVIL WAR

The shells fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, in 1861 not only ripped
the country in two, but also began a deadly conflict that would pit families
against each other, with brother fighting brother on the battlefield, as the
Confederacy of Southern states took up arms in defense of slavery.

a restaurant in Richmond, Virginia, reached
around $5 by 1864. By the time the South
conceded defeat and surrendered in 1865,
both sides had been heavily battered—but
the country emerged united.

The war was also significant because it was
the harbinger of modern warfare. Infrastructure

The issue was not only ideological, but also
economic. Southerners felt that their rural,
agrarian livelihood was under direct threat from
the policies of the federal government. And for the
industrial and urban North and President Abraham
Lincoln, the question was about more than
freedom for slaves. Without the 15 slave states,

Bl Territories opened to slavery
1 Area not subject to standard territorial laws

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

1857: THE DRED SCOTT
DECISION

The growing abolitionist cause
received a setback when the
Supreme Court ruled in the
case of Dred Scott v. John F. A.
Sandford {see 1857] that slavery
was legal in all the territories.
The judges also declared that
the Missouri Compromise was
unconstitutional. They argued
that it was up to states to
decide to ban slavery, but that
territories were not states.

OVER THE COURSE OF THE CIVIL WAR,
THE UNION PROVIDED SOLDIERS WITH

BILLION
ROUNDS OF
AMMUNITION

MILLION
100°:
OF COFFEE
MILLION
1 0 PAIRS OF
PANTS

MILLION
1 HORSES

AND MULES

what would the future hold for the Union? The war
cost billions and destroyed the Southern economy.
The Union navy blockaded ports causing prices in
the South to skyrocket; the price of a cup coffee in

Populations
The industrial North
had a much larger
population than the
mostly agrarian
Southern states.

MILLION
UNION POPULATION

developments, such as railroads, and technological
innovations in armaments like breech-loading
rifles had changed the nature of battle, and led
to a much higher number of casualties.

outnumbered, the fighting
continued for four years,

ARR:

Outnumbered
3 Despite the South
being significantly

leaving some 600,000 dead.

COST IN US DOLLARS (MILLIONS)

1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866
YEARS OF CIVIL WAR PERIOD
KEY
© Union army
expenditure
Cost of the war
Billions were spent fighting the Civil War,
with the army and navy costing the Union
millions during this period. The estimated
cost to the Confederacy, including the
emancipation of the slaves, was around
$2.1 billion, inflicting serious damage to
the Southern economy.

Union navy
expenditure

“(is

The War of the Triple Alliance devastated Paraguay. This painting by Candido

L6pez depicts the arrival of the Allied Army at Itapiru, Paraguay.

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR DREW
TO ACLOSE. By the spring, Union
troops had captured the
Confederate capital of Richmond,
and after several other defeats,
Confederate general Robert E.
Lee (1807-70) saw no other option :
but to surrender on April 9,
signaling the end to the bloodiest
conflict the US had seen. The war
had left the US intact, but more
than 600,000 men had been killed
and half a million wounded. The
new peace was soon marred: only
a few days after the Union's
victory, President Lincoln attended
Ford's Theater in Washington, DC.
There, Confederate John Wilkes
Booth crept into the state box
and shot him. Lincoln died the
following morning on April 15.
The American Civil War was
over, but the situation in Mexico
remained complicated. US troops
were deployed there because the

: 70), declared war on Brazil, and
: shortly after, on Argentina.
: Uruguay aligned itself with Brazil

| treaty was negotiated. The war i
: devastated Paraguay, reducing the ;
= population of 525,000 to 221,000.

: who had been denied government
: land for planting stormed the

: US government under Andrew

Johnson (1808-75) objected to
French intervention in Mexican

affairs (see 1863).

Farther south, a war had

: erupted between Paraguay and

its neighbors Uruguay, Brazil, and

: Argentina. Brazil invaded Uruguay i

in 1864 to assist in the overthrow
of the ruling party. In response,

: the president of Paraguay,

Francisco Solano Lépez (1827-

and the War of the Triple

» Alliance [also Paraguayan War}
: began. Lopez was killed in battle

on March 1, 1870, and a peace

In Jamaica, a group of peasants

| Argentina, Brazil,

Alliance of

and Uruguay

: Forces in War of Triple Alliance

: Although Paraguay had the far

: larger force at first, it was untrained
: and without a chain of command

: Lopez, as leader made all decisions.

® courthouse in Morant Bay during
| a meeting of the parish council,
: and 19 white people died in the

altercation. In retaliation,

: governor Edward Eyre led a

: ruthless attack on the black

» community, declaring martial law,
: and killing hundreds of people

while imprisoning
hundreds more.
When news of this
reached Britain
there was a public
outcry and Eyre was
recalled to England.

Lincoln's death

IN 1866, PERU DECLARED WAR ON
SPAIN, JOINED BY CHILE. The
cause of the war dated back to
the Talambo Affair in 1862, when
Spanish immigrants were
attacked by Peruvian workers on
the Talambo estate in northern
Peru. Spain's demand for
compensation was ignored, so
it seized the Chincha Islands off
the coast of Peru in 1864. These
were valuable as a source of
guano, used as fertilizer. Spain
demanded 3 million pesos in
exchange for the islands in 1865.
Peru's General Mariano Ignacio
Prado declared war on Spain
in January 1866. Chile, fearful of
a renewed Spanish presence in
South America, joined Peru. They
tried to close their ports, but
Spain managed to bombard
Valparaiso in Chile on March 31
and Callao in Peru on May 2
before a ceasefire the following
week. This was the last attempt
by Spain to recapture South
American territory.

French painter Edouard Manet’s
The execution of Maximilian I.

44 A SPECTRE
IS HAUNTING
EUROPE; THE
SPECTRE OF
COMMUNISM. 99

Karl Marx, from the Communist
Manifesto, 1848

FRANCE’S ATTEMPT TO GAIN
CONTROL OF MEXICO (see 1863)
seemed doomed with the arrival
of US reinforcements. France
abandoned Mexico's emperor,
Maximilian |, who had been
installed at their behest as well as
that of Mexican monarchists. He
was captured by liberal forces,
court-martialed, and executed on
June 19. Benito Juarez then
returned to his post as president.

Farther north, the size of the US
received a huge boost with the
purchase of the vast Alaska
territory from Russia. For the price
of $7.2 million, the US received
663,268 sq miles (1,717,856sq km}
of territory.

In Europe, Karl Marx (see panel,
right) had published the first of
three volumes in what would
become one of his most influential
works, Das Kapital. The book,
through an examination of the
capitalist system, tried to address
larger economic and historical
questions about the nature of
class and social relations.

This painting by Alonzo | Battle of Callao i A :
Chi L depicts th A detail of a painting shows Peruvian In Prussia, tensions with
Beet areade f ifi Austria had led to the Seven
death of Abraham troops defending the fortified port of x e
Lincoln, 16th President | Callao, Peru, while being bombarded | Weeks’ War the previous year.
of the United States. by the Spanish navy. Under the resulting Treaty of
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46... REJOICE THAT I HAVE LIVED
TO SEE THIS DAY, WHEN THE
COLORED PEOPLE... HAVE
EQUAL PRIVILEGES WITH THE
MOST FAVORED. 99

Thomas Garrett, American abolitionist, on the
passing of the 15th Amendment

This painting shows battleships in the Ten Years’ War (1868-78), which was
part of the long-running struggle for Cuba’s independence from Spain.

KARL MARX [1818-83]

Karl Marx was a German
philosopher, political
economist, historian, political
theorist, sociologist, and
communist revolutionary,
whose ideas played a
significant role in the
development of modern
communism and socialism—
theories collectively known
as Marxism. His critique of
capitalism, Das Kapital,
remains influential today.

Prague, Prussia received
Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover,
Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and
Frankfurt, allowing it to organize
the North German Confederation.
The king of Prussia, William |
(1797-1888) was at its helm,
backed by Prime Minister Otto
von Bismarck (see 1862). Austria
also gave up control of the Venetia
(Venice], allowing the region to be
unified with Italy.

WITH THE FALL IN 1868 OF THE
TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE in Japan
and the rise of the emperor Meiji
Tenno (1852-1912), the island
reversed its policy of isolationism
and began a program of
Westernization, with the aim of
being able to stand up to the
Western powers that were
demanding access to Japan [see
1853). This period, known as the
Meiji Restoration, was a time of
long-lasting fundamental social
reforms, such as the ending of
feudalism, formation of a national
army, and implementation of tax
systems, with a constitutional
government being convened

by 1890, There was a boom in
infrastructure modernization
throughout this period, with

the arrival of railroads and

the telegraph.

In Cuba, discontent with the
Spanish regime had been
growing. When Queen Isabella I!
(1830-1904) was deposed by a

military rebellion in Spain, Cubans

seeking independence took the
opportunity to launch a war
against the Spanish rulers on
their island. Led by Carlos
Manuel de Céspedes, this
uprising, known as El Grito

de Yara (The Cry of Yara],
resulted in The Ten Years’ War
(1868-78), a campaign of
guerilla warfare that ended in
failure for the Cuban rebels.

Meiji vase
A Japanese Satsuma cabinet vase
from the Meiji period. Art was well
supported by the Japanese
government during this period.

In the same year, there was
also an uprising against Spanish
rule in Puerto Rico. The Lares
uprising, or El Grito de Lares, was
shortlived and, like the Cuban
uprising, also ended in failure.

In South Africa, British control
was spreading. Boer settlers had
moved away from the Cape
Colony, taking land from local
tribes, including the neighboring
Basutoland. Sotho leader
Moshoeshoe | (c. 1786-1870)
asked Britain for help against
further incursions into Sotho
territory, and the result was that
the kingdom was annexed to the
British Crown in 1868, becoming a
protectorate. On Moshoeshoe’s
death in 1870, it was made part of
the Cape Colony region without
consulting the Sotho people.

AS RECONSTRUCTION CONTINUED
in the war-torn southern US,
Congress enacted an amendment

states in February 1869—that
extended the right to vote to all
black men, whether they had
been enslaved or not. The
Fifteenth Amendment declared
that “the rights of the citizens of
the United States to vote shall not
be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on
account of race, color, or previous
condition of servitude”.
Meanwhile, westward expansion
in the US continued to grow, aided
by the arrival of railroads. By
1869, the first transcontinental
railroad had been completed by
the Central Pacific Railroad.
The project was supported by
government bonds. Part of
the track was started from
Sacramento, California, heading

in Promontory, Utah, on May 10,
1869. Much of the work on this

stretch of railroad was done by

more than 10,000 Chinese

to the Constitution—ratified by the :

east and joining with existing lines :

_ Grand opening

| The opening of the Suez Canal, Port
: Said, Egypt. The project took a

: decade to complete but its impact on

global trade was immediate.

: immigrant laborers. The
© construction of this line allowed

rapid coast-to-coast travel in
: the US, further facilitating
: western settlement.

Another feat of engineering also
i opened around the same time—
: the Suez Canal (see 1859). After
: a decade of construction, this
: canal linked the Mediterranean
© and Red seas, and provided a
» much quicker passage to the
: Indian Ocean.
In South Africa, diamonds had

been discovered in the Northern
: Cape province in 1864, and soon
= arush was on between the Boers,
: British, and native people to mine
: them. The British swiftly stepped
: in to annex the territory while
thousands of prospectors
© arrived to try their luck.

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This 19th-century painting depicts Prussian hussars firing up at a French

observation balloon during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

44 THE ARMY
IS THE TRUE
NOBILITY
OF OUR
COUNTRY. 99

Napoleon III, Emperor of the French

PRUSSIA’S VICTORY IN THE SEVEN
WEEKS’ WAR (see 1867] gave the
impetus to further pursue plans
for German unification, this time
by bringing the southern German
states into the union. Attempts
had also been made to place

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern- :

Sigmaringen (1835-1905) on the
Spanish throne, left vacant after
Queen Isabella II's deposition in
1868 [see panel, 1872). Intense
French diplomatic pressure from
Napoleon III prevented this. Otto

von Bismarck, the Prussian prime i

: minister, however, wished to
provoke France into war. To these
ends he published the Ems

: telegram [as it was later known],
editing it to appear as though

: between King Wilhelm | of Prussia i

: and the French Ambassador.
France declared war on Prussia
on July 19. Prussia was victorious

: at the battles of Gravelotte

+ on August 18, and Sedan on

: September 1, where an ill

' Napoleon surrendered to

| German forces and was taken
prisoner. While Napoleon was
held captive, a provisional

: government for national defense

was set up in Bordeaux where it

: was decided to depose him and

: establish the Third Republic. By

| mid-September, the Prussians

: had besieged Paris. The city was

forced to surrender in early 1871

after severe food shortages. By

March, an armistice had been

PERCENTAGE
So

o- a

1869 1889 = 1909-1929

| Immigration in Argentina

: This graphic shows the steady rise
: in the percentage of Spanish and

: Italian immigrants who arrived in

i Argentina between 1869 and 1929.

i agreed and Germany was given
: the regions of Alsace and
: Lorraine.

Meanwhile, a steady stream of

: immigrants escaping poverty and
» war in Europe flowed to the

: Americas. In the US, the

: population hit 40 million and by

: the end of the century it would

nearly double to 76
million. Likewise, in
Argentina the 1870
population of 1.8
million would reach

8 million by 1914, with
many immigrants from
Italy and Spain—both
places that had been
seriously affected by
years of warfare.

Siege of Paris

The siege resulted in the
capture of the city by
Prussian forces, leading
to a humiliating French
defeat in the Franco-
Prussian War.

Men at their battery during the war between the Third Republic and the Paris

Commune that erupted at the end of the Franco-Prussian war.

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.
Munich

‘SWITZERLAND
German unification
This map shows the newly
unified German Empire,
which was organized after
Prussia’s victory in the
Franco-Prussian War.

ITALIAN TROOPS HAD ENTERED
ROME the previous September
and in October a plebiscite, or
referendum, made Rome the
capital of the united Italy—which
became official by 1871. The
pope, however, was not pleased
with his settlement offer and
excommunicated Italian king
Victor Emmanuel Il, entrenching
himself in the Vatican while Rome
developed as the new capital. The
tension between the Vatican and
the Italian government would not
be resolved until the 20th century.
While France and Prussia
were negotiating the end of the
Franco-Prussian war in 1871,
angry Parisians had risen up over
the surrender and established the

% es),

KEY

™ Prussian invasion
of France in
Franco-Prussian
War of 1870-71

= boundary of
German Empire
1871

Prussian gains

by 1866

other states in
North German
Confederation 1867

other German
states 1866

Austro-Hungarian
empire 1867

: radical Paris Commune. A council
| of citizens—including republicans,
: Jacobins, socialists, and
© anarchists—governed Paris for
: over two months. The retaliation
: of the National Assembly, which
: had relocated to Versailles, was
| swift. Troops were sent to Paris
© and 20,000 people were killed.
© Following victory against France,
: Wilhelm | of Prussia declared
: himself Emperor of Germany
: and named Bismarck (see 1862)
: as Chancellor.
In South Africa, a diamond rush
| [see 1869] in the Northern Cape
» was followed by the discovery of
| gold in the Transvaal region. This
: sparked the arrival of thousands
| of prospectors to the region.

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314

THE FINE
IMPOSED ON
SUSAN B.
ANTHONY FOR
VOTING

IN THE AFRICAN KINGDOM OF
ETHIOPIA, Yohannes IV (1831-89)
was crowned emperor. He was
considered a strong ruler, staving
off the increasing incursions from
Europeans as well as from African
neighbors. By the end of the
following decade, Ethiopia had
defeated invasions by Egyptian
forces, as well as Italian forces.

In the US, pressure was growing
for women to be given the right to

vote. One of the leading advocates :

was Susan B. Anthony (1820-
1906), who, during the 1872

A portrait of the US women’s suffragist leader Susan B. Anthony, who brought
her campaign to public attention by illegally voting in 1872.

: presidential election, marched up
: to the polling station in Rochester,
+ New York and cast her vote in

defiance of the law. She was
arrested and fined. Although she
refused to pay the fine, the court

case did not continue and Anthony

carried on with her crusade.

Meanwhile, in New York, Captain

Benjamin Briggs set out to cross
the Atlantic on the ship Mary
Celeste on November 7. By
December 4, the crew of the Dei

: Gratia spotted the Mary Celeste

drifting around the coast of
Portugal completely deserted.
The life boat was missing and the
ship had drifted some 700 miles

entered in the log. Its crew was
never seen again, and the
maritime mystery was

never solved.

In France, physicist Louis Ducos
du Hauron had been working on
creating a color photograph
using a three-color principle. He
patented his process in 1868 and
went on to produce some of the
earliest color photographs.

The 19th century in Spain was dominated by the Carlist Wars.
These civil wars began in 1834, triggered by the death of
Ferdinand VII. The conservative Carlists did not want the king's
daughter, Isabella (1830-1904), to take the throne, but rather
Ferdinand’s brother, Don Carlos (1788-1855). After three wars,
the dispute was resolved in 1876 with the accession of Isabella's
son Alfonso XII (1857-85) to the throne, who drove some 10,000

Carlists out of Spain.

% 46 THE MAIN THING ISTO
MAKE HISTORY, NOT
TO WRITE IT. 99

Otto von Bismarck, 19th-century German statesman

Royal Canadian Mounted Police
“Mounties,” as they became known,
wearing their distinctive uniforms at
an annual sports event at Regina,
Saskatchewan, Canada.

EAGER TO PROTECT GERMANY’S
GROWING POWER, Bismarck
proposed the Three Emperors’
League, an alliance between
Germany, the Austro-Hungarian
Empire, and Russia, with the
purposeful exclusion of France.
Formed in 1873, the league
lasted for three years, was later
reestablished in secret in 1881
and renewed in 1884, and finally
collapsed in 1887. At issue were
the continued conflicts of interest
between Austria-Hungary and
Russia in the Balkan territory.

In the Caribbean, the island of
Puerto Rico finally abolished
slavery. Although the slave trade
had been suppressed earlier, the
practice had continued on the
island and in neighboring Cuba.
Both were still under Spanish
control. The end of slavery was

- >»

bi, N { A)

announced in May 1873, although
an apprenticeship system was
putin place, extending slave
conditions for some until 1876.
In Canada, the North West
Mounted Rifles was formed to
enforce the law on a national
and local level. The force was
charged with policing the largely
rural provinces of the huge
Canadian territory. The initial
few hundred officers had some
300,000 sqmiles (800,000 sqkm)
under their jurisdiction. But the
US was uncomfortable with the
idea of armed troops patrolling
the border, so the force’s name
was changed to the North West
Mounted Police—though later the
name would be altered again to
the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police, which is still in use,
along with the famous
abbreviation of “Mounties.”

A depiction of Garnet Wolseley’s
reception among the Asante people.

IN MARCH, BRITISH ARMY OFFICER
CHARLES GEORGE GORDON
(1833-85) arrived in the province
of Equatoria, in the south of
Egyptian-occupied Sudan. He was
to take control of the territory but
under the auspices of the khedive
(viceroy) of Egypt. Gordon was
tasked with establishing way
stations up the White Nile and to
attempt to suppress the ongoing
slave trade. He mapped parts of
the Nile and set up outposts along
the river as far as Uganda. He
became governor-general of
Sudan in 1877.

Meanwhile, in West Africa,
a British expedition led by Sir
Garnet Wolseley (1833-1913)
defeated the Asante Empire
(present-day Ghana) and
asserted control over the

southern part of their territory,
known as the Gold Coast

a We ah
Charles George Gordon
A British general and colonial
administrator, Gordon was invited
by Egypt's khedive to govern part
of Egypt's Sudan territory.

1750-1913 |

panel

Elm chair

c. 1850

This Ming-style elmwood chair

has a shaped crest rail and curved
backsplat with openwork cartouches
above a beaded apron.

decorative

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

flowers

Soapstone Lohan
1600-1799

This statue shows a Lohan, a human
who achieved enlightenment through
meditation on the teaching of Buddha.
Buddhism flourished during the

Qing period.

Jade brush holder

c. 18th century

The detail of this jade brush holder
contains the figure of Taoist philosopher
Lao Tzu. The ancient Taoist practices
were popular in the Ming period but

fell out of favor with Qing rulers.

Elm cabinet

c. 1860

The doors of this black lacquered

elm cabinet of rectangular outline

are painted with a colorful decoration
that includes birds and flowering trees.

The Qing dynasty was established after the last Ming i—~S Flask SUE
, ees | } 1736-95 lacquer
emperor was overthrown in 1644. Rule was instituted } j ni | Supported on a spreading
ti circular foot, this flask has

by Manchu chieftains, and the Qing period of rule lasted she
until 1911. It was a time in which China witnessed a FM
tripling of its population to around 450 million.

Pr) ashort, contracted neck and
ij Ne right-angle handles. The sides
>» have bands of exotic blooms.
a

copper-red
underglazing

Although the Manchus were seen as outsiders by the Chinese, they
maintained their rule for so long by continuing to use the existing form
of government from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). This continuity spilled
over into the arts and crafts as well, and much of the work produced in
the Qing years was heavily influenced by Ming designs, especially porcelain.

head is made
of chalcedony

Ax head

19th century

Made from chalcedony, this
translucent green and red ax
head has a flat, curved cutting
edge. Carved in reliefis a Taotie
mask and sleeping silkworms.

dragon

Belt hook

19th century

This jade belt hook has a Taoist
design, shaped as two dragons
and a bat laid on the outside,

a phoenix on one side, and a
silkworm pattern on the reverse.

Covered box
1736-95

The top of this peach-shaped
covered box (the fruit is a symbol
of long life) shows a chun
{spring] character enclosing,

in the center, Shou Lao, the
god of longevity, with a
dragon on either side.

hook is
carved
from jade

intricate
carving

Blue tea set
1850-99
Part of a set of two, this «
porcelain bowl with lid and
saucer is decorated with
famille rose enamel colors
ona blue background,

interior is
lined with silver

panels depict __/
the seasons

Pewter tea caddy

18th century

This tea caddy is constructed

from pewter. Its simple design
is embellished with floral and
calligraphic engravings.

Brass wedding bowl

18th century

This brass wedding bowlis part of a set
of two. This one is lined with silver—
the other has a gilt silver interior—and
the base has an engraved design.

- large bead called
Buddha head separates
smaller beads

subsidiary
pP- string of beads

Golden nail guards
c. 19th century
These elaborate nail guards have

peaches
symbolize
longevity

gold openwork with a “cracked ice”
pattern. The device was designed
to protect the nail of the little finger.

rounded
designs
popular in
19th century

THE QING DYNASTY

_— lacquered
/ wooden case
and brass caps

Portable set of eating
implements

1736-95

The contents of this
traveling set of eating
implements include two
pairs of chopsticks, a
knife, a pair of forks,
and an ivory pick.

Sancai teapot

1662-1772

This teapot is sancai porcelain
and has a rectangular shape,
with raised panels on each side
illustrating the four seasons.

Ivory necklace for civil servant

1900s

These beads are made of painted ceramic
and gold leaf. The larger beads, called
Buddha heads, divide up the smaller beads
into groups of 27. There are also subsidiary
strands of 10 blue beads.

incised
inscription

Xian seal

19th century

This oval Xian seal has an incised
inscription on each of the long
sides. The base reads “Living by
the Golden Tower.”

Pair of bowed shoes
1800-1900

These bowed shoes with pointed toes
and high heels were worn for outdoor
activities by a woman with bound feet.
The sides have an intricate embroidered
decoration of birds and flowers.

Silk robe
c. 19th century
This woman’s black silk robe has a
pattern of flowers woven into the fabric.
The design also includes a springtime
~ S scene involving flowers and butterflies.

a “ £

Apaii

ing entitled The Victor by Russian war artist Vasily Vereshchagin (1842-190.

4) depicts Turks celebrating a victory during the Russo-Turkish War.

Hostilities between Russia and the Ottoman Empire were long-running and the two had gone to battle many times over the previous two centuries.

THE RIFT BETWEEN THE OTTOMAN
EMPIRE AND ITS SUBJECTS IN
Bosnia and Herzegovina grew
wider as Christian inhabitants of
the two territories rebelled
against Ottoman rule, requesting
aid from neighboring Serbia,
which had a much higher degree
of autonomy. Buoyed by Russian
promises of support and inspired
by the nationalism sweeping
through the region, Serbia too
declared war on the Ottoman
Empire on June 30, 1876;
Montenegro followed suit the
next day, leading the weakening
empire into another destabilizing
conflict. Montenegro was initially
successful, with a victory in
Herzegovina, but Russian support
in Serbia did not materialize and
the Turks won the battle of
Aleksinac on August 9, 1876. This
forced the Serbs to appeal to
other nations for help.

In other parts of the Ottoman
world, Egypt continued to make
incursions into Ethiopia, leading
its king, Yohannes IV (see 1872],
to declare war on the Egyptians.
The conflict arose because
Ismail Pasha (1830-95], the
khedive (viceroy) of Egypt, wanted
to put settlements on strategic
points along the Red Sea
coastline in Ethiopian territory
(present-day Eritrea). By 1875
Egypt had succeeding in
occupying many coastal towns,
as well as the inland city of
Harar. The fighting lasted
until 1877, by which time
Ethiopia had managed to
defeat two Egyptian

ANGER AND UNREST HAD BEEN
growing among American Indians
in the US, many of whom had
been forced off their land. This
issue often resulted in armed
conflict with US troops. One of the
most infamous confrontations
was the Battle of Little Bighorn
where, on June 25, Lieutenant

Colonel George A. Custer (1839-76] |
» Graham Bell (1847-1922)

: patented his device for

© “transmitting vocal or other
H sounds telegraphically’—the first =
: telephone. This development i
» would change forever the way the

: world communicated.

464 THE NATION
THAT SECURES
CONTROL OF
THE AIR WILL
ULTIMATELY
CONTROL TH!
WORLD. 99

Alexander Graham Bell,
Scottish inventor

[EI

and his men were killed by a
coalition of Eastern Sioux and
Northern Cheyenne Indians.
Around the same time, US forces
were fighting the Apache people,

Early telephone

This early example of a telephone—known as
a box telephone—had a trumpetlike mouthpiece
and it transmitted sound through the use of

an electromagnet.

: who lived near the border with

: Mexico. They too were angered by
: attempts to move them onto a

| reservation, and attacked white

: settlements. This conflict

| continued for another decade

: until their leader, Geronimo

_ (1829-1909), surrendered in 1886.

Elsewhere in the US, a Scottish-
born inventor named Alexander

In Mexico, former soldier Porfirio

| Diaz (see panel, right] tried to

| Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada. His

: attempt in early 1876 failed and

: he fled to the US. He returned in

| November and defeated the

: government's troops. In May 1877
» he was elected president and

| controlled Mexico for decades.

Explorer Henry Morton Stanley

: (1841-1904), meanwhile, was
: trying to follow the uncharted
Lualaba River in the Congo to

mouthpiece

campaigns.

PORFIRIO DIAZ
(1830-1915)

Mexican general, politician,
and president, Porfirio Diaz
was of mixed European and
indigenous descent. From
a humble background, he
made a name for himself
in the military. After he was
elected president, he shored
up his support and created
a political machine that
kept him in power and the
opposition divided and
suppressed, leaving him

to control politics in Mexico
for more than 30 years.

establish which river it joined.
Stanley's African exploits were
already famous; he had been
previously sent by
a US newspaper to
find fellow explorer
David Livingstone {see
1855) and in 1871, on
the shores of Lake
Tanganyika, he had
supposedly uttered the
celebrated words, “Doctor
Livingstone, | presume?”

IN CHINA, FAMINE SPREAD
through the northern provinces.

A drought the previous year

affecting the Yellow River

—a vital source of water—was
compounded by a lack of rain in
1877 and the arrival of locusts.
When the rains returned toward
the end of the following year,
some 9 to 13 million people had
died in a region of 108 million.

In South Africa, the discovery of
gold (see 1871) had exacerbated
tensions between the Boer
settlers and the British, who by
this point governed much of the
country. By 1877 the British
managed to annex the Transvaal.
However, the Afrikaners rebelled
against this move and regained
their independence a few years
later (see 1881).

Le Petit Journal

——= iMlustré —— [SF

Famine in China

An illustration in a French magazine

shows the state of poverty during the
famine years in China, when millions
died in the northern region.

Vasily Vereshchagin’s Mass for the Dead (The Defeated] shows the aftermath of
a Russian defeat during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78.

RUSSIA DECIDED TO ONCE AGAIN
DECLARE WAR on the Ottoman
Empire on April 24, 1877, in an
attempt to aid the Serbians in
their fight against the Ottomans
(see 1875). Russia was aided by

SY s
This oil painting shows the defense of Rorke’s Drift on January 22, where a
handful of British soldiers faced an attack by of 4,000 Zulu soldiers.

IN SOUTH AMERICA, PERU,
BOLIVIA, AND CHILE began a
dispute over who had control over
the Atacama Desert region,
running along the Peru-Chile
border. In the previous decade the

139
British forces

Romania (the united Moldavia and valuable mineral sodium nitrate oeceeeee
Wallachia]. The Russo-Turkish had been discovered there. DRIFT
War of 1877-78 included a Initially Chilean companies went
five-month siege of the Ottoman into the desert to extract the i
Bulgarian town of Plevna, which mineral and issues over territorial |
eventually fell to Russian forces. control soon arose. Chile and 1
Russia also managed to take Bolivia at first agreed that the British Zulu
some key fortresses and a truce 24th parallel was their boundary. casualties casualties
was called. A settlement was But Bolivia, dissatisfied with the i Ps e
: Battle of Rorke’s Drift

reached on March 3, 1878, known
as the Treaty of San Stefano,
which gave Serbia, Romania, and
Montenegro their independence,
while Bulgaria was granted
some autonomy and put under
Russian authority.

However, European powers were |

not satisfied with this settlement
as there were many competing
interests. Prussia backed Great

Britain's desire to curb Russian
expansion into Bulgaria—which

: at this point reached the Aegean

Sea—by refusing to let Russia

: Mediterranean. Austria-Hungary
wanted to continue occupation of

: Bosnia and Herzegovina to keep
its regional influence intact and

Afghan fighters
A photograph of Afghan soldiers
holding hand-crafted rifles, at
Jalalabad, Afghanistan, during the
second Anglo-Afghan conflict.

was ignited when British agents
learned of negotiations between
Afghan leader Sher Ali Khan
(1825-79] and Russia. This was

deal, entered into a secret

agreement with Peru to defend its | these were put to little effective use,

: and superior British firepower won
: out despite overwhelming numbers.

interests in the desert. Bolivia
later seized the property of
Chilean companies, prompting
Chile’s president to send in
troops. Chile formally declared
war on Bolivia and Peru on
April 5. The war of the Pacific took
place on land and sea, and was
not resolved until 1883, with Chile
keeping control of the mineral-
rich Antofagasta region.

Although the Zulus had some rifles,

| (1826-84), who organized some
: 60,000 warriors. The British

: Isandlwana. The Zulus were

: successfully repelled after 550

warriors were shot by the handful

ae 40,000 * stem growing Slav nationalism. compounded by Sher Ali's refusal In South Africa, British forces : of British troops stationed at the
a casualties Meanwhile, Britain had signed to receive a British delegation. In came up against the Zulu nation —_;_ depot. After seven months of
2 1504 : the Cyprus Convention with November 1878, British forces in the Anglo-Zulu War. The © conflict, the British managed
Pa : Turkey. This deal would allow invaded the region. Sher Ali British wanted to expand into Zulu : a final victory over the Zulus in
2 : British administration of the turned to Russia for support, but territory, but this was met with _ the Battle of Ulundi on July 4,
S 100-4 island while it remained under was told to make peace with resistance by King Cetshwayo : and took control of their territory.
= 30,000 Ottoman sovereignty. This allowed = Britain. Sher Ali died the next year
8 50 casualties : Britain to establish a presence and his son, Mohammad Yaqub
9 : anda naval base in the eastern Khan (1849-1923], signed a treaty | Sunken ship in
part of the Mediterranean, with the : ceding the Khyber Pass to the War of the Pacific
oe aim of blocking further Russian British. Soon after, a British envoy | This scene from
Turks Russians : incursions into the region. was murdered and British troops the Battle of
. i Away from the European returned to take Kabul. Yaqub was Iquique, during the
Siege of Plevna War of the Pacific,

Although the Russians eventually
overcame the Turks, the small
Turkish force heroically held up the
Russian advance into Bulgaria.

diplomatic bargaining table, the
British were once again caught up
: in warfare with Afghans. The
» Second Afghan War (to 1880)

forced to flee. He was succeeded
by Abdur Rahman Khan (c. 1844-

1901), who ended the conflict and
supported British interests.

shows Chilean and
Peruvian ships.
The dispute also
included Bolivia.

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44 THE DOOR THAT NOBODY
ELSE WILL GO IN AT, SEEMS

ALWAYS TO SWING OPEN
WIDELY FOR ME. 99

West Indian laborers cutting a channel during the first—and failed—attempt Clara Barton was the founder of the

to construct a canal in Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

BUOYED BY THE SUCCESS OF THE

SUEZ CANAL (see 1869), Ferdinand

de Lesseps [see 1859) began to
draw up plans for a waterway
connecting the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans through the
isthmus of Panama. However, the
project got off to a difficult start
the following year in 1881. There
were disagreements over the
canals plans, the machinery did
not function well in the terrain,

and many workers died of disease ©

in the tropical heat.

Meanwhile, the development of
commercial refrigeration began
to alter the relationship between
consumers and producers.
Cheese and meats could now
be exported long distances. On
February 2, the first shipment of
frozen meat to survive the journey
intact arrived in London from

Australia. The following years saw :

1,150,000 2,370,000 i a boom in shipments of meats IN SOUTH AFRICA, TENSIONS Tunisia became a French
Germany US and other agricultural goods BETWEEN BOER SETTLERS (see protectorate. French military
740,000 7,010,000 | from Australia, New Zealand, panel, above] and the British over { occupied the territory anda

Russia Britain

840,000
France

Shipping tonnage 1881

This chart shows total goods shipped
by country in vessels over 100 tons.
Refrigeration sparked a rise in food
transport and the use of vast ships.

THE BOERS

The Boers (“farmers” in Dutch) in South Africa were settlers of
Dutch, French Huguenot, and German descent that left the Cape
Province in search of autonomy farther north. They spoke
Afrikaans, a language that evolved from Dutch, The earliest
settlers arrived in the Cape of Good Hope after the Dutch East
India Company established a port in 1652. The Boers had a strong
ethnic identity and clashed often with the Zulus and the British.

and Argentina to Europe.
Around the same time, the

: problem of creating a safe means
| of artificial light was solved by

= the US inventor Thomas Edison

: (1847-1931). He had perfected

existing designs on lightbulbs

| of the day (see pp.298-99) by

: preventing them from overheating
: and making them much safer to

: use. Almost as soon as he had

: patented the design, lighting

systems began to spring up on
the streets, in businesses and

: hotels, and in homes.

the annexation of the Transvaal
(see 1877] had tipped into
violence. Boers had established
the South African Republic in the
Transvaal area and begun to use
arms to support their claim,
starting the First Anglo-Boer War
in 1880. British troops suffered a
defeat at the hands of the Boer
settlers in the battle at Majuba
Hill on February 27, 1881, bringing
the dispute to an end by March.
The Convention of Pretoria
treaty granted the South African
Republic independence over its
affairs, although Britain was
allowed to maintain an unclear

“suzerainty” over it. This did little
to rectify the situation, and the
simmering resentment between
the British and Boers would
erupt again before the end of

the century [see 1899).

France, meanwhile, was
attempting to extend its influence
in North Africa. With Algeria
under its control, it looked to the
neighboring Ottoman territory of
Tunisia. The past 50 years had
seen Tunisian rulers caught in
between Ottoman demands and
European creditors, especially
after the government went
bankrupt in 1869, after which a

: British, French, and Italian

financial commission was
imposed on the territory. France
decided to send in 36,000 troops
in 1881, under the pretext that

Tunisians had been moving into
: Algerian territory. Under the

Treaty of Bardo that same year,

French minister was
installed to liaise with the
Tunisian bey (ruler), who
now only had limited control.
In Russia, there was an
outbreak of anti-Jewish
violence culminating in
pogroms in the south of the

continued until 1884. This was
triggered by the assassination of
the reformist Alexander II
(1818-81) who was killed by a
group known as People’s WiLL.
False rumors circulated that

: Jewish people were responsible

and that the government was

American Red Cross organization.

: going to instruct the public to take
: their revenge on Jews. The violent
© attacks caused many Jewish

: Europe, the US, and Palestine.

In the US, teacher and nurse
Clara Barton (1821-1912)

i organized the American Red

| Cross, a part of the growing

1 International Red Cross relief
organization that had been

: founded in 1863.

Meanwhile, in New Mexico,

_ sheriff Pat Garrett (1850-1908)
_ captured one of the United States’

most notorious outlaws, Billy the

: Kid (c. 1859-81) on April 30. Born
: William H. Bonney Jr, Billy the Kid
became an infamous gunfighter,

» and was rumored to have killed at

least 27 men by the age of 21.

' After his arrest he was jailed and

: sentenced to death, but he escaped
: until Garrett tracked him down

Garrett's gun

A replica of the
holster that held Pat
Garrett's gun around
the time he captured
Billy the Kid.

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This illustration shows the bombardment of Alexandria—a sea battle won by
the British, who succeeded in destroying the port's fortified batteries.

OVER THE COURSE OF THE
PREVIOUS FEW YEARS, the power
of French and British interests
had grown substantially in Egypt.
This led to increasing European
interference in Egyptian affairs—
considered legitimate because of
the financial debt Egypt owed to
Britain and France. By 1882,
Egypt was bankrupt and the
khedive [viceroy] was scarcely
able to hold on to his own
authority. Ismail Pasha (1830-95)
had been deposed by the Ottoman
sultan in 1879—under pressure
from Britain and France—in favor
of his son, Muhammad Tawfig
Pasha (1852-92). This Dual
Control by the French and British
persisted while there was growing
internal nationalist unrest.
Britain was fearful of what a
nationalist uprising might mean

for the Suez Canal, in which it had :

a substantial interest. So British
forces decided to mount an attack
to stifle any further action; the
Royal Navy bombarded the forts
of Alexandria on July 11, 1882.
Egypt was then placed under
military occupation, becoming a
British protectorate.

Farther south, in Sudan, British
troops were continuing to fight
the Sudanese War (1881-99)
against the followers of the
powerful Muhammad Ahmad bin
Abd Allah (1844-85), who had
declared a holy war after taking
the title Mahdi. His mission was to
restore justice to the world,
believing it was soon going to end.

In Europe, an anti-French
union was being formed, known
as the Triple Alliance. It

consisted of Germany, Austria-
Hungary, and Italy. The first two

_ had signed previous unions (see

1873], which included Russia. Italy
joined after disputing France's
territorial claims in North Africa
Meanwhile, in France, scientist
Louis Pasteur (1822-95)—known
for his development in 1863 of the
pasteurization process that
reduced harmful germs in food
and drink—had turned his
attention to vaccines (see 1796).
He investigated anthrax, a
bacterial disease that had killed
many sheep in Europe and also
affected humans. By 1881, he had
conducted successful large-scale
experiments with animals, and
vaccines were produced.

Ahand-colored woodcut showing the island of Krakatoa, Indonesia, before its

destruction, when its volcano erupted in 1883.

BRITISH TROOPS SUFFERED EARLY
DEFEATS IN THE WAR IN SUDAN
at the hands of the Mahdi
revolutionary army [see 1882).

At the beginning of the year on
January 26, Anmad and the
Mahdi troops captured the city

of El Obeid, situated in the center
of the territory. Mahdi troops
continued their march toward
Khartoum, which had earlier
been placed under British
administration by the Egyptian
khedive (see 1874], capturing the
city after a siege of nine months.

Brooklyn Bridge

The Great East River Suspension
Bridge in New York City was built
between 1870 and 1883. It stretches
5,988 ft (1825 m] across its span.

Meanwhile, France had seized
more of the territory around the
Niger River (Niger) and became

Madagascar off the coast of East
Africa in a bid to protect French
territory. In 1883, France invaded
the island in the Franco-Hova
War against the Hova people—
the largest Malagasy group

on the island—and bombarded
the coastal towns of Majunga and
Tamatave from the sea. In 1885,
they reached a settlement
allowing the French occupation
at Diégo-Suarez in the north.
However, tensions continued and
the French sent in 15,000 troops
in 1885, landing at Majunga and
capturing the capital.

Triggered by the ongoing Berlin

' Conference on Africa (see 1885)
: Germany claimed territory
involved in conflict on the island of =
© Togoland (Togo), Cameroon, and

: part of the island of Zanzibar off

» the coast of Tanzania, East Africa.
: Italy took control of Eritrean

» coastal towns along the Red Sea,

in southwest Africa (Namibia),

though made no farther inroads

In the Pacific, Britain and

had established settlements

: along the coast of the eastern half
| of New Guinea [present-day

: Papua New Guinea], annexing it

: by 1884. Germany took control of
: the northeast part of the island.

Avillage in the valley of the Congo River in Africa in the 1800s. Congolese
territory was put under the control of the Belgian king, Leopold Il, in 1885.

‘(4 BESIDE
LEOPOLD, NERO,
CALIGULA,
_ATTILA,
-TORQUEMADA,
_GENGHIS KHAN
_AND SUCH
KILLERS OF

AS SOME OF THE NATIONS IN
EUROPE became more powerful—
especially the new nations of
Germany and Italy—they were
eager to participate in the growing
European colonization of overseas
territories, notably in Africa. To
this end, the Berlin Conference
on Africa was held from
November 15, 1884 until February
26, 1885. Later known as the
meeting that triggered the
“Scramble for Africa,” competing

_MEN ARE MER!
powers jostled for territory— i
although no African leaders were = AMATEURS. 9

even consulted, much less invited. =

The meeting was initiated by 7 Man Twain, Americanauthor,
Portugal in the interests of
protecting its claim to part of the
Congo estuary. This claim would,
however, be rejected and the river
basin was declared neutral in
order to protect trade in the
region. A group of European
investors were given part of
the Congo region, which was put
under the control of Belgium's
King Leopold II (1835-1909),

and named the Congo Free
State.

C=]

Early Benz
A side view of a
gasoline-driven,
three-wheeled Benz
Motorwagen. German
engineer, Karl Benz,
patented his design in1886
and the motorcar was born.

Meanwhile, in Germany,

engine. Daimler and partner

and carriages. Around the same

: time fellow German Karl Benz

(1844-1929] had also been

: experimenting with engines. He

: came up with the idea for the

» Benz car, and in 1885 assembled

: the first automobile in the world.
' He set up Benz & Co, which would
: later merge with Daimler to make

on Leopold II's regime inthe Congo :
_ Mercedes-Benz cars.

In India, a growing political

: awareness and the burgeoning

nationalist movement led to
the establishment of the
Indian National Congress,
which held its first meeting
in December.

the Anglo-Burmese War.

EMANCIPATION FINALLY ARRIVED
FOR SLAVES IN CUBA in October
1886, after a long struggle
Although Britain had decided to
end the slave trade in 1807 and
abolish the practice of slavery in
1833, Spain and other European

colonial powers did not follow suit. i

In 1817, the Spanish agreed
a treaty with Britain to stop the
slave trade—and then ignored it.

With the loss of most of its Central

and South American colonies,
Spain turned to its remaining

sugar islands of Cuba and Puerto |

Rico to refill its coffers. To this
end, slavery not only continued,
but increased over the course of
the 19th century, although British
antislavery patrols tried to stop
ships between the west coast of
Africa and Havana. Despite their
efforts, the numbers continued to

rise. In 1840, around 14,500 slaves :

were brought to Cuba; by 1859
this number reached nearly 30,500.
By 1866, slave imports had
fallen to just over 1,000 and the
following year, the slave trade
was finally outlawed by the
Spanish legislature.
However, this act did not
free the considerable
number of slaves on
the island. Years of
gradual abolition
culminated in a
royal decree that
emancipated the
slaves in 1886
Meanwhile on
January 1, Britain
annexed Burma,
heralding a long
period of insurgency.

British troops of the Somersetshire Light Infantry cross a river in Burma, during

ay 2,500
i casualties
@ 50 |
a
3
$3 40 4,000
'=z casualties
ie fl
ve a
Fa
uw 20
pe
S
eaeaat
0
British Burmese
COUNTRIES

: Third Burmese War

: Although the war lasted a few weeks,
the Burmese insurgency that followed
lasted until 1899, claiming many

: more lives—as shown in this chart.

The annexation was the
© culmination of the Third Anglo-
» Burmese War in 1885, which had
only lasted a few weeks. The war
: was triggered by Burmese king
: Thibaw’s negotiations with
: France over a political alliance
: and the construction of a railway
© line to the Indian border. Britain
: was unable to air its concerns as
: Thibaw refused a visit from the
: British envoy. Britain had already
» annexed Lower Burma after the
| previous war [see 1852] and the
British decided to react by now
seizing Mandalay and northern
Burma. Thibaw was deposed
and the territory was annexed to
© India, giving Britain control of the
i former kingdom. Although this
i marked the end of the official war,
: there was a sporadic guerrilla
: campaign by the Burmese that
: would continue to cause unrest in
: the region for another four years.

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A ccrest belonging to Czar Ferdinand
|, who was elected ruler of Bulgaria.

BULGARIA HAD BEEN CAUGHT UP
in the wave of nationalism that
swept through Europe in the
earlier part of the 19th century
(see 1848). Bulgaria's
independence struggle—during
which 15,000 Bulgarians were
massacred by Turkish troops in
1876—had attracted Europe's
attention. A couple of years later
a small Bulgarian principality was
established and Britain and
Austria-Hungary ensured Russia
would not have influence there.
By 1885, Bulgaria had merged
with Eastern Rumelia, and after
a coup d’état, the two states were
unified. This altered the Balkan
balance of power and Serbia
declared war. The conflict was
brief and peace was restored

by 1886. On July 1887, Prince
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
(1861-1948) was elected ruler

of Bulgaria.

Czar Ferdinand |

Postage stamp, with Czar Ferdinand.
He was elected to the position after
political infighting led Bulgarians

to look further afield for a leader.

An engraving depicts slaves washing
diamonds at a Brazilian mine.

BRAZILIAN

Slave population

At the time of their respective
abolitions, Brazil and Cuba had large
slave populations. Freedom was
initially slow in coming to slaves.

BRAZIL, LIKE CUBA, CONTINUED
TO MAKE USE OF SLAVES much
later than other former colonies.
In South America, the republics
that emerged from the Spanish
Empire had abolished slavery by
the middle of the century. And like
Spain, Brazil had been put under
pressure by the British to end the
trade, which eventually occurred
in 1850. Over the next thirty years,
growing abolitionist sentiment
reached the highest level, as the
emperor Dom Pedro Il (1825-91)
became sympathetic to these
ideas. He was interested

in the gradual abolition of slavery
but was aware of the dangers of
a slaveholder backlash. He had
observed not only what had
happened in Cuba, but also in the
US Civil War (see 1861). In 1871,
a gradualist measure known as
the Rio Branco Law, which freed
children born to slave mothers,
was enacted. Later measures

in 1885 freed slaves who were
older than 65. Eventually, a
proclamation in May 1888
completely abolished slavery.

46 IF THERE BE A GOD, I THINK THAT WHAT HE
WOULD LIKE ME TO DO IS PAINT AS MUCH OF THE
MAP OF AFRICA BRITISH RED AS POSSIBLE... 99

Cecil Rhodes, British politician, on colonization

IN PARIS, ENGINEER GUSTAVE
EIFFEL (1832-1923) DAZZLED the
city and all of Europe with his
tower, which was opened to the
public on March 31. Eiffel won a
design contest to build the tower
as part of the International
Exposition of 1889 in honor

of the centenary of the French
Revolution. With its 984-ft (300-m])
tower—twice the height of the
Great Pyramid in Gaza—nothing
like it had ever been seen. The
tower attracted almost two
million visitors in the first six
months after it opened.

Brazil, meanwhile, faced
political upheaval as a military
coup overthrew leader Dom
Pedro Il. The military, clergy, and
aristocracy had been angered by

Eiffel Tower

Initially criticized by the Parisian
public who thought it unsightly,
the tower has come to be an
iconic Parisian landmark.

The late 19th century was
a time of extensive colonial
rule by European powers.
“The Rhodes Colossus”
(right) from an 1892 Punch
magazine depicts British
colonizer, Cecil Rhodes,
straddling the continent after
the announcemount of his.
proposed telegraph line from
Cape Town to Cairo. But this
was also a period infamous
for European exploitation of
natural resources, as well

as the indifferent or cruel
treatment of native peoples.

some of Pedro's reforms and,
although still popular with the
public, he abdicated anda
republic was declared.

Farther north, in Panama,
the canal project (see 1880)
had collapsed, and work on it
came to a halt. The Compagnie
Universelle du Canal
Interocéanique and the French
public had lost faith in the
enterprise as the death toll
mounted and construction was
plagued by endless problems.

In Africa, British rule was
expanding apace as Cecil John
Rhodes (1853-1902)—who had
already established his reputation
in the gold and diamond mines in
South Africa—received a charter
for his British South Africa
Company in 1889. The company
was expected to respect local law
and beliefs. However, Rhodes’s

aim was to acquire territory in
Southern Africa and continue the
extraction of valuable minerals.

+ Rhodes came to symbolize the

‘THE NUMBER
OF WORKERS

WHO DIED

DURING
_A FAILED

ATTEMPT

TO BUILD
THE PANAMA
‘CANAL

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PS Or SE se?
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gree ws wis
oe

1750-1913 | THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

EMPIRE BUILDING
T H FE | M - FE R lA L In the 18th century, most colonial outposts
were located along the world's coastlines, as

settlements sprung up where ships stopped off.

Trading posts grew into cities, often with
European-style architecture to reflect the
political changes. Over time, improvements in

military power, transportation, and health—
— = tropical diseases killed thousands of
Europeans—saw the spread of colonial rule
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries the world witnessed a relentless eeTOU GORE aes 7 uae os yale
European drive to control territories all over the globe. Colonies especially nde for Batainang prance iewevel
s et . Spain, which had begun empire-building earlier
provided not only direct supplies of valuable natural resources, but also and controlled large parts of LatinAmerica at
a theater of conflict in which Europe's antagonisms were played out. the beginning of the period, had lost almost all
of its territories by the 1820s.

The Imperial Age saw Spain, Britain, France, Southeast Asia were often on the receiving

Germany, Holland, Portugal, Italy, and to a lesser end of racial prejudice and political oppression.

extent, Denmark and Sweden, scramble for Economic exploitation of colonial territories and

territories. A country could lose colonies in one their people also frequently occurred, as raw ALASKA
war, only to reclaim them later through trade in a materials were exported out of the country,

wider political game. Colonies often started outas —_and slave labor was used. This
trading posts, in places such as India, but through situation persisted until after .. .

political maneuvering and exercising military World War II, when many
might European countries began to take control. colonies around the world began to demand
People living in the Americas, Africa, India, and their independence (see pp.422-23).

St. Pierre
and Miquelon

44 THESUN NEVER SETSON (RRR
THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 99 sj

Becudemnts

9 xv
MEXICO CUBA ‘s
Popular saying coined during the early 1800s Us occupation =yebahemnas
Havana \ 4). DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

>
‘

Puerto Rico
- eVirgin Islands

PP Jamaica « BAIT 7-0 @ St. Martin
i rd Isl
BRITISH HONDURAS West *-/:7 = coor lslends

.
, Mexico
.

——¢ Guadeloupe

zg HONDURAS /ndies <— ¢ Martinique
= 2 So aS GUATEMALA Curacao ¢) ¢ Barbados
= @ SS eaRaae ‘ ‘2S — ¢ Windward Islands
w & ay y * Trinidad and Tobago
5 2 S c 2 a NICARAGUA », VENEZUELA BRITISH GUIANA
iS) & 0 Oe COSTA RICA «g
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7 5 fi} Islands ¥* « 3 Aragon
So © = ECUADOR : “i irg
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o z re
- Fa a PACIFIC © Peper
~_ Belgium =
é de So ACRE

Expansion Colonial minority BRITISH AFRICAN TERRITORIES OCEAN P ae

Following the example of Britain Native Spaniards were in the Making tracks Lima %

and the Netherlands, the small minority in the Spanish colon, By 1914, the vast expanse of colonial British @

state of Belgium exploited the New Spain [Mexico and Central Africa was spanned by thousands of miles of

vast territory of the Congo, which America). In 1810, they made up just railroad track, opening the region up to trade ee

was 76 times larger than Belgium. under a fifth of the total population. _and aiding communication between territories. Riededanero Ml

ee Paulo «gill

Imperial land ue Imperial population

By 1910, Britain was well ahead in PORTUGAL

the imperial r with an empire fez} BELGIUM 4
covering m ‘han twice as much of al GERMANY i itain govern ubj

the globe as its closest rival, France. the Americas, Asia, and Aus
RANE

BRITAIN

yntingou

18 15 12 a 6 50 100 150 200 250 300
SIZE OF EMPIRE (MILLION SQ MILES) COLONIAL POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)

= aed
oo?
e f

THE IMPERIAL WORLD

1700 In the 18th century, European expansion, with 1800 A century later, Spain, France, and Britain had 1850 By the middle of the 19th century, the world map
the exception of Spanish Central and South America, taken control of almost all of the Americas. The had been reconfigured with the independence of Latin
was mostly confined to port cities. Huge swaths of British had also made a series of incursions into America. British and French attention had turned to
the world were under the control of the older Otto: India, as the Mughal Empire broke down, while also the resource-rich lands of Africa, while the Dutch

and Qing empires in the East. undertaking exploration into Africa. continued to expand into Southeast Asia.

Greenland 1900 At the turn of the

20th century, European
OR colonialism had reached

“sagan UN? it RUSSIAN EMP ‘ across the globe.The

~ 3 “Scramble for Africa” in

the 1880s saw the major

powers jostling for territory

Ny i Berl POLAND and taking land from
e » a, GERMAN |. — AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE , Africans. The US gained
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ANCE SERBIA Siem e ort Arthur .
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RHODESIA é 3 eee: *

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SOUTHE!

St. Helena @ - GERMAN RHODES
SOUTHWEST
AFRICA

WALVIS BAY.
to Cape Col

Acolored engraving depicts the massacre of Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee

Creek, South Dakota, by US soldiers of the 7th Cavalry Regiment.

IN THE US, TENSIONS AND
SPORADIC FIGHTING in the west
between US troops and American
Indians had continued since the

Battle at Little Bighorn (see 1876). ©
: and the US Army, although
: poor relations persisted
: between the two groups.

In addition to this, American
Indians faced increasingly harsh
living conditions: poverty, disease,
and crop failures were rife. By the

1880s, anew mysticism called the |

Ghost Dance had emerged among
the Sioux people, based on the
belief that an Indian messiah
would come in 1891 and unite
all the displaced native peoples.
This newfound belief manifested
in trances, dances, and a mass
frenzy, which worried the

US agents who oversaw the
reservations. They attempted to
stop the dances, and the Sioux
people rebelled, with US army
troops being called in by the

end of the year.

The reservation of Wounded
Knee Creek in South Dakota was
the scene of a massacre on
December 29, when around 150
American Indians—men, women,
and children—were killed and 50
were wounded by US troops.
During disarmament of the Sioux
tribe a scuffle had broken out, and
in the ensuing carnage around 25

Wounded Knee dead
& Ls The massacre left 150
= Sioux dead, while 25
troops from the US army were killed.
A further 50 Sioux were wounded
during the conflict.

i many due to friendly fire from
1 US machine guns. This was

: territory of Schleswig-

: had formally come into
: British possession in

: 1814, having been

: seized by the Royal

earlier. However, as

. and African expansion
: continued, a deal was
: struck for Britain

: to hand over the

» island to Germany in

_ and Pemba, near
| Tanzania's port of

: African coast. Germany

| to Britain’s substantial
» territory in Africa,

- building on earlier

: deals struck with

: Germany, as well as

: the Berlin Conference

: year, Britain formally
: established the

Protectorate. This became
known as the “British Central

Africa Protectorate” in 1893
and was then officially

designated as “Nyasaland”
in 1907. Part of this territory
lay along Lake Nyasa and
the Shire valley in present-
day Malawi).

US soldiers were also left dead,

the last major conflict
between American Indians

off the North Sea coast
of Germany, near the

Holstein, Heligoland,
Sioux weapon

A 19th-century style knife
and beaded rawhide sheath,
as carried by American
Indian Sioux warriors.

5
f
5.
.
In Europe, a small island f ¥
y
3
Ls

Navy seven years

Germany's European

exchange for the
islands of Zanzibar

uw D)
of 20.

Tanga off the East

developed Heligoland
into a large naval base.
Zanzibar was added

MMU... iil.

claims made following

(see 1885]. In the following

Nyasaland Districts

The Trans-Siberian Railway during
its construction in Russia.

THE DISTANCE
BETWEEN
MOSCOW AND
VLADIVOSTOK
ON THE TRANS-
SIBERIAN
RAILWAY

IN RUSSIA, CONSTRUCTION

HAD BEGUN ON AN EXTENSIVE
RAILROAD SYSTEM across its vast
territory. The project was the idea
of Alexander III [1845-94], and it
was known as the Trans-Siberian
Railway. |t stretched from
Moscow to the port of Vladivostok,
5,715 miles [9,198km) to the east.
Russia received permission from
China to run tracks through parts
of Manchuria, allowing the
completion of a trans-Manchurian
line by 1901. The work began from
west and east ends and eventually
met in the center. By 1904, the
sections linking Moscow and
Vladivostok were connected and
running. The railroad facilitated
the quicker movement of people
through Russia and allowed for
the further settlement of sparsely
populated Siberia.

- Sie vg

a : Xe
The Great Mosque of Djenne, Mali, was
built after the French took control.

NCAISE

OCCIDENTALE

French in Africa

A postage stamp from French West
Africa shows an illustration of a
native mask. France managed to
gain control of much of the region.

BRITAIN AND FRANCE WERE
CONTINUING THEIR PUSH into
West Africa. The British had
secured ports along the coast,
annexing Lagos in 1861. Lagos
provided a key point from which
to seize control of surrounding
Yorubaland, situated around the
lower parts of the Niger River,
corresponding with much of
modern southwest Nigeria. The
British took advantage of existing
internal divisions among Yoruba
rulers, and in 1892, they overthrew
the Ijebu government, part of the
Yoruba political system.
Likewise, the French exploited
divisions in the Muslim Tukulor
Empire by signing treaties with
its neighbors and building forts
within Tukulor territory. By 1892,
the French controlled much of the
region around the Senegal River.

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ALTHOUGH FRANCE HAD MADE
GAINS IN THE WEST AFRICAN
INTERIOR, the coastal territories
around the kingdom of Dahomey
(present-day Benin) had proven

had handed over to France the
coastal city of Cotonou in
Dahomey without consulting the
Dahomeans. The result was the
First Franco-Dahomean War
(1889-90), which concluded with
a treaty that ceded Cotonou and
Porto Novo to France in exchange
for payments to the king of
Dahomey. However, tensions
remained, and by 1892 another
war had begun, this time over
the issue of slavery. The king,
Behanzin (1844-1906), was still
allowing slave raids, despite the
abolition of slavery. In addition,
he attacked a French gunboat.
France retaliated, this time with

troops, and they overpowered the

control in 1893.

44 ALL THAT SEPARATES
... RACE, CLASS, CREED,
OR SEX, IS INHUMAN, AND
MUST BE OVERCOME. 99

Kate Sheppard, suffragist, in the pamphlet Is it Right?, 1892

difficult to subdue. In 1889, Britain

an army of French and Senegalese

kingdom, bringing it under French

25,000
Jamaica

1,000,000
Cuba

Sugar production in tons
In 1893, Cuba, then the dominant

: world sugar grower, produced

1 million tons of sugar, four times

i as muchas Jamaica.

Halfway around the world, in

: the British colony of New Zealand,

women won the right to vote. The
push for women’s suffrage was

: gaining momentum in many

places, but these islands were
the first to grant the right, after
formidable efforts by suffragists

: and tireless campaigners, such

as Kate Sheppard (1847-1934).

| Shortly after this act was passed,

there was a general election in

: which 65 percent of women cast

their votes.

Meanwhile, Cuba was
experiencing a sugar boom,
with profits of $64 million in 1893.
However, a US tariff the following

: year would cause profits to drop

to $13 million by 1896.

Ruler of Dahomey
A painting of Behanzin, king of
Dahomey (modern Benin], shows
him holding symbols of kingship
while surrounded by attendants.

rom 0
xd

IN RUSSIA, AFTER THE DEATH
OF ALEXANDER III, Nicholas I!
(1868-1918) became the next,
and last, emperor of Russia. He
presided over an increasingly
troubled country, and would not
be able to withstand the social
revolution that engulfed Russia
in the early 20th century.
Russia's neighbor, China, had
become entangled in a local
conflict in Korea that escalated
into the Sino-Japanese War. The
confrontation had started over an
internal revolt in Korea. The
monarch asked both nations for
help, and both sent troops. Yet
they also refused to leave once
the rebellion was suppressed.
Japan was allied with the
modernizing government in
Korea, while China backed the
royal family. Tensions between
China and Japan mounted and

An engraving showing the coronation ceremony of Emperor Nicholas Il and
the Empress Alexandra, who would be Russia’s last ruling monarchs.

46 1AM NOT YET READY
TO BE CZAR. | KNOW
NOTHING OF THE
BUSINESS OF RULING. 99

Czar Nicholas II, on becoming ruler of Russia, 1894

conflict broke out, with Japan
declaring war on China on
August 1.

In the Ottoman Empire, the
Christian Armenian people were
also caught up in the nationalist
spirit of the time, and they tried
to assert their independence.
However, their efforts met with a
particularly brutal suppression,
ordered by Sultan Abdul Hamid II
(1842-1918). This saw systematic
massacres of Armenian people

: throughout the empire, resulting

_ in the collapse of the independence
: movement a few years later.

: The death toll has been estimated
: to be around 250,000 Armenians

£ 2 million, between 1894 and 1897.

: Sino-Japanese War

: A painting of the Sino-Japanese War
: shows the Japanese forces

: conquering Jiuliancheng after

: defeating the Chinese at Pyongyang.

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44 EVERY DAY SEES HUMANITY

MORE VICTORIOUS IN THE

7
STRUGGLE WITH SPACE AND TIME. 99 ib

Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
WERE PROLIFERATING RAPIDLY
all over the world. In Italy,
physicist and
inventor Guglielmo
Marconi (1874-
1937] invented a
wireless telegraph.
In his initial
experiments, using a
telegraph key to operate a
transmitter, he was able to
send electromagnetic waves in
bursts that corresponded to
Morse code. He then used a
transmitter to ring a bell that had
been placed 30ft [9m] away. He

worked on the receiving antennae |
» Réntgen (1845-1923) had been
: experimenting with electric

and by the end of the year he
could transmit a signal 1.5 miles
(2.5km). However, he found little
enthusiasm for his work, so he
went to Britain, where he patented

Early X-ray

One of the first X-ray photographs
made by German professor Wilhelm
Conrad Réntgen (1845-1923)
captured a woman's hand with rings.

Marconi’s wireless
The wireless telegraph (replica

: shown] developed by Guglielmo

Marconi paved the way for the

: development of radio technology.

: the device the following year, and

laid the foundation for radio
technology. Meanwhile, German
physicist Wilhelm Conrad

currents and cathode-ray tubes.

| The outcome was a type of

radiation that allowed objects to
appear transparent on
photographic plates. Rontgen

called this X-radiation, an early

version of the madern X-ray.

In Korea, the clash between
Japanese and Chinese forces [see
1894) came to an end after the

: Chinese defeat in Pyongyang,

and subsequent naval victories by
the Japanese fleet. China sued

which had involved Russian,

: French, and German intervention,

forced China to give up the island
of Formosa (modern Taiwan) to
Japan, as well as the nearby
Pescadores (Penghu) Islands.

and pay a large indemnity.

This scene from the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1896
shows the Abyssinian forces routing the Italian troops.

GREECE SAW THE MODERN
REBIRTH OF THE ANCIENT

OLYMPIC GAMES, which was

organized by an enthusiastic
Frenchman, Baron Pierre de
Coubertin. In 1890, he met
William Penny Brookes, who had
orchestrated a British Olympic
Games in 1866. Coubertin and
Brookes wanted to create an
international festival of modern
sport. After years of campaigning,
Coubertin was finally able to
organize the event in Athens from
April 6-15. It was an enormous
success—almost 300 contestants
competed in track and field,
gymnastics, tennis, swimming,
cycling, fencing, shooting,
weightlifting, and wrestling, while
40,000 spectators cheered them
on. However, Brookes did not live
to be present at the games, having
died the previous year.

Meanwhile, Italy was trying to
extend its reach in Africa with an
invasion of the Abyssinian
Empire (modern Ethiopia). Its
previous attempt to annex the
kingdom had ended in failure
by 1889 (see 1872). Under the
terms of the Treaty of Uccialli,
Italy thought it had the right
to establish a protectorate
over Abyssinia, but this was
contested. By 1895, the

1896 OLYMPIC GAMES

THE NUMBER
OF EVENTS

THE NUMBER
OF COUNTRIES

THE NUMBER
OF ATHLETES

Quarrel of

the English
Speaking
Peoples

Olympic revival

The cover illustration for the April edition of Scribner's Magazine
celebrated the revival of the Olympic Games, being held in Athens,
Greece. There were 43 events, in nine different sports.

disagreement between Italy and
Abyssinian emperor Menelik II
{1844-1913} had turned into an
armed conflict. The turning point
was the Battle of Adwa on
March 1, 1896, at which 80,000
Abyssinians defeated 20,000
Italian soldiers.

- THE NUMBER OF
ITALIANS KILLED
AT ADWA

ALTHOUGH THE TEN YEARS’
WAR HAD BEEN UNSUCCESSFUL
(see 1868], many Cubans were
unwilling to accept continued
control by Spain. Leading the
renewed cries for independence
was the Cuban Revolutionary
Party. It declared a republic in
eastern Cuba and began a guerilla
war, known as the Cuban War of
Independence. Soldiers managed
to reach Havana by the following =
year, although they were driven
back. The US would end up
getting involved when the
battleship Maine was blown up
in the Havana harbor (see 1898).
Trouble was brewing between
Greece and the Ottoman Empire
over the situation in Crete. There
had been a brutal suppression of
a Christian uprising on the island
the year before, and Greece was
determined to annex the territory.
However, the Thirty Days’ War
did not have the outcome Greece
desired. When an armistice was
agreed in August, it was forced to
pay an indemnity and it lost part
of the territory of Thessaly. The
Turks withdrew their troops from
Crete and the island was made an
international protectorate.

COAL (MILLIONS OF TONS)

1865 1897

Acartoon entitled “The concert of nations,” in an 1897 edition of Le Petit
Journal, satirizes the Thirty Days’ War, also known as the Greco-Turkish War.

JOSE MARTI (1853-95)

Awriter, philosopher,
journalist, and political
theorist, José Marti became
a key figure in the Cuban
revolutionary struggle. He

is considered a national
hero for his planning and
leadership during the Cuban
War of Independence. He
died on the battlefield at Dos
Rios, in the east of the island.

Meanwhile, Britain was

undergoing a remarkable boom

in coal mining, The level of coal
production had doubled since

the 1860s. The mining industry
was also a major employer—

in 1897 the number of miners in
Britain was around 695,200, rising
from about 216,200 in 1851.

Coal mining in Britain

By 1897, Britain was the world
leader in coal production. Its output
of 200 million tons put it ahead

of the US and Germany, who

were also large coal producers.

WITH THE DESTRUCTION OF THE
USS Maine—blown up while
docked in Havana’s harbor—
the US made the decision to go
to war against Spain. Cuba’s
struggle for independence had
already attracted much support in
the US. The government blamed
the Maine incident—in which 260
crew members were killed—on
Spain. Although Cuba and Spain
had agreed an armistice on
April 9, the US began the
Spanish-American War only

a few weeks later, on April 25.
Battles were fought in two
theaters: the Atlantic and the
Pacific. US Navy ships sailed into
Manila Bay, in the Spanish
Philippines, while another fleet
made incursions into the southern
harbor of Cuba, Santiago, where
troops then disembarked. By

July 25, Spain had capitulated. It
would pay a steep price for what
the US Secretary of State John
Hay (1838-1905) called “a
splendid little war” in a letter to
his friend and future US president
Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919),
who had led the First Volunteer
Cavalry (known as the “Rough
Riders”). Under the terms of the
Treaty of Paris of December 10,
Spain had to give up its remaining
colonies, allowing Cuba its
independence and ceding Puerto
Rico, Guam, and the Philippines
to the US. However, the US
continued to occupy Cuba, and the
following year tried to exclude
Cubans from governing, and
disbanded the army. Around the
same time the US also managed
to annex the islands of Hawaii.

Four soldiers raise their rifles over the brush of San Juan Hill, Cuba,
as they fight from trenches during the Spanish-American war.

Hawaii annexed

In a contemporary illustration,
Hawaiians in Honolulu receive
news of their annexation by the US.
The US would also take control of
Guam and the Philippines.

Meanwhile, in Egypt, Britain and
France became embroiled in the
Fashoda Incident, which involved
territorial disputes over their
respective attempts at expansion
in Africa. The British wanted to
build a railroad linking Egypt
and Uganda while France wanted
to continue its eastward drive into
the Sudan. Although their troops
met in Fashoda on September 18,
the situation did not escalate into
war, as all sides wanted to avoid
battle. Instead they decided that
British, French, and Egyptian flags
should fly over the fort that the
French had occupied. Eventually,
they agreed that their boundaries
would be marked by where the
Nile and Congo rivers divided.

Cyclists of the Lancashire Fusiliers
took part in the South African War.

HOSTILITIES BETWEEN THE
BOERS AND BRITISH were once
again heading toward conflict.
They had already clashed in the
First Boer War (see 1880). This
time Boers were demanding that
British troops protecting mining
interests should withdraw from
the Transvaal, but this request
was ignored. So the South African
Republic and the Orange Free
State declared war on Britain in
October. The South African War
would last less than three years
but, for the British, it would
become the largest since the
Napoleonic Wars, as its forces
reached some 500,000 men.
The war was fought across a
hostile terrain, which the
Boers—whose
troops numbered
less than
90,000—could
use to their
advantage. The
war became
infamous
because of

the treatment
of Boer
civilians, who
saw their

farms burned
and women and
children put
into camps
where up to
25,000 died.

War medal

The Queen's South Africa Medal,
awarded to military personnel who
served in the war, is engraved with
a Jubilee bust of Queen Victoria.

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WE oO CM oh Bog or
War pric eo Pe
a erst eo

THE GROWING PRESENCE OF
WESTERNERS—especially
Christian missionaries—in China
was starting to cause public

the Boxer Rebellion, which was a
peasant uprising that aimed to
eject all foreigners from China.
The group behind the attacks had
earlier founded a secret society
known as the “Righteous and
Harmonious Fists,” hence the
sobriquet “Boxer.” Members of
the group were also found among
the Qing court, and so the
movement's violent attacks on
foreigners and Chinese converts
to Christianity were
officially sanctioned.
An international
relief force of
2,100 troops
from Britain,
France, Italy,
Germany,
Russia, Japan,
and the US was
eventually sent to
the port of Tianjin
in June 1900, but
the Boxers

This illustration shows the storming of Beijing by the international force that
arrived to fight the anti-Western attacks during the Boxer uprising.

: continued to burn down churches
: and kill Christians. After the

international troops seized

: several forts, the empress
anger. This eventually erupted into =
: ordered all foreigners to be killed,
: and many foreign ministers were
: murdered. After the arrival of

| reinforcements, the international

dowager Tz’u Hsi (1835-1908)

force made its way to Beijing,
which it captured. The empress

: dowager fled, and a truce was

: negotiated with the imperial

: princes in September 1901. This
| put an end to the violence and

made. While these events were
taking place, the Russians took

» the opportunity to occupy
i southern Manchuria, which
: bordered southern Russia.

In Africa, mining began in

» Katanga, a southern region of the
: present-day Democratic Republic
| of the Congo. The discovery of rich |
: Gold Coast region continued

| throughout the following decade
: as Africans continued to resist

: British rule.

copper deposits—as well as
other minerals, including zinc,

| cobalt, and tin—led to the rapid

j establishment by Europeans of

: mining infrastructure, such as

: railroad lines, and towns began to

spring up in this
region. As mining
companies
proliferated,
Katanga was
soon one of the
most highly

Going underground

A Metro sign built into a lamp-
post in Paris, France. The first
underground train line was opened
in Paris in 1900.

| Growing nation

: Thanks to decades of immigration,
| the population of the US had

| soared, reaching more than

75 million by 1900.

: of the Congo, but the many

: Africans employed performed
: the dirty and dangerous work
: in the mines for very little pay.

: British troops faced a rebellion
» by the Asante, which took eight

| decades of immigration had

- caused the country’s population
» to nearly double. There were

: that number had reached more
: than 75 million. Much of this

: growth had been in urban
industrialized areas
i population were living in cities
| rather than settling in rural

+ communities.

Prince Saud Ibn Abdul-Aziz, the first
monarch of the madern Saudi state.

Queen Victoria's funeral procession
makes its way through London.

THE MANY COLONIES THAT HAD
BEEN FOUNDED IN AUSTRALIA—
Victoria, New South Wales,
Queensland, South Australia,
Western Australia, and
Tasmania—ushered in a new era
on January 1, after the drafting

THE SOUTH AFRICAN, OR ANGLO-
BOER, WAR between Boer settlers
and the British ended on May 31.
The end of the war was hastened
when the British adopted a
“scorched earth” policy, which
involved destroying crops and

MILLIONS

20 and approval of the constitution livestock to limit Boer supplies.
10 and official establishment of the The dispossessed Boer women
0 Commonwealth of Australia. and children were rounded up into
1800 1850 1900 A few weeks later, Great Britain concentration camps. Under the

and its colonies mourned the loss
of Queen Victoria, who died on
January 22. She had ruled the
nation and empire for 63 years,
making her reign the longest by

a British monarch. Her son,
Edward VII (1841-1910), took the
throne, and the largely peaceful—
though very socially stratified—
period under his rule was known
as the Edwardian era.

Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boers
were forced to recognize British
sovereignty in South Africa, ending
the independence of the Orange
Free State and the South African
Republic. The whole territory was
now under British control.
Meanwhile, Ibn Saud (c. 1880-
1953) recaptured the Saud
dynasty’s formal capital of Riyadh,
after decades of civil war (see
1843). In 1901, Saud, who was
living in Kuwait, set out to take
back the territory he had been
forced to leave by the rival
Rashids. He and his men reached
Riyadh in January 1902 and crept
into town, waiting to ambush the
Rashidi governor the following
morning. Soon Saud had taken
the city and the territory, with the
help of a growing number of
supporters. This became the
kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932,
and it remains under the Saud
family’s rule to the present day.
On the Caribbean island of
Martinique, the violent eruption of
Mount Pelée killed around 30,000
people and destroyed the port of
Saint-Pierre on May 8. The
volcano had previously erupted in
1792 and 1851, but on nowhere
near the scale of the 1902 eruption.

Meanwhile, in West Africa,

months to subdue. Unrest in the

Across the Atlantic, in the US,

areas—some 40 percent of the

Commonwealth stamp
This stamp showing Queen Victoria
is from Australia, which brought its
colonies into a federation the same
year the monarch died.

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ee wv
: SGehor

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roo oS eo ot ae NN of ‘oo SS Ny oy os ‘ox
oye CHE) ee
sF ep st Sys
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ad acl A

(1867-1912) AND ORVILLE (1871-
1948) WRIGHT, became obsessed
with the growing science of
aviation and were determined to
fly. They pumped the profits from
their bicycle shop into their
experiments and built a biplane.
In the town of Kitty Hawk, on the
coast of North Carolina, they

the morning of December 17,
their work paid off when Orville

first successful flight in an
airplane that the pilot had

to earlier attempts with gliders).
He traveled 197 ft (60 m] in 12
seconds. Later that day Wilbur
flew 850 ft (259 m) in 59 seconds.
Farther south, in Panama, the
US had resurrected the idea of
building a canal between the
Atlantic and Pacific, the first
attempt at which had failed more

SECONDS

OF THE
WRIGHT
BROTHERS’
FIRST FLIGHT

The original 1903 airplane designed by Wilbur and Orville Wright makes
its first flight on December 17, 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

TWO BROTHERS IN THE US, WILBUR:

began to conduct experiments. On =
made what is considered tobe the ;

complete control over {as opposed =

THE DURATION |

: its jurisdiction until 1979, and
: work on the canal began.

: than a decade before (see 1889).
: The US wanted to purchase the
: assets of the former French

holding company and begin

? construction, but talks with the

Colombian government (which

| declared its independence. By

agreed on the terms of the

: Panama Canal Zone, in which the

US would be permitted to exercise

In France, cyclist Henri

» Desgrange (1865-1940) organized
» arace that would become one of
| the most prestigious in the world:

the Tour de France. Its roots,

Lion in the path
The United States
publication Judge
depicts the Panama
Canal as the “lion in
the path” in this
political cartoon.

however, were
intertwined with
the infamous.
Dreyfus Affair.
This was a scandal
involving Alfred
Dreyfus (1859-
1935), a French
officer who was
accused of treason.
Evidence came to
light that cleared
Dreyfus, but it was
suppressed,
Dreyfus was
Jewish, and France
became divided over the issue

of anti-Semitism. During the
scandal, the sports newspaper
Le Vélo supported Dreyfus. Angry
advertisers decided to set up a
rival periodical, LAuto-Vélo, later
called L’Auto. Cycling promoter
Desgrange was hired as editor.
However, LAuto’s sales were
initially poor, and soa race

was organized to promote it.
Desgrange devised a month-long
cycling contest (though it was
later shortened] which followed
the route of Paris—Lyon-
Marseille-Toulouse-Bordeaux-
Nantes-Paris. On July 1, 60
competitors set off. The event's
first winner was Maurice Garin.

JAPAN AND RUSSIA HAD BEEN
COMPETING to expand their
influence in Manchuria and Korea.
Russia had built its Trans-Siberian
railroad (see 1891), which now had
a line running into Manchuria,
annexed during the Boxer crisis in

Japan had begun to build up its
army and navy, and approached
Russia in 1903 to suggest they
recognize each other's mutual
interests in these regions. The
talks broke down on February 6,
1904, and three days later Japan

two of them and triggering the
Russo-Japanese War. Japan
then sent troops into Manchuria
and Korea, forcing the Russians
farther north over the course of

Russo-Japanese War

This map shows the course of the
conflict in which a victorious Japan
drove Russia out of Manchuria,
forcing Russia to give up its
expansionist policy in East Asia.

Port Arthur
Aug 1904-
Jan 1905

- SJ
Mie pe

an
Tsushima

wounded were transported on skis during the Russo-Japanese war.

attacked Russian warships, sinking :
: where the Khoikhoi people had

: Hereroin 1904. Many Africans
were rounded up and put into

i concentration camps, where

: the work conditions were so dire

£ that more than half of the prisoners
: died. By the time Germany had

i suppressed the rebellion, in 1908,
: about 80 percent of the Herero

: peoples had been killed, either in

: the year. A peace deal was

: brokered by US President

| Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919),

: signed that forced Russia to leave
» Manchuria, cede part of the island
- of Sakhalin to Japan, and recognize
China (see 1900). During this time,
: as grant fishing rights off the coast
: of Siberia. Japan's victory against

: Russia marked its emergence as

: a major world power.

Japan's interests in Korea, as well

In Africa, German troops were

i facing rebellions in their colonies.
: Revolts broke out in German

South West Africa (Namibia),

the course of the
conflict or while
interned in the
camps.

i to Russia 1897,
to Japan 1905
area leased
to Japan 1895

—» Japanese advances
1904-05

route of Russian
Baltic fleet

% Japanese victory,
with date

1750-1913

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

After thousands of years of slow transportation using ships, horses, or even

traveling on foot, the development of the automobile revolutionized the way
the world thought about distance and speed. Instead of spending days ona
trip, people and goods could move hundreds of miles in a matter of hours.

Although the late 19th century witnessed many
significant technological innovations in the

realm of transportation, such as the development
of steamships, none would come close to having
the widespread and immediate impact of the
development and mass production of the car.
Although automobile ownership was at first only
the preserve of the wealthy, the US inventor Henry
Ford was able to increase output and push down

Rolling off the assembly line

Workers on the assembly line at the Ford Motor Company
assemble a Model T. Ford's innovative factories allowed
the company to assemble millions of cars very quickly.

prices, so that by the 1920s many eager
consumers could buy a car. This had a profound
effect on the landscape as highways sprang up,
and by the 1950s, suburbs in the US were planned
around the idea that residents would be driving.

THE AGE OF THE AUTOMOBILE

Despite the subsequent problems—especially
pollution and traffic jams—the love affair with

the car has never ceased. Indeed, as people in
developing countries become richer, they too want
to be car owners. Now the challenge is to find
more fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly
ways to power cars, and more manufacturers are
experimenting with other forms, such as hybrids
(see panel, right]. However, in spite of these
issues, the automobile continues to be an integral
part of transportation networks all over the world.

Ford Model T

Automobile engineers have long been trying

to find ways to run cars on other fuels than
gasoline, including solar power and battery power.
Hybrid cars combine a fuel engine with a battery
engine, giving the driver better fuel consumption
and producing less pollution.

44 ANY CUSTOMER CAN HAVE A CAR PAINTED
ANY COLOR THAT HE WANTS SO LONG AS

IT’S BLACK. 99

Henry Ford, US industrialist, My Life and Work, 1922

15th century
Leonardo da Vinci's car
The Renaissance Italian
designs the world’s first
self-propelled wagon.

Reconstructed
da Vinci car

1769-70

The first true automobile

The French engineer Nicolas Cugnot
builds a steam-powered vehicle that
can reach speeds of up to 2mph (3 kph).

Cugnot’s
Faradier

Trevithick’s road locomotive

1801

The steam-powered car
Richard Trevithick, a British
inventor, creates a smaller,
lighter version of the steam
engine and calls it the
“road locomotive.”

1860

The coal-gas engine
Belgian Jean-Joseph
Etienne Lenoir invents
a two-stroke internal-
combustion engine
fired by coal gas.

Lenoir gas engine

1867-77

The four-stroke

Otto engine

The German inventor
Nikolaus August Otto
patents his four-
stroke internal-
combusion engine.

Otto
engine

Benz three-

1885
wheeler

Internal combustion
improves

The Germans Karl
Benz and Gottlieb
Daimler separately
develop practical cars
with internal-
combustion engines.

THE STORY OF THE CAR

brass-framed
1913 Ford Model T windscreen with
Henry Ford's design classic has many _— two panels
of the features found in today's cars. a

As well as being relatively cheap, it
was sufficiently robust and reliable
to withstand the rough roads of the

US at the time.

brass wing
— mirror

brass struts
support windshield

open-bodied model
had no doors

brass horn with
rubber squeeze bulb

kerosene-powered
acetylene-powered sidelight
headlight
solid rubber 1g es,
tire _

shock absorber__~

starting handle _

wooden wheel

1930s
1885-86 1903-30 Volkswagen's

The four-wheeled car The Ford Model T “compact car”
Gottlieb Daimler The US car manufacturer Henry Developed in
makes improvements Ford begins production of the Germany, the
to the engine and adds mass-market Model T. By 1927, “people's car”
a fourth wheel to the some 15 million cars have been marks the rise
body, producing the produced, thanks to Ford's of the affordable,
first modern car. moving assembly lines. fuel-efficient car. Volkswagen Beetle
1889-90 1890s-early 1900s 1940s-50s 1997-present
Front-mounted engines Early electric cars The rise of the luxury car Hybrid cars
René Panhard and Emile Not all cars are Brands such as Rolls Car makers look for cleaner,
Levassor of France are developed with gasoline f Smee Ew Royce and Cadillac cheaper ways to fuel cars.
the first to build entire engines. Some 28 » —— . become bywords for F
cars for sale and to put percent were using J a", the most luxurious Toyota Prius
the engine at the front. electricity by 1900. q” ihe 9) { cars for sale.
A ries £
Rolls Royce Silver Dawn

44 THE ETERNAL
MYSTERY OF THE
WORLD IS ITS

COMPREHENSIBILITY. 7 i i

Albert Einstein, in the Franklin Institute Journal, March 1936

German-born Albert Einstein became one of the world’s most ola
scientists after the development of his Special Theory of Relativity.

IN RUSSIA, DISCONTENT WITHTHE = equation E=mc?. In 1921 he would : province of Bengal, joining

CZAR, NICHOLAS Il, had been : receive a Nobel Prize for his i East Bengal and Assam, with a
growing, and there were calls for a : scientific contributions.

constitutional monarchy. This was In India, the British viceroy Lord : attacked as an attempt to stifle
compounded by the humiliating » Curzon (1859-1925) was facing : the nationalist movement,
defeat in the Russo-Japanese _ increased nationalist opposition. which had strong support

War (see 1904). Protests spread = He decided to partition the : throughout Bengal.

around the country. In February,
Nicholas promised to set up an
elected assembly, but this did
nothing to stop the unrest. Finally,
the military joined in, and June
saw a mutiny by the crew of the
battleship Potemkin. By October,
Nicholas promised a constitution
and an elected legislature, but this ©
was insufficient for the protesters, :
who organized themselves into
soviets (revolutionary councils).
One of the leaders, Leon Trotsky
(1879-1940), was jailed. Although
the protests continued, anti-
revolutionary forces finally
suppressed what became known

as the Russian Revolution of

1905. The following year, Nicholas
implemented reforms, the
Fundamental Laws, which
included the creation of an

elected legislature, or Duma.

In Switzerland, the German
physicist Albert Einstein
(1879-1955) had received his
doctorate and international
acclaim for his publications. The
most influential was known as
the Special Theory of Relativity,
which explained the relationship
between mass and energy in the

Film poster
The film Battleship Potemkin

1905 mutiny of the ship's crew.

: capital in Dhaka. This move was

7 BR

(1925), made by the Russian director i ™
Sergei Eisenstein, dramatized the | ea

Life for Romanian peasants was
harsh and many wanted land reform.

The ruins of the San Francisco City
Hall after the 1906 earthquake.

PEASANT UNREST THAT HAD BEEN
SPREADING throughout the
countryside in Romania
culminated in a revolt in 1907.
This was fueled by land issues,
as the peasants were forced into
exploitative contracts, meaning
many farmers had to live in
poverty. As the rioting spread
through villages, up to 10,000
people were killed before it was
suppressed by the military.

In Southeast Asia, Cambodia
had clawed back some of its
western provinces from Thailand
due to French pressure. By 1863,
France had established a strong
presence in Cambodia, eventually
restricting the Cambodian king's
powers and installing a governor.
This paved the way for colonization
by the French, but angered
Cambodian nationalists. The
resistance was quelled by 1907.

SAN FRANSISCO EARTHQUAKE

BUILDINGS
DESTROYED

SITUATED ON ONE OF THE WORLD'S
MOST ACTIVE FAULT LINES—the
San Andreas, which runs for

810 miles (1,300km)—the city of
San Francisco is susceptible to
earthquakes. By 1906, people in
the growing city were used to the
earth moving—there had been
recorded quakes in 1836, 1865,
1868, and 1892—but nothing had
been done to make the city of
400,000 people better prepared.
On April 18, San Francisco bore
the brunt of what was later
estimated to be a 7.8 magnitude
earthquake, while people as far
afield as Los Angeles and Nevada
also felt shaking. The quake
lasted less than a minute, but it
wreaked damage that would take
years to repair, as buildings
collapsed and many caught fire
throughout the city.

In India, the All India Muslim
League was established—initially
with the support of the British
government—with the aim of
protecting the rights of Muslims.
Some 3,000 delegates attended its
first meeting on December 30. By
1913 it had joined the growing call
for self-rule in India.

The French in Thailand

A 19th-century French gunboat,
armed with a Hotchkiss Cannon,
patrols the waters of the Chao
Phraya River in Bangkok, Thailand.

An engraving in the Italian newspaper La Domenica del Corriere, from February 1908, depicts the assassination of

Charles |, king of Portugal. He was murdered during a period of increased calls for a republican government.

PORTUGAL WAS CONVULSED BY
REVOLUTION following the
assassination of its king, Charles I
(1863-1908), in February. Already
a highly unpopular monarch, he
made matters worse by deciding
to appoint his own prime minister
—bypassing parliament in the

process. Events took a violent turn =
: estimated 20-30 million in 1884
= to around 8.5 million by 1911.

on February 1 when Charles and
his eldest son, Luis Filipe, were
shot while they were traveling in a
carriage in Lisbon. Charles was
succeeded by his son, Manuel Il
(1889-1932), who managed to
survive on the throne for just a
couple of years before being
overthrown (see 1910).

In Africa, the Congo Free State
(see 1884] was abolished and
Belgium's government
established the Belgian Congo.
The Free State had been run bya
private company with Belgian
King Leopold II (1835-1909)
ruling over it personally. Africans

working in the Free State provided :

the company with valuable
rubber and ivory. However,
reports of the appalling labor
conditions led to an international

KEY

Border of Austria-Hungary

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

In 1908, Austria-Hungary was eager
to assert its control over the Balkan
states of Bosnia and Herzegovina in
order to prevent the Ottoman Empire
from taking the territory.

: outcry and calls for reforms.

: Belgium's answer to these

| demands was to make the

> rule it from Brussels, ensuring

| the continued supply of Congolese
: products. But the brutal

: conditions persisted, and the

population dropped from an

Meanwhile, Austria-Hungary

» also reconfigured its colonial

i relationships—in its case with

| Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it

: had already occupied (see 1878).
: It had become worried about the
: implications of the Young Turk

? Revolution underway in the

: concerned that its power in the

* Balkans might be undermined

: because, technically, Bosnia-

: Herzegovina was still under

GERMAN
EMPIRE

Muniche

Ottoman suzerainty and one of the
Young Turks’ aims was to reclaim
the territory. After securing
Russia’s support, Austria-
Hungary annexed Bosnia-
Herzegovina. This move
immediately angered nearby
Serbia, which called for a section
of Bosnia—Herzegovina that would
give it access to the Adriatic Sea.
Russia was soon caught in the
middle of what would later be
known as the Bosnian Crisis.

At first it sought to secure some
concessions for Serbia, but it later
bowed to the demands of
Austria-Hungary and its allies.
During this period, Bulgaria’s
Prince Ferdinand (see 1887)—
whose role as leader was not yet
recognized by Russia and many
other European countries—took
advantage of the crisis to proclaim
Bulgarian independence from
the faltering Ottoman empire.

RUSSIAN
EMPIRE

ROMANIA
Bucharest @

Sarajevo

2 SERBIA

Mostar

BULGARIA

BODY WILL TURN TO DUST,
BUT THE TURKISH REPUBLIC
WILL STAND FOREVER. 99

Mustafa Kemel Ataturk, first president of Turkey, 1926

Sultan Mehmed V

The 35th Ottoman sultan, Mehmed V
(1844-1918), was effectively a puppet
for the Young Turks’ Committee of
Union and Progress.

FOLLOWING THE SUCCESSFUL
REBELLION BY THE YOUNG TURKS
the previous year, in 1909 the
Committee of Union and
Progress—the group's political
wing—had taken control of the
levers of power within the
Ottoman Empire—something
they would maintain for the next
couple of years, despite internal
disputes. The Young Turks had
wanted to force the sultan to
restore the constitution, and
once this was accomplished Abdul
Hamid Il (r. 1876-1909) ruled as a
constitutional monarch, although
only briefly—he was deposed on
April 27. They then proceeded to
make his brother, Mehmed V
(r. 1909-1918}, the new sultan.
Many of the Young Turks had
been students and members of
the Ottoman intelligentsia and
they organized themselves while
living in Europe and British-

: controlled Egypt. Although they

were initially seen as “liberal,”

» many of their policies were

considered repressive, especially
elsewhere in the empire. Much of

: the anger lay in the Young Turks’

: nationalism, which meant they

: wanted to push a Turkish identity
: at the expense of the many large

» implement some progressive

reforms, such as secularizing

: the legal system and improving
: education, including allowing
= women better access to

schooling. They also wanted

influence throughout the

i empire in areas such as
: Bosnia—Herzegovina (see 1908).

MUSTAFA KEMEL
ATATURK (1881-1938)

Having been involved with
the Young Turk Revolution
of 1908, Mustafa Ataturk
led the Turkish national
movement in the Turkish
War of Independence. When
the Republic of Turkey was
established in 1923 he
became its first president.

Emiliano Zapata was one of the leaders involved in the fight to oust Porfirio Diaz from office and put in place a
revolutionary government led by Franscisco Madero. Zapata was instrumental in organizing guerrilla troops.

ACENTURY AFTER ITS FIRST
REVOLUTION (see 1810}, Mexico
was once again caught up in the
throes of political change. Liberal
reformers had begun to resent
Porfirio Diaz's political machine
(see 1876] and the Regeneration
movement was formed. Members
of the group were often jailed, and
the publication of their newspaper
was suppressed. In 1906, they
published a manifesto calling for
a one-term presidency and
reforms to land—the return of
land confisicated by the Diaz
regime to its rightful owners—and
education. Diaz eventually allowed
the development of an opposition,
and other groups emerged.
However, Diaz jailed one popular
presidential candidate, Francisco

Madero [1873-1913], on the eve of |

the 1910 election, reneging on his
promise for fair elections. Madero
escaped to Texas and began to
organize an uprising for
November 20, the anniversary of
the previous Mexican revolution.
It was nota large rebellion, but
involved small towns being
attacked by pockets of guerrilla
groups, which the army was able
to suppress. However, by the
following year, the revolutionary
militias—many of them peasant
farmers—led by Francisco
“Pancho” Villa (1877-1932] and
Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919),
stepped up their attacks against
the army. Diaz surrendered his
office under the Treaty of Ciudad
Juarez, and by November

1911 Madero was installed as
president. However, he now came

in for attacks from the right and

» the left as groups splintered from
| the revolutionary movement. This
: political fighting spilled over

: continuing for decades.

In East Asia, China invaded

: Tibet once again, trying to assert
: its claim to rule the territory.
: This invasion came after British

attempts to occupy Lhasa in

: 1904, which were fueled by fears

: that Tibet could fall under the

: influence of Russia. This was

: followed bya 1907 treaty between
: China and Britain that recognized
: China's sovereignty over Tibet.

| Tibet did not consider it valid,

: and the Tibetans were able to

: use the revolution that began

| in China the following year (see

: 1911) as an opportunity to drive

out the Chinese.

For nearby Korea,
the consequences of the
Russo-Japanese war
(see 1904) had severe
ramifications. It had
allowed Japan to use
the peninsula for military
operations and in the
resulting Treaty of
Portsmouth, in 1905,
Korea was made a
Japanese protectorate,
and by 1910 had been
officially annexed.

Casa Mila

Designed by the Catalan
architect Antoni Gaudi
(1852-1956), Barcelona's
iconic Casa Mila was
constructed between
1905 and 1910.

Imperial officials flee from Tientsin during the Chinese Revolution, which
precipitated the end of the Qing dynasty, rulers of China since the 1600s.

THE NUMBER
OF DIAMONDS
IN GEORGE V’S
CROWN

EVENTS IN CHINA TOOKA
DRAMATIC TURN AS THE QING
DYNASTY—which had been in
power for more than 260 years—
faced a rebellion. Despite its
longevity, many Chinese always
considered the ruling Manchus
as foreigners. They were also
resentful at the growing number
of Westerners, who had been
permitted to move inland from the
port cities. The 20th century had
been full of unrest for China (see
1900) and this continued to grow
as revolutionary groups began
to form around the country. In
October, a revolutionary plot was
uncovered and the members

arrested and executed. Soldiers in :

Wuchang who knew of the plot
decided to push forward with a
revolt; they led a mutiny on
October 10, which soon spread
throughout the country, and
the rebels declared Chinaa
republic. They were met with
little resistance because many
officials accepted that the

Sun Yat-sen

The cover of the magazine Je sais
tout shows a picture of Sun Yat-sen,
president of the Chinese Republic.

Manchus’ days were numbered.

: Inthe US, exiled revolutionary

: had heard about the events in

: China and returned home. He was
: elected provisional president of

: the country, although prime

> minister Yuan Shikai (1859-1916)
| had been given full power by the

| imperial court. The two struck a

deal, although Yuan would try to

: make himself emperor in 1915;
: his efforts ended in failure three
= months before he died in 1916.

Meanwhile, in India, the British
were trying to display their

: durbar, or assembly, in Delhi.

| This was to mark the visit of
King George V and Queen

: Mary. During the visit, the king

| announced that the colonial

: capital would be moved from

: Calcutta to Delhi. Around the

: same time, the unpopular policy

of partition in Bengal was ended
(see 1905), and the territory was

i reunited. Over the following years,

sais towt

WORLD PRICE OF RUBBER ($/TON)

1840

1870

1911

Rubber boom

Technological innovations, especially
the tires used on the increasingly
popular motorcar, fueled a rise in
the use—and price—of rubber.

a new part of Delhi was built,
with a monumental Viceroy’s
house and government buildings
designed by the leading British
architect Edwin Lutyens
(1869-1944). However, such
displays did little to quell the
growing nationalist sentiment.

In Europe, Marie Curie
(1867-1934), a Polish-born
French scientist, won her
second Nobel Prize, this time
in chemistry for her work on
radioactivity. She and her
husband, Pierre (1859-1906),
had been the recipients of the
1903 Nobel Prize for Physics.

In 1911, the world price of
rubber was beginning to soar,
fueled by its use in new
technologies, especially in the
production of automobile tires.
Rubber came from the sap of
trees that grew in the forests
of Brazil, Southeast Asia, and
West Africa.

An illustration of General Lyautey,
the French governor of Morocco.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE FACED
FURTHER UPHEAVAL with the
First Balkan War. The conflict
ended with the Turks losing
Albania, which became
independent, and Macedonia,
which was to be shared among
the Balkan allies (see 1913).

In March 1912, Morocco was
established as a French
protectorate under the Treaty
of Fez. The year before the new
sultan Abd al-Hafiz (c.1875-1937),
besieged in his palace, had asked
the French to help him suppress
internal dissent.

] Partial Suffrage &

WOMEN’S RIGHT TO VOTE

A photograph captures the moment when suffragist campaigner Emily Davison
is trampled by George V's horse at Epsom on Derby Day.

THE TREATY OF LONDON OF 1913
OFFICIALLY SIGNALED THE END
of the First Balkan War. However,
the Balkan League—Serbia,
Bulgaria, Montenegro, and
Greece—that had challenged
the Ottoman Empire soon

began to disintegrate. Bulgaria
attacked Serbia in June because
of a disagreement over the
division of Macedonia, although
the fighting ended a couple of
months later with a Serbian—
Greek alliance. Greece and
Serbia would receive most

of Macedonia with Bulgaria

only receiving a small part.
This internal division opened
a vacuum for the Turks. The
Young Turk government in
charge of the Ottoman Empire
was not satisfied with the
outcome of the Treaty of
London and it mounted
another invasion, this time
recapturing Adrianople
(modern Edirne] on July 20.
However, by this point it
had lost almost all of its
Balkan territory.

In Britain, the suffragist
battle to give women the
right to vote [see panel,
left] took a violent turn
as campaigner Emily
Davison (1872-1913]
threw herself in front of
King George V's horse
during the Epsom Derby in June.
The horse, Anmer, struck
Davison’s chest and she was
knocked down and remained
unconscious for four days, until
she died of her injuries on June 8.
It remains unclear if her intention
was to commit suicide. A public
funeral was held for her in
London on 14 June.

By 1913, Henry Ford (1863-
1947), the head of the US Ford
Motor Company, which he set up
in 1903, had sold nearly 250,000

an OM ey

: Coup d’etat

An illustration from Le Petit Journal
: depicts the murder of Nazim Pasha,
: Ottoman minister of war, during the
: First Balkan War.

moving assembly lines that he
had installed in his Michigan
factory. This improvement meant
: that a completed chassis (car
© body) could be made in just over
: an hour and a half, while his
competitors took hours longer.

PRESIDENTIAL <MUNICIPAL “PARTIAL
STATE AND COUNTY SUFFRAGE

‘44 HISTORY IS

By the early 20th century, the fight for women to be given the vote
had gained momentum all over the world. Australia had followed
New Zealand (see 1893] by giving women suffrage in 1902. In
northern Europe, Finland had given women the right to vote in
1906, while Norway followed in 1913. While, women suffragists in
Britain would have to wait until after World War I, countries such
as Russia and the US [see above—states with full suffrage are
gold) also began to peel back voting restrictions around this time.

Model T cars. Although other
companies were making cars,
they were far too expensive for
average consumers. Ford wanted
to make them more affordable so
he began production of the basic
Model T. He also developed new
and more efficient production
techniques through the use of

- MORE OR LESS
BUNK. IT’S
TRADITION. 99

Henry Ford, US industrialist,

in an interview in the Chicago

: Tribune, May 25, 1916

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TECHNOLOGY
AND

SUPERPOWERS
1914-2011

Technological progress brought the wonders of space flight and
the internet, but radical projects to transform society failed.
Despite two World Wars, the human population quadrupled,
creating new economic and environmental challenges.

Young German men cheer as they march down Pariser Platz in Berlin. Many
Germans reacted enthusiastically to being called up for war.

: EARLY IN THE YEAR, ATTENTION

: WAS FOCUSED ON CENTRAL

| the Panama Canal. This amazing
| feat of American engineering cost
: around $300 million to construct

: and claimed the lives of around

i 4,000 workers.

In April, the US intervened in

| Mexico's civil war by sending a

: force of Marines to occupy the

: port of Veracruz, which prevented
: President Victoriano Huerta from

: receiving arms shipments from

: Germany. The US held the port for

six months, contributing to

: Huerta’s fall from power in July.

Meanwhile, Europe began its

H descent into war. World War I

| was sparked by the assassination
i of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

: Hungarian throne, and his wife

: Sophie. They were shot on June 28
: during an official visit to Sarajevo

: in Austrian-ruled Bosnia. The fatal
| shots were fired by 19-year-old

: Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip.

: The Austrian government

: blamed Serbia for the

: Germany's full support by Kaiser

: Wilhelm Il [1859-1941], on July 23
: the Austrians sent an ultimatum

intended to be so humiliating that

: Serbia would reject them, giving
: the Austrians a pretext for military

Raising the Stars and Stripes
American soldiers raise the flag over
the Mexican port of Veracruz. The
occupation cost 17 American lives
and lasted for six months.

Belgium | 0.1

Serbia la] 0.4
Britain | 0.7
Austria ti] 11

Germany 3.8

COUNTRIES

0 2 4

8 10 12 14

TROOPS [IN MILLIONS]

action. Although the Serbians
were prepared to make
concessions, Austria-Hungary
declared war on July 28. In

its army in support of Serbia.
Within a week, all the major
European powers were at war.
Brushing aside last-minute
peace initiatives by Germany's
Kaiser Wilhelm and Russia’s Czar
Nicholas II (1868-1918), German
military chiefs insisted that
Germany declare war on Russia.
Since their military plans
demanded a swift victory in the
west as a prelude to defeating
Russia in the east, Germany also
declared war on France.
Germany did not want to fight the
British, but in order to invade
France they needed to send an
army through Belgium, whose
neutrality was guaranteed by
Britain. On August 4, after
German troops had crossed
the Belgian frontier, Britain
declared war on Germany.
Although many people privately

: Army sizes at the outbreak of war

Russia's army was huge, but it was

: poorly equipped and badly organized.
: Britain had a relatively small army,

: and depended on its navy for defense.
response, Russia began mobilizing =

regarded the onset of war

: with dismay, it was greeted

» by cheering crowds. The

: internationalist German Social

: Democrat Party rallied to the

war effort, convinced Germany
had to defend itself against

: Russian conquest. In France,

most previously antimilitarist
radicals and socialists adhered

» to the union sacrée (sacred
: union}, which called for a political

truce with prowar parties and
vetoed any strike action. In

: the UK, Ulster Protestant
: paramilitaries, who had been
: on the verge of an armed

rebellion against the British

: government's plans for Irish
» Home Rule, and their Catholic
' opponents, the Irish Volunteers,

volunteered en masse for the

» British Army.

British men line up outside the recruitment office in Southwark Town Hall, London.
Thousands of men from all sections of society volunteered for army service.

In continental Europe, millions
of men were called up and
dispatched by train to the
frontiers, while a much smaller
force of British regular soldiers
was sent to France as the British
Expeditionary Force (BEF). Lord

Kitchener (1850-1916), the British

secretary for war, launched a
drive to recruit volunteers. The
response was overwhelming,
with three-quarters of a million
British men enlisted by the end
of September. Most people
expected a short war with high
casualties, and at first this
expectation seemed justified.
German troops surged into
Belgium, adopting an official
policy of “Schrecklichkeit”
(frightfulness}. They committed
atrocities against the Belgian
population—in the worst incident
674 civilians were massacred at
Dinant—and laid waste the
historic city of Louvain, burning
its famous university library.
The BEF experienced its first
action at Mons. Unable to resist
the German onslaught, the British
and French were driven back
toward Paris. Meanwhile, the

NETHERLANDS

“* Aptwerp

4 LUXEMBOURG

——

Verdun

Paris®

FRANCE

KEY

~~» German advance
(Aug 2-Sept 5)

The Allies [and
allied states)

Germany
Neutral states

GERMANY

46 THE PLUNGE OF CIVILIZATION
INTO THIS ABYSS OF BLOOD
AND DARKNESS... IS TOO TRAGIC
FOR ANY WORDS. 99

Henry James, American author, August 4, 1914

THE TOTAL
NUMBER OF
BRITISH, FRENCH, |
AND GERMAN
CASUALTIES

AT THE FIRST
BATTLE OF YPRES

JOIN YOUR COUNTRY’S ARMY!
GOD SAVE THE KING

was forced to retreat, their
hopes of a swift victory in ruins.
On the Eastern Front the

Recruitment poster

The German war plan, devised in 1906 by then chief of staff

Count Alfred von Schlieffen, assumed that, if attacked on two fronts,
France would concentrate its forces along its eastern border. The
bulk of the German army was to advance through Belgium and
Luxembourg, encircling the French armies. The aim was to defeat
the French in six weeks, before the Russians could enter the fray.

| French launched their own

offensive along the eastern
French-German border, but they

: suffered heavy losses for no gain.

By the beginning of September

: the situation was desperate for

the British and French armies.
The Germans were also forced to
change their tactics, abandoning
their plan to advance to the west
of Paris, and instead marching to
the east of the city. French army
commander General Joseph
Joffre (1852-1931) launched a
counteroffensive at the Marne,
while troops from Paris—some of
whom were carried to the front in
buses and taxis—attacked the
German flank. The German army

Refugees flee Belgium

Roads in Belgium were lined with
refugees like these, carrying whatever
possessions they could, and fleeing
from the advancing German army.

Russians mobilized more quickly
than Germany had anticipated,
but as they advanced into East
Prussia the Russian First and
Second Armies were crushed at
the Battles of Tannenberg and
the Masurian Lakes. The
victorious German General Paul
von Hindenburg [1837-1934] and
his chief of staff General Erich
Ludendorff [1883-1918] became
national heroes.

On the Western Front, from
September through to November,
a series of battles were fought
northward into Flanders (see
pp.467-47). They culminated in
the encounters known collectively
as the First Battle of Ypres. With

neither side able to inflicta decisive =

blow, the armies dug trenches
along a line that was to remain
broadly unchanged for three years.
Meanwhile, the war was
widening into a global conflict.
Ottoman Turkey joined in on the
side of Germany, declaring a jihad
(Muslim holy war] against the

British War Secretary Lord
Kitchener's face adorned
recruitment posters that called

: for volunteers to join up and fight.

Iraq and seized Basra, while
Japan joined the Allies and fought

concession in China. In Africa,

: British troops invaded German
» East Africa and South African
forces attacked German

Southwest Africa—they also put
down a revolt by the Boers, who

: had sided with the Germans.

At Christmas, widespread
fraternization between opposing
troops along the Western Front

: appalled generals, who feared

their men would lose the will to
fight, but the war continued. By
the end of the year around half a
million French and German troops
were dead, anda third of the

» British men who had arrived in
France in August had been killed.

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341

Asubmarine embarks on a mission in the Atlantic. German U-boats terrorized
the seas, attacking both naval and merchant shipping at will.

AT THE START OF 1915, THE GREAT :
POWERS OF EUROPE remained
locked in a war for which they

had been unprepared. The fighting
had exhausted munition supplies,
so to continue the war the

Chemical warfare

Before the advent of the gas mask,
troops, such as these French
soldiers, protected themselves from
agas attack in any way they could.

combatants had to vastly expand
their armaments industries.
Governments became aware

that the war would be won, or
lost, as much in the factories

as on the front line. Britain set

up anew Ministry of Munitions,
and in Russia the czarist
government set up a special

War Industries Committee. The
French, meanwhile, had to recall
conscripts from the trenches to
work in factories, their production
problems accentuated by the

On the Western Front, the
stalemate continued along
a double line of trenches that
stretched from the Channel to

the Swiss border. Generals

assumed that sufficient numbers
of men and shells
hurled against
these defenses
would achieve a
breakthrough, but
they were wrong.
The British
attempted their
first offensive of
the trench war at
Neuve Chapelle in
March, with Indian
troops leading
the assault and
the Canadian
Expeditionary Force
fighting for the
first time. They
gained a mere 1.2 miles (2km]) of

: ground for 11,000 casualties. The
: Germans hada similar experience =

attacking at Ypres in April, and

A shortage of manpower meant
that women were recruited into
a range of jobs traditionally
reserved for men. By 1918,
around a third of the 1.7 million
workers in French munitions
factories were women, and
they constituted over half of
the total German industrial
workforce. Women also
replaced men as agricultural
laborers, for example in the

the French suffered in repeated

| offensives throughout the year.
Mass offensives led only to mass
casualties—over 300,000 British

: and French Losses in the autumn

| Champagne-Loos offensive.

: On the Eastern Front, the

: fighting was far more
mobile, and the Russians

: were forced to retreat from

: Poland and Lithuania.

: Inan attempt to
break the deadlock on

: the Western Front, the Germans

: used poison gas for the first

: the Allied trenches. The first

: victims were French colonial

: days later by soldiers of the First

: Allied soldiers quickly discovered

/ means of protection, and the

Allies also adopted gas asa

! weapon against the Germans.

FRENCH CARVED CLUB

BRITISH SPIKED CLUB

GERMAN METAL ROD

On April 26, Italy signed the
Treaty of London, committing
it to enter the war on the side of
Britain and France. Before the
war, Italy had been an ally of
Germany and Austria-Hungary,
so this was a diplomatic coup
for the Western Allies. |taly duly
declared war on Austria on
May 23, and the fighting on the
Italo-Austrian Front quickly
descended into the same static
stalemate as on the Western Front.

While stalemate persisted on
the ground, war in the air
developed on asubstantial
scale. Slow-moving aircraft flew
over enemy trenches taking
reconnaissance photographs and
engaged in small-scale bombing
missions, while nimbler fighter
aircraft intercepted them.

Away from the battlefield,
Germany's Zeppelin and Schiitte-
Lanze airships embarked on the

world’s first long-range bombing :

campaign, with Britain as their
main target. German Navy airship
commander Captain Peter

A German airship taking off from its
base for a bombing raid on London.

Savage attacks

Soldiers raiding enemy
trenches often carried
primitive weapons for
close-quarters combat.
As well as clubs like these,
they used trench knives,
knuckle dusters, and even
spades in savage melees.

airships...through increasingly
extensive destruction of cities,
factory complexes, dockyards....”
This was, in reality, far beyond the

: airships’ capacity, but from May 31
onward night raids on London
and other major cities still

| managed to cause many civilian
casualties and forced Britain to
divert resources from the Western
Front to home defense.

At sea, Germany responded to

an ongoing blockade of its ports
by the British Royal Navy by

: attempting to impose its own
blockade on Britain through the

: use of submarines. From February

: German U-boats were authorized

: to attack merchant shipping in
British home waters without
warning. On May 7, the Cunard

: liner Lusitania, bound from New
York to Liverpool with almost 2,000

| passengers and crew on board,

was torpedoed off southern Ireland

by the submarine U-20. More than

: 1,200 people were drowned,
including 128 Americans citizens.

: The attack provoked anti-German

German occupation of industrial British Women’s Land Army. Strasser believed that Britain | riots in British cities anda hostile
areas of northeast France. could be “overcome by means of response in the US. After the
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British troops on the Western Front are silhouetted against the sky, wearing
the steel Brodie helmets that were first introduced in October 1915.

Seeking an alternative to the

Arabic, off |celand on August 19,
the Germans felt obliged to
curtail U-boat attacks in the
Atlantic to avoid provoking
the US into entering the war.

TAKE UP THE
SWORD OF JUSTICE

costly stalemate on the Western
| Front, Britain and France devised

a plan to crush Germany's ally

Turkey. British and French

warships were to sail through the
Dardanelles Straits into the
Sea of Marmara, bringing
the Turkish capital,
Constantinople, under their
guns. When the naval attack
was made on March 18,
however, three battleships
were sunk and consequently
it was decided that the
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could pass through.

Allied forces landed at
Gallipoli on April 25,
including a large contingent
of the Australian and New
Zealand Army Corps
(ANZAC). Faced with tough
Turkish resistance on
difficult terrain, they failed
to break out of their landing
zones. Renewed landings at
Suvla Bay in August achieved no
greater success. Trench warfare,
similar to that in France but with
conditions exacerbated by heat

44... ACROSS THE RIDGES OF
THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA
LIE SOME OF THE SHORTEST
PATHS TO A TRIUMPHANT
PEACE. 99

Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, urging the case for a
renewed offensive at Gallipoli, June 5, 1915

Fighting ajust war

This British recruitment poster uses
the sinking of the Lusitania as
propaganda to prove the justice

of the Allied cause.

and disease, quickly developed.
By the time the operation was
abandoned in January 1916, the
Allied forces had suffered almost
a quarter of a million casualties.

Success at Gallipoli was a boost
to Turkish morale, which was
much needed after the Turkish
Third Army had been virtually
destroyed fighting the Russians
in the Caucasus earlier in the
year. Claiming that the Armenian
population of eastern Turkey was
collaborating with the Russians,
the Turks embarked on a mass
deportation of Armenians from
the war zone. The deportation,
which was accompanied by
widespread massacres, has since
been interpreted as an act of
genocide. Between 800,000
and 1.5 million Armenians are
thought to have died as a result
of Turkish action.

The second half of 1915 was
also marked by the terrible
sufferings of Serbian troops and
civilians, Serbia stoutly resisted
Austrian offensives throughout
the first year of the war, but in
October 1915 its army collapsed
in the face of a combined attack
by the Germans, Austrians, and
Bulgarians. Britain and France
landed troops at Salonika in

Greece, intending to aid the Serbs,

but they were too late. Serbia was
overrun, and as many as 200,000
Serbians died ina winter retreat
through Kosovo into Albania.
While the war was being fought
in Europe, Hollywood was
establishing itself as the center
of movie production. Director
D.W. Griffith's civil war epic Birth

of a Nation was a runaway box
office success. With the racist
Ku Klux Klan as its heroes,
Griffith’s masterpiece provoked
protests from African Americans
and triggered race riots, but with
arunning time of three hours

The ANZACS
at Gallipoli
An Australian soldier
carries a wounded
colleague at Gallipoli.
More than 26,000
Australians were killed or
wounded in the campaign.

: and ten minutes its ambition

surpassed that of any previous
film. Less controversially,

: British actor Charlie Chaplin

: blended slapstick comedy with

: pathos to achieve stardom in
The Tramp.

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1914-2011 |

THE GREAT

WAR

TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

World War I (Aug 1914-Nov 1918) was also known as the Great War. Although
it was a global conflict, the focus was Europe, where the Central Powers—
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey—fought an alliance led by France,
Britain, and Russia. The US entered the war on the Anglo-French side in 1917.

From the outset, the decisive arena of conflict was
Germany's Western Front. The Germans invaded
neutral Belgium and Luxembourg, overcoming
Belgian resistance at Liege and Antwerp. French
and British forces were driven into retreat
southward after clashes at Mons and Charleroi. At
the Marne, however, French commander General
Joseph Joffre rallied his forces for a counter-
offensive and the Germans were pushed back.
After a desperate struggle at Ypres in the fall of
1914, the rival armies dug into trenches that
stretched from the North Sea to Switzerland.
Massive resources were committed to offensives—

AWAR ON ALL FRONTS
On the Eastern Front, Germany and
Austria-Hungary faced the forces of
the Russian Empire. From the battle
of Tannenberg in August 1914, the
German Army established an
ascendancy over the Russians, but the
Austro-Hungarians enjoyed no such
superiority, suffering defeat in the
Russian Brusilov offensive in 1916.
Revolution in Russia in 1917 led to the
country’s exit from the war, anda
humiliating peace treaty with Germany
signed at Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.
The entry of the Turkish Ottoman
Empire into the war as an ally of
Germany in the fall of 1914 spread the
conflict to the Middle East. An Anglo-
French bid to attack the Turkish capital,
Constantinople, failed dismally at Gallipoli.
Bulgaria also joined the Central
Powers, helping to crush Serbia in 1915
and Romania the following year. Allied
troops based at Salonica in northern
Greece from 1915 remained largely
passive until the final months of the
war, when their advance northward in
September 1918 helped deliver a decisive
blow to the collapsing Central Powers.

THE EASTERN FRONT
Fought mostly in East
Prussia, Poland, and
Galicia, the war between
Russia and the Central
Powers brought Russia
to political and military
collapse. Peace terms
enabled Germany to
occupy Russian territory.

by the Germans at Verdun and by the Western
Allies at the Somme—without breaking the
stalemate. Up to 1918, only a voluntary withdrawal
by the Germans to the fortified Hindenburg Line
significantly changed the position of the armies.

From March 1918 a series of large-scale
German offensives broke through Allied defenses
and advanced the front line toward Paris. But,
aided by the arrival of US troops, the Allies halted
the Germans at the Marne. A successful British
offensive at Amiens in August initiated the
“Hundred Days," a series of advances that pushed
the fighting back close to the German border.

FINLAND

RUSSIAN
EMPIRE

# Smolensk

b Minsk
Tannenberg Masurian
Aug 23-30, 1914 Lakes
Sep 9-14,1914

GERMANY ° o—_} Brest-

Warsaw
POLAND

Litovsk

GALICIA

Gorlice
May 2-10, 1915

» Budapest % Odessa
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY S
%
3.
grade ROMANIA
SERBIA

Black Sea

Front line 1914-15
(limit of Russian advance)

—— Limit of Austro-German
advance 1915-16

~-» Brusilov offensive 1916
> Armistice line Dec 1917

— German penetration
into Russia by 1918

“Major battle

BRITAIN

Londons

The Western Front
Millions of troops were

compressed into a restricted ?
area of northeastern France and Eng lish
western Belgium. It was here that Channel

most of the largest and bloodiest
battles of the war were fought.

Front line 1914-1916

Hindenburg Line

Front line Mar 1918

Furthest extent of German advance 1918
Armistice Nov 1918

Major battle

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Bucharest #

Sarajevo

Sofia *

BULGARIA

Adriatic
Sea Gallipoli
Apr 25, 1915- Jan 9, 1916.

Salonica

ALBANIA

GREECE

THE BALKANS Serbia KEY

resisted attacks by «+ Salonican front Sep 1918

Austria-Hungary, but was. auctrian, German, and
la h

ery once Seay Bulgarian advance 1915

and Bulgaria joined in. ;

The Allies landed troops Be eure cee Lee
=> Allied offensive Sep 1918.

at Salonica and Gallipoli,
and many retreating
Serbs joined the Allies
at Salonica.

> Romanian offensive
Aug-Sep 1916

North Sea

Ostend '

_-Passchendaele*®
Jul 31-Nov 6, 1917)

—/ Antwerp
Sept 28-Oct 10,1914

Calais Ypres
Oct 19-Nov 22 ® Brussels
Lys
Apr 9-29, 1918 BELGIUM
Jun 7-14, 1915 Mone @ Namur
‘ Aug 23,1914 & x
Arras ry A
Apr 9-May 16, 1917 * Charleroi
x Aug 21, 1914
Somme F .
Jul 1-Nov 18, 1916 Cambrai ‘
Nov 20-Dec 7, 1917 .
s
Amien: “*,
Aug 8-11, 191 .
‘
: Sed
.
meee"
s
__ Chemin des Dames .
Apr 16-May 9, 1917 .
o, —Rheims ‘
“ny
* “x, ~at-
x Argonne
Chateau-Thierry Sep 26-
Jul 18, 1918 First Marne

Sep 5-12, 1914
Second Marne
Jul 15-Aug 6, 1918

Paris@

FRANCE

RUSSIAN
EMPIRE SWITZERLAND

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Nov 11, 1918 *
St Mihiel

NETHERLANDS

Verdun
Feb 21-Dec 18, 1916

*».
Sep 12-19, 1918

Caporetto

* Bolzano 1917

Vittorio Veneto

Oct 24 -Nov 3, "0

River Piave _~,
Jun 15-23, 1918

Trento

11 battles
of the Isonzo
Jun 1918-Sep 1917

* Verona

Constantinople,
Venice,

Adriatic
Sea

OTTOMAN
EMPIRE

THE ITALIAN FRONT An ally of Germany and
Austria-Hungary before the war, Italy remained
neutral in 1914, and the following year entered the
conflict on the side of Britain and France. A series
of ineffective Italian offensives on the mountainous
border with Austria at the Isonzo River were
followed by headlong retreat after a crushing
defeat at the battle of Caporetto. With British and
French reinforcements, the Italians held firm at
the River Piave in summer 1918.

» Central Powers
advance Sep
1916 Jan 1917

Major battle

» Italian advance

~ Austro-German
advance

Allied offensive

- Front line Dec
1917-Oct 1918

Major battle

Front line Sep 1917

Oct 24 -Nov 19 s

COST IN US DOLLARS (BILLIONS)

5,000

4,000

3,000

0
France Britain Germany Italy US
COUNTRIES
War in the skies KEY
Military aviation expanded Mi
massively through the war. In 1918
August 1914, around 500 aircraft
were deployed by all combatants
combined. By the end of the war
some 12,000 military aircraft
were in action at the front.
6% 4%
Other combat- Poison
related deaths gas
10% 60%
Rifle fire _ Artillery
20%
Machine
gun fire

War casualties

The total military death toll in

World War I was around 9.7 million.
Germany suffered the heaviest loss
at over 2 million, followed by Russia
(1.8 million), and France (1.4 million).

SWITZERLAND

The cost of war
The huge financial
cost of the war
became a major
issue in the postwar
period, when Britain
and France sought
reparations
payments from
Germany to pay
debts owed by them
to the US.

MAJOR COUNTRIES INVOLVED IN THE WAR

AYEAR OF BATTLES OF
UNPRECEDENTED SCALE opened
with a German offensive against
the French city of Verdunin
February (see pp.344-45).

von Falkenhayn (1861-1922) aimed
to “bleed the French army white”
by drawing it into costly combat.
The French reacted as he had
hoped by sending reinforcements,
decimated by the German heavy
guns. German losses also
mounted up, as French resistance
stiffened under the inspirational
leadership of General Philippe
Pétain (1856-1975). Repeated
German offensives continued
until mid-July, after which French
counteroffensives succeeded into

December. Little territory changed :

hands and both sides suffered

around 400,000 casualties.
Meanwhile, the US was fighting

awar ona quite different scale.

This Irish Republican barricade was set up across Townsend Street in Dublin during
the Easter Rising to delay the advance of British troops fighting to retake the city.

: In March, Mexican general
Pancho Villa (1878-1923), the
flamboyant leader of one of the

: revolutionary armies engaged in

Mexico's ongoing civil war, made a

cross-border raid into the US.

His attack on Columbus, New

: Mexico, was rebuffed by the US
Cavalry. The provocation was too

: President Woodrow Wilson

© (1856-1924) ordered General
John Pershing (1860-1948) to
lead an expedition into Mexico.
Around 5,000 US troops fought
engagements with both Villa
supporters and Mexican

: government forces before

: withdrawing in January 1917.
Britain suffered a military

disaster in the spring in

Mesopotamia (Iraq), then part of

the Turkish Ottoman Empire. The

1915, Anglo-Indian troops

had been under siege by

Turkish forces at

Kut-al-Amara, between

Basra and Baghdad. Relief

forces failed to fight their

way through to Kut, so,
facing starvation, they were :
forced to surrender. Taken
prisoner, the British and

Indian soldiers endured

terrible hardship, less than

half surviving captivity.

Bandit leader

Originally a bandit chief,
Pancho Villa became a key
figure in the Mexican
Revolution and Mexico's
clash with the US in 1916.

: wappen, or

Prussian

helmet
plate,
\

: The German spiked Pickelhaube
: helmet was replaced in the course of

1916 by the metal Stahlhelm, which

: provided better protection.

This disaster was offset by the

: Arab revolt against Turkish

: rule. Encouraged by Britain,

» Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca

Turkish garrisons of Mecca,

: Medina, and other towns in the

Hejaz, and Hussein proclaimed
himself Sultan of the Arabs. The
British sent T.E. Lawrence
(1888-1935), a junior officer

: in Cairo, to act as adviser to

: Hussein's son Feisal, the most
"active leader of the revolt.

: Between them, Lawrence and

: Feisal organized an effective

i military force. They used guerrilla

tactics to push for the liberation of

: Arabs throughout the Turkish-
: ruled Middle East.

In April, Britain faced a revolt
against its rule in Ireland. The
Irish Republican Brotherhood
sought German support for a
nationalist uprising, but
Germany's attempt to supply
rifles to the rebels was
intercepted by the British.
Republicans still went ahead
with the uprising on Easter
Monday, occupying key
buildings in Dublin, and
proclaiming a Provisional
Government of the Irish Republic.
The British sent troops to Dublin,
and after five days of fighting the
rebels surrendered. Fifteen
republican leaders were executed

: after a secret trial by a British

military court. Although few Irish
had supported the rebellion, the
executions stimulated a wave of
pro-Republican sentiment
At the end of May, the German

High Seas Fleet and the Royal
Navy's Grand Fleet met in the
Battle of Jutland in the North
Sea. The British spotted a sortie

: Russia’s most successful

offensive of World War |, almost

: destroying the Austrian army in

Galicia. The Austrians were only

: rescued by the arrival of German

: troops to support them. Brusilov’s
| initial success was based on

: subtle tactics—surprise and the
"rapid movement of shock troops

Unfortunately, the British did not
learn from their Russian allies.

» On July 1, General Douglas Haig

by the German fleet and sent a far i

superior naval force to attack it.
German Admiral Reinhard Scheer
(1863-1928] was caught by
surprise, but British Admiral John
Jellicoe (1859-1935) failed to
profit from the advantage. The
German warships were able to
make a fighting withdrawal
to port, while inflicting heavier
losses than they suffered. Despite
a disappointing performance, the
Royal Navy had confirmed its
superiority—it was the German
fleet that had retreated.

In June, General Aleksei
Brusilov [1853-1926] mounted

GENERAL DOUGLAS
HAIG (1861-1928)

Cavalry officer Douglas Haig
performed well as a corps
commander in the first year
of World War I. As British
army commander-in-chief,
his assaults on German
defenses at the Somme in
1916 and Passchendaele in
1917 resulted in huge losses.
In 1918, Haig held firm in
the face of the formidable
German spring offensives,
then presided over a string
of British victories.

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44 SUCCESS WILL COME

TO THE SIDE THAT HAS THE
LAST MAN STANDING. 99

General Philippe Pétain, 1916

launched a massive offensive at
the Somme (see pp.344-45].
Rather than destroy enemy
defenses, the eight-day artillery
bombardment had alerted the
Germans to an imminent attack.
British troops marched forward
in lines, because the generals
believed their conscripted troops
were incapable of executing more

intelligent tactics, and were mown :

down by German machine guns.
Almost 20,000 men were killed,
the heaviest losses ever
experienced by the British army
ina single day's fighting. Haig
kept the men fighting for five

months, introducing tanks as

soon as this new weapon was

available, and allowing his
: subordinates to experiment

with varied tactics including
: night attacks. But there was no
breakthrough, and the only result
was attrition—a gradual wearing
down of the armies.

By the second half of 1916, the
strain of two years of warfare had
left countries with the option of
either ratcheting up their war
: effort or seeking a path to peace.

In August, Germany changed its

leadership. General Paul von

Hindenburg (1847-1934) and his

Cece

French soldiers arriving at Verdun in eastern Fra!

: |

-”

at the front was eight days—all a man could be expected to stand.

600

450

wo
i=)
So

CASUALTIES (IN THOUSANDS)
a
So

British French German

Casualties of the Somme offensive
The Somme was one of the bloodiest
battles of the war. Between July 1
and November 18 over a million
men were killed or wounded.

Quartermaster-General Erich
Ludendorff (1865-1937) were
given supreme command of the
German army and control of the

entire German war effort. In order :

to wring every drop of productivity
out of German industry, they
created a state-directed economy
that has been dubbed “war
socialism.” By contrast, their
Austrian allies were losing their

will to fight. The death of Emperor =

Franz Josef | (1830-1914) in
November marked the beginning
of the end of the Austrian
Empire. His successor, Charles |
(1887-1922), was desperate fora
way out of the war.

The collective madness of the

art movement that gave itself the
nonsense name Dada. Dadaists
such as Hugo Ball and Hans Arp
gathered at the Cabaret Voltaire
in Zurich, in neutral Switzerland,
and advocated a crazy antiart that
satirized a world afflicted by mass
slaughter. Their anarchic works
rejected the social order that
legitimized war.

Amore rational spokesman for
peace was President Woodrow
Wilson, elected for asecond
term of office in November. As the
man who had kept the US out of
the European war, Wilson put
himself forward as a peacemaker.
He issued a “peace note” that
called on combatant countries to

Going over the top

British soldiers prepare to attack
during the Battle of the Somme,
leaving the relative shelter of the

nce. The standard tour of duty

battlefield provoked an influential :

Leading Dada artist Hugo Ball

: performing at Cabaret Voltaire,

| which he founded in 1916. Dadaists
| protested against the war.

' state their war aims as a prelude
» to ceasefire negotiations.

: Germany's civilian government

: came up with its own “peace

: leaders would not permit any of

: the concessions that might have

: made peace a practical possibility.
| The Russian Empire was

| desperate for an end to the

: was leaking popular support.

: In December, court conspirators

: assassinated Grigori Rasputin

: man” whose hold over the czar's

: wife had become a public scandal.
| The assassination was widely

: welcomed, but it could not halt

trench for exposed ground. : toward collapse.
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347

ON JANUARY 9, GERMAN KAISER
WILHELM II (1859-1941) approved
the decision of his military
commanders to engage in
unlimited submarine warfare.
The Germans knew that this
would mean sinking American
merchant vessels and would
probably bring the neutral US
into the war, but they believed
they could sink enough ships to
force Britain to sue for peace and
make US intervention ineffectual.
When an American cargo ship, the
Housatonic, was sunk by a U-boat
on February 3 off the Scilly Isles,
the US broke off diplomatic
relations with Germany.
Anticipating US entry into the
war, German foreign minister
Arthur Zimmermann decided
to offer Mexico an alliance,
encouraging it to fight to regain
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona
from the US. A telegram from
Zimmerman detailing

=_” 1 f=
CIVILIZATION CALLS§

EVERY

this plan was intercepted, decoded
by British intelligence, and passed
to the US government. When it

| was published in the US press
it caused a sensation, stoking

» anti-German feeling already
ignited by the U-boat campaign.

VLADIMIR ILYICH
LENIN (1870-1924)

Born into Russian minor
gentry, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov
became a Marxist activist,
adopting the name “Lenin.”
Living in exile in Western
Europe, he led the Bolsheviks
from 1903. Returning to Russia
in 1917, he was determined to
radicalize the revolution
through a Bolshevik seizure of
power. Once in control, he
ruthlessly stamped out all
opposition, and founded the
world's first communist state.

WOMAN = CHILD!

: the war, Russia was caught up
: in revolutionary turmoil. A

Propaganda poster

New York's Mayor’s Committee on
National Defense declared April 19
“Wake Up America Day,” and
publicized it with this poster.

On April 2, US president

- Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)

asked Congress to vote for a
war “to make the world safe for
democracy.” Four days later, the
US declared war on Germany,
keeping independence of action

: by not formally allying itself with
» Britain and France. The slow

process of building and equipping
amass conscript army began.
While the US was entering

momentous sequence of events
was triggered by food riots,
strikes, and a mutiny of soldiers

» in Petrograd (St. Petersburg).
i On March 15, Czar Nicholas II
: (1868-1918) abdicated and a
| Provisional Government was

established by politicians from

: the Duma (Russian parliament)

Committees set up by workers

and soldiers, known as “soviets,”
: created a competing focus of

: political power. On April 16,

Bolshevik Party, returned to

Switzerland. Lenin sought to
radicalize the revolution by

: proposing an end to the war
: and “all power to the soviets.”

The dominant personality in
the Provisional Government,
moderate socialist Alexander
Kerensky (1881-1970), was

committed to continuing the war.
The failure of the campaign he
launched on July 1, known as the
Kerensky Offensive, was followed
by widespread mutinies in the
army at the front and desertion.
Attempts to suppress the
Bolsheviks failed. The Provisional
Government survived a coup
attempt, but on November 7 it
succumbed to an armed takeover
organized by Lenin's associate,
Leon Trotsky (1879-1940).
Lenin set up a revolutionary
government of People's
Commissars and proclaimed
a unilateral armistice.
Meanwhile, on the Western
front stalemate and slaughter

continued. At the start of the
year newly appointed French
commander-in-chief Robert
Nivelle (1856-1924) promised a

: crushing onslaught that would
: win the war in days. When the

Nivelle Offensive was launched
in mid-April, however, it proved no
more successful than previous
offensives. The disappointment

: was bitter. There were widespread

mutinies and the French army

: threatened to disintegrate. Hastily

appointed to replace Nivelle,
General Philippe Pétain (1856-

| 1951) restored order with a
: mixture of concessions and

punishments, and ruled out
any further French offensives.

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44 THE WORKERS’ AND PEASANTS’
GOVERNMENT... PROPOSES TO

ALL WARRING PEOPLES...
NEGOTIATIONS LEADING TO

A JUST, DEMOCRATIC PEACE. 99

Lenin, November 8, 1917 -

These British Mark IV tanks are transported to the Cambrai offensive. They carry
bundles of wood to fill the trenches, so that they can drive across them.

The British army remained —_ The British : Howitzer Mark!
committed to an offensive fy THE NUMBER OF CREW royal family, : Used to great effect by the British
trategy. In th id half of hile, : Army during World War |, this gun
eect, | gg THAT FLEW AND ae Ga ran efi
(1856-1951) began anew push .OPFRATED A GERMAN prudent to _ (132kg) shells every minute.
at Ypres (see pp.344-345), hoping y | change its hydraulic
to break through to the ports dj GOTHA BOMBER name from the recoil buffer
where German U-boats were Germanic

based. Haig's offensive ran into
persistent bad weather that
reduced the battlefield to a sea
of mud. The offensive persisted
into November, until British
and Canadian troops reached
Passchendaele, the village that
finally gave its name to the battle.
The mud in Flanders rendered
tanks, an increasingly important
element of British weaponry,

inoperative. On harder ground at

| Cambrai in November, massed
: tanks helped British forces
: advance 4 miles (6km) in one

day—three times the distance

_ achieved at Passchendaele in

three months. Any celebrations

: were premature, however, asa

German counterattack soon
retook most of the lost ground.
The long stalemate
between Italy and Austria-
Hungary ended when
German troops were
transferred to the Italian
front in October. At the
Battle of Caporetto, an
Austro-German offensive
drove Italian forces into
retreat. A line was
stabilized in November

Dawn breaks at
Passchendaele

Dead and wounded soldiers
lie in the muddy desolation of
the battlefield in the Ypres
salient, where the battle of
Passchendale was fought.

Gotha bombers and even larger
“R-planes.” These fixed-wing
aircraft were faster and more
difficult to shoot down than the
German airships (see 1915),
although defense by antiaircraft
guns and fighter aircraft soon
forced them to attack exclusively
by night. Physical damage and
casualties were not great, but the
psychological impact of these
raids was considerable, as
citizens were driven to hide
underground in cellars and
subway stations.

In all combatant countries war
weariness and worsening
conditions made it hard for
governments to maintain
solidarity. Food shortages and
socialist sentiments, excited

rocked the political system
through the summer and fall,

but the appointment of the fiercely
pro-war Georges Clemenceau
(1841-1929) as prime minister

in November stiffened resolve.

Saxe-Coburg and
Gotha to Windsor.
The British public was
cheered in December by
the capture of Jerusalem
from Turkey. This military
success gave practical
importance to the previous
month's Balfour
Declaration, which
expressed British
government support for
Zionist aspirations to
“a national home for
the Jewish people in
Palestine.” Britain’s
Arab allies, fighting
alongside the British
army against the
Turks, had not been consulted.

carriage

behind the Piave River, by the revolutionary uprising in a ot
just 19 miles (30km] Russia, led to widespread strike z
from Venice (see p.345). action inGerman factories. The | 5 450
From June, civilians living | German Reichstag [parliament] m4
in Paris and London were passed a resolution calling for 3 300 -
subjected to sporadic air peace negotiations in July, but it 2
attacks by German had no control over the military- & 150 -
dominated German government. =
In France, scandals and strikes =” 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
MONTHS

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German unrestricted submarine warfare increased attacks on
merchant ships from February to April. The adoption of a convoy
system in May reduced sinkings to a sustainable level.

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DATE UNKNOWN c.1920
In this painting for a poster from the 1917 The 1917 revolution was followed by the Russian Civil ee eee
Revolution period, Lenin appears in front War, between the Bolsheviks and the “White” armies peers victory
of the battleship Aurora, which was used led by czarist officers. This poster is dedicated “to the
in the Bolshevik seizure of power. peoples of the Caucasus Red Army.”

SOVIET PROPAGAN

ART FOR THE FURTHERANCE OF COMMUNIST POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS

For the Communists who seized power in Russia in
November 1917, art had to serve the socialist revolution
and disseminate its ideology. Propaganda mobilized the
populace in support of the regime and pilloried its enemies.

During the early phase of Communist rule, many avant-garde artists believed
their revolutionary ways of making art would accord with the political revolution.
However, under the dictatorship of Joseph Stalin, from the late 1920s Soviet
artists were required to depict workers and peasants in a heroic-realist style,
their images reflecting the supposed happiness and progress of Communist life.

Rapid industrialization
1928

The Communist leadership launched
an industrialization drive in the late
1920s. Workers are compelled to
increase production by this poster.

Modernist poster The Revolution needs you

1919 1928

Avant-garde artist El The labor force underwent

Lissitzky produced this Civil radical reorganization under

War poster. His red wedge the Communists. This as

represents the Communist poster urges Soviet citizens SANMWAC |
Red Army beating the anti- to become members of HEMEQNEXHHO .
Communist White armies. workers’ cooperatives.

350

SOVIET PROPAGANDA

Collectivization

1930 grand schemes

A tractor driver and peasant woman to rebuild Moscow
call on their comrades to join a were derailed
collective farm during Stalin’s | by World War II

brutal drive to abolish private farms.

Life under Stalin
1930s
if Celebrating the unity and
Ne strength of the Soviet people
under the banner of Stalin,
this poster proclaims

“Onward to the heights of joy
and happiness of mankind.”

Military strength

1940s

A poster of the World War II
era depicts bomber aircraft
and a Soviet airman displaying
the obligatory optimism of any
Communist citizen portrayed
in Stalinist art.

KOCMOC -2AH MPA!

TOBE AHO JABLPHLMB BORE.

IEMUIE
TIPHHEC
BECHY!

piglike
capitalist
being
held up

Commemorating victory Cold War propaganda Peace and progress

1940s 1950s 1970s

The slogan on this poster commemorating the This anti-American poster from the Cold War A Salyut space station is superimposed on a
Soviet victory in World War II says: “Having caricatures the Statue of Liberty, portraying dove of peace in this poster from the era of
won the war, the soldier has brought spring.” the US as bloatedly capitalist and militaristic “peaceful coexistence” with the capitalist world.

351

German prisoners of war in France—in the last three months of the war
363,000 German soldiers were captured by the advancing Allies.

ALTHOUGH THE US ENTERED
WORLD WAR | IN APRIL 1917,

at the start of 1918 its
Expeditionary Force in Europe was
still not ready for combat. Despite
this, in anticipation of victory, US
President Woodrow Wilson
announced a 14-point program
for a just and durable peace. His
proposals included freedom of the
seas and free trade, general
disarmament, self-determination
for European peoples who did not
have their own nation-states, and
an international organization to
guarantee new borders against
aggressors. Germany would have
to hand back the territory it had
occupied during the war as well as
Alsace-Lorraine, which was taken
from France in 1871.

The Germans had quite different
ideas, however. In March, they
used their military dominance
over the newly installed Bolshevik
government (see 1917] to impose
punitive peace terms on Russia
through the Treaty of Brest-

: Litovsk, which marked Russia's
: exit from World War |. With

Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Finland,

= and the Baltic States nominally

independent as client states of
Germany, the treaty deprived
Russia of about a third of its

i prewar population. The German

military authorities then set

: about ruthlessly exploiting

resources in the eastern
regions they now controlled.
The humiliating treaty did not

: bring peace to Russia, which was
: already slipping into civil war.

: Determined to concentrate all

= the power in Bolshevik hands,

Lenin forcibly dispersed
a democratically elected
Constituent Assembly in
January—the Bolsheviks had won

: only 25 percent of votes cast. His
: regime faced opposition from

| groups as diverse as rival socialist:
| revolutionaries, czarist generals,
: Ukrainian anarchists, and Don

: Cossacks, Lenin survived an

assassination attempt in August,

: but throughout the year ever
: larger areas of Russia fell out
: of his followers’ control.

Meanwhile, relieved of the need

: Germany attempted to win a

: decisive victory in the west before
: American manpower could

irreversibly tip the balance. On

| March 21, the Spring Offensive
| or “Kaiserschlacht” struck the
: British line on the Somme front.

An initial bombardment by 9,000

: guns and mortars, with munitions
: including 2 million gas shells,

prepared the way for an infantry

: attack spearheaded by German

: Stormtroopers, many armed with
: flamethrowers. More than 20,000
| British troops surrendered on the
: first day of the offensive, and by

: March 25 the leading German

(65km). The stalemate that

: had lasted on the Western
: front since 1914 was at an end.

In early April, the Germans

i opened a fresh offensive at Lys in

: Flanders. In an emotional appeal

+ 1928) declared: “With our backs

: to the wall and believing in the

: justice of our cause, each one of

* us must fight on to the end.” More
: practically, the French general

Poster of a German aircraft

After abdicating in 1917, Czar Nicholas II, his wife, four daughters,
and only son were sent to Siberia, where they lived in reasonable
comfort. But in April 1918 the family was moved to Ekaterinburg
in the Urals and placed under close guard by local Bolsheviks.

On the night of 16-17 July Bolshevik secret police had the entire
family shot in a cellar, along with their doctor and servants. Their
bodies were buried and not discovered until 1991.

Allied armies, including US troops.
Although the Allies made further
retreats and remained on the
defensive until July, the Germans
failed to achieve the decisive
success they needed.

One victim of the fighting in April =

was Germany's most renowned
air ace, Manfred von Richthofen
(1892-1918]. The “Red Baron”
was shot dead by ground fire
while engaged in a dogfight with

Canadian pilot Roy Brown over the =

Allied lines. His death symbolized

: “Flying Circus,” had an impressive
: reputation in combat and the
: Baron himself was credited with
: 80 “kills.” But the German pilots
were overwhelmed by the sheer
number of allied aircraft—
British and French factories built
» 55,000 aircraft in 1918 alone.
By June, over a million

. American soldiers were in

France, under the command of
» General John Pershing (1860-
1948). Their contribution was vital

HALLE = ESPARKES A German poster advertising an tosstabilizing the Allied Une the
i exhibition of items captured in the the exhaustion of Germany's war i face of German offensives. The
iss ~~ Bhyaw's air war. Most World War | aircraft effort. Richthofen’s fighter wing, | fighting qualities of the US
——S Sse ~ a were made of canvas and wood. known to the British as the Marines particularly impressed
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352 Wee

464 | HOPE WE MAY ALL SAY

THAT THUS, THIS FATEFUL
MORNING, CAME TO AN
END ALL WARS. 99

David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister, November 11, 1918

their German enemies—a
German reference to the Marines
as “Devil Dogs” stuck asa
nickname for the Corps

The turning point was an
attack at Amiens on August 8,
spearheaded by Australian and
Canadian infantry, and supported
by massed British and French
tanks. Described by the German
general Erich Ludendorff
(1865-1937) as “the black day
of the German army,” it initiated
the “Hundred Days” of relentless
Allied offensives, with large-scale
use of tanks and aircraft.

In September, Pershing achieved
his ambition of commanding an
independent US operation—the
capture of the St. Mihiel salient.
This was followed by a combined
American and French offensive in
the Argonne forest, the costliest
single battle in American history,
with 117,000 US casualties.

On September 29, with their
Hindenburg Line defenses
breached and their ally Bulgaria
on the point of surrender, the
Germans sought an armistice.

They approached President
Wilson (1856-1924), hoping to
make a deal with the US, but
Wilson aligned himself with the
British and French, who insisted
that Germany should surrender.
Although German troops were
still putting up a stubborn
defense, and there were not yet
any Allied troops on German soil,
the country was disintegrating
from within. A mutiny in the
German navy at the end of
October was followed by strikes
and socialist uprisings in major
cities, where food shortages had
fueled political discontent.
Germany's main allies, Turkey
and Austria-Hungary, stopped
fighting. On November 9, the
Social Democrat Philipp
Scheidemann declared Germany
a republic, and Kaiser Wilhelm II
(1859-1941) fled to the
Netherlands. Two days later, a
German delegation signed an
armistice in a railroad car
in the Compiégne forest. The
guns fell silent at 11 a.m. on
November 11.

British soldiers, an American sailor, and a Red Cross nurse celebrate the signing
of the armistice on November 11, ending four years of mass slaughter.

PEOPLE DIED
IN THE FLU
PANDEMIC
OF 1918-19

Peace celebrations erupted in
London, Paris, and other Allied
cities, but even in the victor nations
the reaction was muted by the
memory of the millions who had
died. There were no celebrations
in the collapsed empires
destroyed by the conflict—
Germany, Austria, Russia, and
Turkey—which faced an uncertain
future amid political turmoil.

Meanwhile, a global pandemic
of “Spanish Flu” was at its
peak. One of the worst natural
disasters in human history,

15 T
roop numbers
p the spread of the disease was
and deaths bablyaided:by | \
12 Around 65 million BrOREiy UGE Py ater seals
a men fought in movements of troops and by the
FS World War |, of weakened immune systems
=k) whom 8.5 million of populations suffering from
2 = died. Germany malnutrition. The disease killed
a 2 & sulfated We more than 50 million people.
6 = BS ES: highest number
8 a | y & 6 a o ofcasualties.
= j 2 er peat
Bog a an lean E a> (UG Signing the armistice
e & ie = wo ie 2 s = The Allied delegation, led by Marshal
oo ES i eae §6KEY Foch, photographed outside the
Military strength = railroad carriage at Compiégne
Allied powers Central powers Casualties where the armistice was signed.
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1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

Rifle with bayonet
retractable ITALY
bayonet Bolt-action M91 Carcano rifles and carbines armed

the Italian infantry in World War |. This carbine has its
bayonet fixed, for use in trench fighting in close quarters.

drum-pan magazine

stores ammunition Lewis gun
BRITAIN antiseptics and list of contents
Originally an American painkillers of pouch

design, the Lewis gun was
adopted by the British Army

as its standard light machine

gun in 1915, It armed aircraft P
and tanks, as well as infantry.

steel water jacket
cools gun barrel

First-aid pouch

Maxim machine gun GERMANY

GERMANY German medical orderlies

The German Army's heavy machine carried a pouch containing basic
gun, the Maschinengewehr ‘08, was painkillers and antiseptics, such
derived from the gun invented by as iodine, to treat wounded men
American Hiram Maxim in 1884. before they were sent to

It could fire 400 rounds a minute. dressing stations.

leather

WORLD WAR | :

MASS-PRODUCED WEAPONRY ALLOWS THE SLAUGHTER OF MILLIONS

World War I has been described as “industrial warfare” as
manpower and economic resources of industrialized states
were mobilized for fighting. Modern firearms provided
armies with firepower on an unprecedented scale.

Formidable defensive systems of trenches,

barbed wire, and machine-gun posts made offensive
operations costly and tended to lead to stalemate.
Weapons used in trench warfare ranged from
grenades and flamethrowers to homemade clubs
and knives. From 1916, the first slow and unreliable
tanks made their appearance. Aircraft added anew
dimension to warfare, carrying out reconnaissance
and bombing, and strafing ground targets.

wheeled gun
carriage

Artillery shells

FRANCE

Artillery ammunition in World
War | ranged from shrapnel to
high-explosive and gas shells.
These shells were fired by the
French 75-mm field gun.

Howitzer
BRITAIN
Howitzers such as this 6-inch British gun
were effective in trench warfare because
they launched a shell ona high trajectory,
dropping onto the concealed enemy.

354

Officer’s compass
BRITAIN

A compass was vital on a night patrol or raid.
Without it, soldiers could lose their way in
the no man’s land between the trenches,
rendered featureless by shelling

— mother-of-pearl face

catches the light

_ adjustable
eye pieces

Stereoscopic periscope
GERMANY

Soldiers in trenches used
periscopes to keep watch on
the enemy line. Snipers quickly
picked off men who exposed
their heads above the parapet.

screw-on metal
filter canister

WORLD WAR |

handset

wooden box

Field telephone

GERMANY

Although radios were also used, field
telephones were the main communications
link in trench warfare. Where telephone cables
had been ripped up by shelling, runners
carried messages to the front line by hand.

Gas mask
GERMANY

Effective masks were
developed that protected the
eyes and face from contact
with poison gas and, through
a filter respirator, neutralized
the gas for breathing.

steel canister

Desert shoes
BRITAIN

British troops fighting against the Turks in
the Palestine campaign sometimes wore
wire sand shoes over their army boots to
facilitate marching on desert sands.

Folding shovel

ITALY

For an infantryman, a shovel
was essential equipment,
needed to dig trenches or
temporary shelters. This
folding shovel was used

by Italian alpine troops.

TURKEY

Turkish bayonet and grenade

Nail club
BRITAIN

Primitive wooden clubs, with
nails or other metal objects
at the striking end, were
used by soldiers on both
sides asa silent, deadly
weapon in trench raids.

The Turkish Army in World War | had some obsolete
equipment, such as swords and bayonets, but also
state-of-the-art German-supplied weaponry such
as fragmentation grenades.

s leather
balaclava

leather face
mask Aviator’s headgear
BRITAIN
Flying in open-cockpit
aircraft, many aviators in
World War | wore leather
balaclavas and face masks
to protect themselves
against the cold and wind.

barrel could fire
_— 1-pound shell

leather
skull cap Anti-aircraft gun
BRITAIN

Armies adapted existing guns,
firing time-fused explosive
shells for air defense. This
British “pom-pom” gun,
mounted on a pedestal,
was used in defense of
London against air attack.

Tank helmet

BRITAIN

British tank crews found that
when bullets struck their armored
vehicle, metal shards flew inside
the hull. Helmets protecting the
head and face were swiftly adopted
to limit injuries.

ee rivetehanges
direction and
angle of gun

SoD)

The “Big Four”—David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau,

and Woodrow Wilson—meet amiably at the Paris Peace Conference.

IN JANUARY 1919, LEADERS OF
THE VICTOR COUNTRIES FROM
WORLD WAR I met for a peace
conference in Paris. US President
Woodrow Wilson’s liberal idealism
was the focus for popular hopes
that a new and better world would
be built on the ruins of the old.
Wilson was one of the “Big Four’
who dominated the proceedings
in Paris, the others being French
prime minister Georges
Clemenceau (1841-1929), British
prime minister David Lloyd
George (1863-1945], and Italian
prime minister Vittorio Orlando
(1860-1952). Each European
leader had his own agenda,
inevitably dominated by issues

of national self-interest. Wilson's
idealism expressed itself in an
agreement to create a League
of Nations, which was to provide
“collective security” against

Russian Red Army cap badge
The hammer-and-plow insignia
from the Civil War period symbolizes
the union of industrial workers and
peasants in the revolutionary cause.

area lost to area lost
Denmark to France
area lost
to Poland
sw
g/t
ne

German loss of territory

After World War |, Germany lost

13 percent of its territory. Most went
to the newstate of Poland, while
France regained Alsace-Lorraine.

aggression and replace war with
negotiated settlement of disputes,
but Clemenceau believed the best
guarantee for the future peace

of France was in a permanent
weakening of Germany.

Defeat in war had reduced
Germany to a state of economic
and social collapse. In January,
communist revolutionaries,

known as the Spartacists,

tried to imitate the success
of the Bolsheviks in Russia
[see 1917] by staging an

" uprising in Berlin. The attempted

revolution was crushed by the
army and right-wing paramilitary
Freikorps; the two most
prominent Spartacist leaders,
Karl Liebknecht and Rosa
Luxembourg, were captured and

assembly, sitting in the city of
Weimar, set about drawing up
a constitution for an impeccably

: the newstate of Poland,
: and Alsace-Lorraine,

: and leadership skills were

: democratic republic, but on the

streets of Germany extremism

: of right and left continued to

flourish. In the southern German
state of Bavaria, communists
proclaimed a Soviet regime in
April, only to be crushed by the
army and Freikorps in May.

With Germany in no position to
resume hostilities, the victorious
Allies were able to impose peace
terms in the Versailles Treaty
without negotiation. Germany lost
allits colonies and substantial
territory in Europe. The European
territorial loss consisted largely
of areas needed to form

which Germany had
taken from France
during the Franco-
Prussian War [see 1870).
Tight restrictions were
placed on German
armed forces and

the Rhineland was
demilitarized.

The Germans were
also required to make
reparations payments,
which were justified
by the assertion that
Germany had been guilty
of starting the war. The
“war guilt” clause

Revolutionary leader
Trotsky’s organizational

essential to Bolshevik
success in Russia. He
is seen here addressing
troops of the Red Army.

outraged Germans more than any
other part of the treaty. The crew
of the German High Seas Fleet—
interned since the armistice at
Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands
north of Scotland—scuttled their
vessels as an act of defiance.

But left with no choice, German
delegates signed the treaty in the
Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of
Versailles on June 28.

While peace was being formalized
in Western Europe, civil war
raged in Russia, as Lenin's
Bolshevik government fought for
survival against various “White”

counter-revolutionary armies.
The Whites had the backing of
foreign powers, who landed
intervention forces at ports
around Russia—US and Japanese
at Vladivostok, French at Odessa,
and British at Murmansk and
Arkhangelsk—but these foreign
interventions were half-hearted
and mostly short-lived. The
Bolshevik People’s Commissar for
War, Leon Trotsky (1879-1940),
created a mass Red Army by
conscripting peasants at gunpoint
and subjecting them to harsh
discipline. Fighting between the

46 WE'VE HAD A TERRIBLE
VOYAGE... THE WONDER IS

WE ARE HERE

AT ALL. 99

John Alcock, officer in the British RAF, after flying
nonstop across the Atlantic, June 15, 1919

Red and White armies was
vicious, and accompanied by
massacres and atrocities on
avast scale.

In the midst of this mayhem,
Russia hosted a congress
in Moscow to found the Third
International, known as
Comintern. Its aim was to
promote the spread of communist
revolution worldwide; its effect
was to split the international
socialist movement, forcing
people on the political left to
choose between social democracy
and revolutionary communism.

The vision of an
imminent world
revolution had some
credibility at a time
when radical workers’
and anti-colonial
movements were
challenging the
established authority
in many countries.
Outside Russia, it
was only in Hungary
that communists
established a
national government
in 1919. The collapse
of the Austro-
Hungarian Empire was a disaster

) for Hungary, which faced the

loss of two-thirds of its prewar
territory to Czechoslovakia,
Romania, and Yugoslavia. The
communist Bela Kun [1886-
1938) took power in March,
launching military offensives
against Czechoslovakia and
Romania. He followed the
Bolshevik example by forming
a Red Army and exercising a
reign of terror against his
opponents, but after 133 days
in power he was defeated by the
Romanians. Admiral Miklos
Horthy’s counter-revolutionary
National Army marched into
Budapest to suppress the
communists with another reign
of terror. In 1920, Horthy took
power in Hungary as “Regent.”
In Italy, people of all political
persuasions were disgusted with
their country’s limited share in

: the spoils of victory. Orlando was

forced to resign as prime minister
on his return from the Paris Peace

nonstop transatlantic flight from Newfoundland in Canada to Ireland.

Conference, after failing to secure
either Dalmatia or the port of
Fiume (Rijeka) for Italy. In
September, Gabriele D'Annunzio
(1863-1938], a flamboyant
right-wing nationalist poet and
aviator, seized Fiume with a band
of armed followers. He held the
port-city, ruling as dictator of the
Regency of Carnaro, until he was
driven out by the Italian Navy after
a peace deal between Italy and
Yugoslavia in November 1920,
which made Fiume a Free State.
Meanwhile, Britain was facing
opposition to its rule in India.
The British were committed to a
promise made during World War |
to grant the Indians a measure
of self-government, but they
suspended civil liberties in a
crackdown on what were described
as “anarchical and revolutionary
crimes.” On April 13, British officer
General Reginald Dyer (1864-1927]
ordered troops to fire on an
unarmed crowd of protestors at
the Jallianwalla Bagh, a public

§ Italians enter Fiume

>) Gabriele DAnnunzio’s
nationalist legionnaires
salute the flag of the
short-lived Regency

of Carnaro in Fiume,
now the Croatian

city of Rijeka.

garden in Amritsar,
Punjab. At least
379 people were
killed. Although the
British government
condemned the
killings and dismissed
General Dyer, the Amritsar
massacre caused widespread
outrage in India and increased
pressure for independence.

Despite the world’s troubles,
technological and scientific
progress continued. On June 14,
British pilot Captain John Alcock
(1892-1919) and his navigator
Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown
(1886-1948) took off from St.
John’s, Newfoundland, to attempt
the first nonstop flight across
the Atlantic. After a perilous
16 hours 27 minutes, their Vickers
Vimy bomber aircraft landed
nose-down ina bog in Galway,
Ireland. Their feat won them a
hero's welcome in London, but
Alcock’s triumph was short-lived,
as he was killed in an air crash
just six months later.

At the time when Alcock and
Brown made their famous flight,
British scientists were analyzing
the results of an expedition sent
to the African island of Principe
to observe a solar eclipse. The

John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in the plane they flew on the first

: expedition was intended to test
: the vali

ity of the General Theory
of Relativity, a revolutionary

= concept in physics formulated
during World War | by Albert

: Einstein (1879-1955). In

| September it was announced

that the observations did indeed

: confirm Einstein's theory,

fundamentally changing the

: Notions of time and space that
: had underpinned Isaac Newton's
: view of the universe.

_
ALBERT EINSTEIN
(1879-1955)

Einstein was born to Jewish
parents in southern Germany.
In 1905, he published his
Special Theory of Relativity,
which was followed by the
General Theory of Relativity
in 1915. His theories
revolutionized understanding
of the relationship between
time, space, matter, and
energy. From the 1920s
Einstein was féted worldwide,
but chose exile in the US,
away from Hitler's Germany.

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44 WHAT HAVE! GOT FOR
IRELAND? SOMETHING
SHE HAS WANTED THESE
LAST 700 YEARS. 99

Michael Collins, Irish revolutionary leader, 1921

As the agitation for |rish independence mounts, an angry crowd of protestors
in Dublin try to force a street barricade manned by British soldiers.

GERMANY REMAINED IMMERSEDIN = France and large numbers of : Russian Civil War. Asserting invaded Poland. Led by General
THE TURMOIL that had followed : Cattle, sheep, and horses to : Bolshevik authority over Ukraine Jozef Pitsudski (1867-1935),
defeat in World War | (see 1919). France and Belgium : and Belarus brought the Red the Poles mounted a counter-

In March, units of the nationalist. = Farther east, war continued to | Army into conflict with the Poles. offensive outside Warsaw that
paramilitary Freikorps occupied rage. The Bolsheviks triumphed After some early success against crushed the Red Army. Lenin

regime had collapsed. hero of Gallipoli (see
The Weimar government 1915], headeda
reluctantly engaged in talks nationalist parliament
with the victorious Allies over in opposition to the
implementation of the sultan and began a war
Versailles peace treaty (see to win control of what
1919). Germany began disbanding he regarded as Turkish
much of its armed forces and national territory—much
paying war reparations in kind, of which had been given
through deliveries of coal to to Greece by the Allies.
The year saw the
beginning of prohibition
in the US. The 18th
Amendment to the

Berlin and declared the Weimar | over the White generals in the : Polish forces, the Red Army (see 1917] was forced toendthe |

Republic overthrown. As H war on Polish terms. i

conservative politician Wolfgang More Easy Voney 1 Clever Crook Story—1n this lasue The terms imposedon

Kapp attempted to form a H == li. 1900 . Price—I5 Cents the Ottoman sultan by H

government, Weimar ministers September 1, Sitecripien Prive Ws yee the victorious Allies in

called fora nationwide general = the Treaty of Sevres

strike to resist the Freikorps ‘ meant breaking up the :
“putsch.” Workers walked out, H Turkish empire. In April, —

factories and transport shut : General Mustafa Kemal ;
down, and within days the Kapp (1881-1938), the Turkish

5% 3%
Serbia | Others

Polish Cross of Valor
pane This military decoration was
Constitution banned the introduced by Poland during the war

8% manufacture and sale with Bolshevik Russia in 1920 to
Belgium of “intoxicating liquors,” | recognize Polish deeds of heroism.
a move that had little H
10% influence on alcohol | Amendment, ratified in August,
Italy consumption, but guaranteed American women
provided a massive boost : the vote on equal terms with men.
to organized crime. The : The US did not take part in
more momentous 19th : the initiation of the League

: of Nations. This international
body—dedicated to the peaceful
i resolution of disputes and

This magazine cover * theicellactive dat f
celebrates the passing ane ce) ee eee ence AD s
laf the 49th amnendmentto aggression—was the brainchild
the US Constitution, which of American president Woodrow
gave women voting rights. Wilson, but the US Congress

22% 52%
Britain France
Victory for suffrage
Dividing up reparations
The Allies agreed to divide up
German reparations payments after
a complex calculation of the losses
they had suffered during World War |. :

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refused to ratify it. Representatives
of 41 countries attended the

League's first General Assembly
in Geneva in November, but
neither Germany nor Russia
was among them.

Meanwhile, war had broken
out in Ireland, where Britain was
resisting the declaration of an
Irish Republic. British World War |
veterans were recruited into two
new units, the Black and Tans
and the Auxiliaries, to fight the
Irish Republican Army (IRA). On
November 21, in an operation
planned by IRA intelligence chief
Michael Collins (1890-1922), the
IRA killed 13 people in Dublin. The
Auxiliaries responded the same
afternoon by firing into a Gaelic
soccer crowd, killing 14 people.

In the same month, on the
second anniversary of the
armistice ending World War I,
Britain and France each buried
an Unknown Soldier. The French
soldier was entombed at the Arc
de Triomphe in Paris, and the
British soldier in Westminster
Abbey in London. It was intended
to commemorate all those who
had given their lives, irrespective
of rank or social class.

The last major event of the year
was the accession of General
Alvaro Obreg6n (1880-1928) as
president of Mexico. Obregon had
been one of the chief players in
the civil conflicts that had torn the
country apart since the Mexican
Revolution (see 1910). His armed
overthrow of President Venustiano
Carranza [1859-1920] gave
Obregon the chance to establish
a relatively stable government.

MILLION
THE ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
PEOPLE WHO DIED IN THE
RUSSIAN FAMINE OF 1921

Russian famine victims receive food from arelief train. The US played
a leading role in the international effort to feed the starving.

IN 1921, RUSSIA experienced

one of the most destructive
famines of the 20th century.
Years of warfare and revolution
had laid waste to the Russian
countryside, which was further
devastated by drought in the Volga
region. As hundreds of thousands
died of starvation and disease,
Lenin's Bolshevik government
reluctantly appealed for foreign
relief. The most prominent
participant in the international
humanitarian effort was the
American Relief Administration,
led by future US president Herbert
Hoover [1874-1964]. Despite the
distribution of food aid to around
10 million people, millions died
by the time the famine abated

the following year.

The Bolsheviks continued to
impose the will of their party
upon their devastated country.

In March, workers, soldiers,
and sailors rebelled at the naval

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

.
Belfast

Sea

Division of Ireland

Northern Ireland, with a mainly
Protestant population, was
separated from southern Ireland,
which became the Irish Free State.

fortress of Kronstadt, demanding
free elections, freedom of
speech, and the right of peasants
to own land and cattle. The
rebellion was crushed by
Bolshevik forces, but faced with
popular discontent and economic
devastation, the Bolsheviks had
to retreat from some of the
communist measures they had
adopted. Lenin’s New Economic
Policy [NEP] allowed a limited
capitalist market economy. Once
peasants were permitted to sell
their produce at a profit, the rural
economy quickly recovered and
food supplies were assured.

Despite the tribulations of the
Russian Bolshevik government,
its example continued to stimulate
the foundation of Communist
parties across the world. This
included the Communist Party
of China, which held its founding
congress in Shanghai in July.

In Ireland, Britain attempted
to fulfill its pre-World War |
commitment to Irish Home Rule
(see 1914). To appease the Irish
Protestants the country was
divided. Home Rule parliaments
were established in Dublin and
Belfast, and both parts remained
within the United Kingdom. This
was accepted by the Protestants,
but rejected by Irish Republicans.
Negotiations opened in London,
and on December 6 the Irish
delegation agreed to accept the
division of Ireland in return for
Dominion status within the British
Commonwealth. Southern Ireland
became the Irish Free State, but
many Irish Republicans were
outraged by the compromises

MAO ZEDONG (1893-1976)

The son of a farmer, Mao
helped to found the Chinese
Communist Party in 1921. He
developed the idea of basing
a revolution on support from
peasants, rather than
industrial workers. From
1949 he ruled Communist
China as party chairman. His
radical policies, including the
Great Leap Forward in 1958
and the Cultural Revolution
of the 1960s, caused vast
disruption and loss of life.

in the Anglo-lrish Treaty, which
led to civil war (see 1922).
Britain also had troubles at
home. A brief post-war economic
boom was followed by the
collapse in demand for products
from many of the country’s
traditional industries, such as
coal mining and shipbuilding.
By June, more than 2 million
people were unemployed.
For the men who had fought in
World War |, it was a bitter irony
to find themselves lining up for
unemployment benefits.
In the US, racism and anxieties
about political subversion were

rife. In Tulsa, Oklahoma, the most =

destructive race riot in American
history saw most of the African-
American section of the town
destroyed in white attacks.
Support for the white supremacist
Ku Klux Klan rose rapidly, and
concerns about the racial
makeup of the US population

were reflected in tight limits on

: foreign immigration. The

: Emergency Quota Act linked the

: right of entry to country of origin,

| southern and eastern Europe.

: Asians were entirely excluded.

: The assumption of white racial

i superiority suffered a severe blow

: in Morocco, which the French

: into “spheres of influence.”

: Spanish troops attempting to
control the mountainous Rif

: region were surrounded and

' massacred by local Berbers

: at the Battle of Annual in July.

The Berber leader Abd el-Krim

: declared the region an

: independent Rif republic,

: but it succumbed to a combined

: French and Spanish counter-

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Demonstrators gather on the streets of Delhi to protest against the arrest
of Indian nationalist leader, Mohandas Gandhi.

FOUR YEARS AFTER THE
CONCLUSION OF THE “WAR TO
END WAR,” serious progress was
made toward a more peaceful
future. Meeting in the US in
February, the world’s five major
naval powers—Britain, France,
Italy, Japan, and the US—signed
the Washington Treaty, limiting
the size of their navies. The same
conference also called for an end
to the military use of poison gas
and banned submarine attacks
on merchant shipping. It was
the first effective arms limitation
agreement between major powers.
Britain sacrificed most, accepting
naval parity with the US after
long domination of the world’s
oceans, but the treaty was most
controversial in Japan, where
nationalists objected to naval
inferiority to Britain and America.
Another hopeful sign of the
flowering of peace was the
development of international
air travel in Europe. Small,
noisy, uncomfortable aircraft had
begun scheduled flights between
European cities, exploiting the
surplus of trained pilots and
aircraft manufacturing capacity
left over from the war. Navigation
was primitive, and most pilots
simply followed roads or
railroads. This resulted in the first
commercial air disaster in April,
when a passenger aircraft flying
from London to Paris met an
aircraft following the same route

in the opposite direction. : agree ona settlement, in and jewel-studded chariots. 1922 1931 1937
; In the Middle East, Britain faced » February Britain unilaterally i Carnarvon 's death the following Population growth in Palestine
intractable problems reorganizing declared Egypt independent, : year inspired a myth, the curse Through immigration, the proportion of Jews in Palestine
i » increased rapidly. This provoked a violent reaction
from the Ottoman Empire. The troops there. : impact of the discovery. from the Muslim majority.
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: immigration of Jews to Palestine
: [see panel, above], which Britain

: clashes between Jews andArabs |

: territory, Egypt, Britain faced

: to the protectorate it had
: established in 1914. Unable to

IRAQ

lordan River

PALESTINE

TRANS-
JORDAN

EGYPT ARABIA
KEY
"> French mandate area

British mandate area

Former territories of the Ottoman Empire were divided between
Britain and France, an arrangement legalized by League of
Nations mandates. In accordance with the Balfour Declaration
(see 1917], Britain had agreed to allow Jewish settlement in
Palestine, but had also given wartime promises to the Arabs.

In 1922, it divided its Palestinian mandate territory along the line
of the Jordan River. Jewish settlement was allowed to the west,
and to the east Transjordan would remain purely Arab land.

A more positive side effect
: of the British presence in Egypt
: was the discovery by British
archaeologists of the tomb of
| Tutankhamun. The Earl of
© Carnavon [1866-1923] and
: Egyptologist Howard Carter
© (1874-1939) entered the tomb
: to find unparalleled treasure,
i including a gold face mask

was committed to allowing, led to

that the British could not control.
In another former Ottoman

determined nationalist opposition

44 ...ONE SHOULD BE FREE TO
GIVE THE FULLEST EXPRESSION
TO HIS DISAFFECTION SO LONG
AS HE DOES NOT CONTEMPLATE,

PROMOTE, OR INCITE VIOLENCE. 99

Mohandas Gandhi, in a statement during his trial, March 18, 1922

In India, nationalist opposition
to British rule had found a leader
in Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948). |
Winning the support of the
peasant masses for the Indian
National Congress independence
movement, he organized a
nationwide campaign of civil
disobedience, including a boycott
of British goods. Although Gandhi
advocated strict nonviolence, his
campaign generated widespread
disturbances, including the
massacre of 23 police officers
at Chauri Chaura in February.
Gandhi was arrested by the
British authorities in March
and sentenced to six years prison,
of which he served only two.

Implementation of the Anglo-
Irish Treaty in southern Ireland
(see 1921) led to a vicious civil
war. Michael Collins (1890-1922),
head of a provisional Irish Free
State government in Dublin,
was opposed by anti-Treaty
republicans. In April, the Irish

1,000,000
KEY

Jews
@ Muslims
@ Christians

800,000

600,000

POPULATION

400,000

200,000

: Republican Army (IRA} occupied
» Dublin's Four Courts building.

After a lengthy standoff, in June

® Collins used artillery loaned by

: Britain to bombard the Four

: On August 22, Collins was killed
_ in an ambush ona country road

: in County Cork. More numerous
: and better armed, the Free

: State troops had crushed most

: opposition by the time the treaty
: came into effect on December 6.

The Protestant northern province

i of Ulster remained part of the
: United Kingdom.

In Turkey, nationalists led

: by Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938)

: were at war with Greece, which

: aspired to create a “Greater

» Greece” including Constantinople
: and much of western Anatolia.

| Dumlupinar drove the Greeks

| into retreat. The predominantly

Benito Mussolini mingles with his Fascist Blackshirt paramilitaries in Rome
after being appointed prime minister by the Italian king in October.

forces and devastated by fire.
Britain contemplated intervening
against the Turks, but in an
armistice agreed to at Mudanya
in October both the European
powers and Greece accepted the
Turkish military victory. Under the
agreed to peace terms there was
a large-scale exchange of people,
with over a million Greeks expelled
from Turkey and half a million
Turks forced to leave Greece.
Abandoned Greek villages in
western Turkey still bear witness
to this human tragedy. The
Republic of Turkey was founded
the following year, with Mustafa
Kemalas its first president.

1922 was the year when Benito
Mussolini (1883-1945) achieved

: power in Italy. Since the end of
: World War |, Italy's ruling class
: had been intimidated by waves

of militant action, with socialist
workers occupying factories

: and peasants taking over large
: estates. In this troubled situation,
: Mussolini founded the fasci di

combattimento, a nationalist

: militia that attacked socialists

and seized power by force in

: some Italian towns. In October,
: Mussolini threatened to lead his
: Fascist followers in a “March on

Rome” unless he was made head

: eventually gave in and Mussolini

dismantling Italy's system of
parliamentary democracy.

As Mussolini was muscling his
way to power, the first national
radio broadcasting company
was being established in Britain.
Like the early radio stations that
were starting up in the US, the
British Broadcasting Company
(later Corporation) was financed
by manufacturers of radio sets,
eager to create a market for
their products. And it worked;
by March 1923, daily broadcasts
of concerts, news, and talks had
attracted 125,000 people to buy
licenses from the Post Office for
their “wirelesses.” The US would
not have a major broadcasting
network until the formation of

Benito Mussolini, October 24, 1922

the National Broadcasting
Company (NBC) in 1926.
New modernist trends
in literature were
prominent in 1922. Irish
writer James Joyce's
novel Ulysses, published
in Paris in February, broke
all literary conventions, but
its language and subject
matter ensured that it was
banned as obscene in
countries with tighter
censorship rules
than France. The
more decorous
American
expatriate poet
T.S. Eliot caused
a sensation with
his long and
obscure poem
The Waste Land, which came
with notes to help the reader
follow its numerous literary
allusions. Experimentation was
also rife in the movies, from
German director F. W. Murnau’s
expressionist horror movie
Nosferatu to American filmmaker
Robert Flaherty’s groundbreaking
documentary Nanook of the North.
Russia was entering a period of
relative tranquillity, after the
upheavals of revolution and
civil war. At the year’s end the
former Russian Empire was
reconstituted as the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics

“Father of the Turks”

Mustafa Kemal, the founder of the
Turkish Republic, talks with camel
drivers during the Turko-Greek War.
He later took the name Ataturk.

Early airwaves
: Early radio sets were often

46 EITHER THE GOVERNMENT WILL
BE GIVEN TO US OR WE SHALL
SEIZE IT BY MARCHING ON ROM!

impressive-looking pieces of
equipment. This one, from 1925, has
an unusual, star-shaped antenna.

(USSR), but by then the founder of

: the world’s first communist state,
» Vladimir Lenin (see 1917) had
been disabled by a stroke. Despite

this, he dictated a document, later
known as “Lenin's Testament,”

: that was critical of several of

his colleagues. In particular, it

» warned against the rudeness
: and intolerance of Joseph Stalin
: [1978-1953], newly installed as

the Soviet Communist Party's
General Secretary, and proposed

: that he be removed from his

post. After Lenin's death,

* knowledge of the document was

restricted to a communist inner

5 circle, and action against Stalin
: Was never taken.

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ah
ag

Officers of Spain’s Guardia Civil stand by debris from a bomb explosion in

Barcelona during the disturbances preceding the seizure of power by de Rivera.

IN 1922, THE GERMAN
GOVERNMENT had declared itself
unable to pay war reparations,
which were due to the victorious
Allies in gold Marks. The French,
led by fiercely anti-German prime
minister Raymond Poincaré
(1860-1934), were determined
to take action. In January 1923,
French and Belgian troops
occupied the Ruhr, Germany's
industrial heartland. The German
government responded by
encouraging passive resistance—
strikes stopped production in
mines and factories.

The occupation triggered
hyperinflation, and a collapse
in the value of the German Mark.
Inflation was already out of
control before the Franco-Belgian

occupation, but the German
: government's decision to print

banknotes to pay striking Ruhr
workers was fatal. By the summer,
the Mark was almost worthless.

: The exchange rate against the US
| dollar rose hourly, and eventually
© reached 5.72 trillion Marks to the
» dollar. By the time inflation

stamp. In contrast, those who
owed money had their debts

- eradicated. In August, Gustav

» Stresemann (1878-1929), a

: respected German politician,

: formed a coalition government, -
and the following month called off i

passive resistance in the Ruhr. In

The chaotic state of Germany

: tempted a minor political
: extremist, Adolf Hitler (see
: panel, right), to make a bid for

power in the Munich Putsch

Worthless paper money

The collapse of the German
currency resulted in the printing
of 500 million Mark notes, Smaller
notes were so worthless they were

44 WE HAVE REASON ON OUR SIDE AND,
THEREFORE, FORCE, THOUGH SO FAR WE
HAVE USED FORCE WITH MODERATION. 99

Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish dictator, September 1923

VALUE OF THE MARK AGAINST THE US DOLLAR

: 10,000,000,000,000

10,000,000,000
1,000,000,000
100,000,000
10,000,000
1,000,000
100,000
10,000

1,000

100

Mar
1922

Jan
1922

German hyperinflation

: The value of the Mark against the US
November, the Mark was replaced :

: by the Rentenmark, knocking
| 12 zeros off the old currency and
i restoring public confidence

dollar reflects the acceleration of

» on November 8-9. Hitler had

: made himself leader of the

: Nationalist Socialist Party

: (Nazis). He had also won

: powerful allies, including war
: hero General Erich Ludendorff

(1865-1937). Hitler planned

: to use the Bavarian capital,

: Munich, as the base fora

| “March on Berlin’ in imitation

| of Mussolini's “March on Rome”
' [see 1922]. But, at the last

: moment, Bavarian leaders
opposed the putsch. Hitler

: and Ludendorff were confronted
» by the army and police on the

| streets of Munich. After a brief

: gunfight, the attempted revolt

» disintegrated. Hitler was
arrested two days later and

: charged with high treason

Aug
1922

y
1,000,000,000,000- KEY Pa
Exchange rate of Pa
100,000,000,000 #RS German Mate r,

Dec
1922

Jan Dec

1923

While Hitler's attempted coup
failed, in Spain General Primo
de Rivera (1870-1930)
succeeded in seizing power.

In the aftermath of the Spanish
defeat by Abd el-Krim’s Berbers
at Annual (see 1921], the Spanish

: parliament had launched an
: investigation into the army and

Spain's King Alfonso XIII (1886-
1941] to apportion blame. Primo
de Rivera dismissed parliament
and established a military
dictatorship under the king.
Sadly, his desire to end Spain's
economic problems and bitter
political divisions proved far
beyond his power or ability.

A more successful military man

: was Turkey's Mustafa Kemal

(1881-1938}, later known as

: Ataturk. Victorious in the war
| against Greece |see 1922), Kemal

formally founded the Turkish
Republic in October. He
embarked upon a series of radical

1923 |

ADOLF HITLER
{1889-1945}

Born in Austria, Hitler fought
in the German army in World
War |. An inspired orator, he
won mass support for his
National Socialist (Nazi)
Party from the late 1920s.
From 1933, he established

a ruthless dictatorship that
resulted in the Holocaust
(see 1942]. His expansionist
policies caused a war in
1939 that finally led to the
destruction of his Reich.

into a modern secular state.

: He banned traditional dress,

i abolished the Muslim caliphate
| system of government, and

| replaced Arabic script with the
: Roman alphabet.

In Japan, one of the worst

: natural disasters of the century

: struck on September 1. Known

: as the Great Kanto earthquake,
» a tremor measuring 7.9 on the

: Richter scale devastated Tokyo
: and the surrounding area. The

: quake started fires that were

use to light stoves. : (see 1924). reforms designed to turn Turkey whipped up by high winds into
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Tokyo in ruins after the earthquake of 1923. More than 140,000 people were

—

killed in the disaster, which destroyed half a million buildings.

a firestorm. A tsunami up to 30ft
(10m) high struck coastal
districts, including the port of
Yokohama. The death toll was
estimated to be close to 150,000.
At this time, the US appeared
as a beacon of prosperity in a dark
world. President Warren Harding
(1865-1923) died in office and was
succeeded by his vice president,
Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933].
Coolidge became notorious for
his placid complacency, describing
the US as enjoying “a state of
contentment seldom before seen.”
Indeed, the US was becoming the
world’s first modern consumer
society, producing nine out of
10 of the world’s automobiles.
African-American jazz
musicians provided the
soundtrack to this era of
prosperity. Concentrated in
the northern cities, such as
Chicago and New York, jazz was
popularized by the new medium
of radio. New York's Harlem
district became the center of
an African-American cultural
explosion, in literature as well
as music, and the Cotton Club
opened there in 1923. It became
one of the most famous venues
for live jazz, but black people were
only admitted as performers.
Despite its problems, Germany
was still culturally vibrant. The
Bauhaus crafts and design school
was founded by architect Walter

The Bauhaus exhibition

Joost Schmidt, a teacher at the
Bauhaus, designed the poster for
the 1923 exhibition, which linked
modern art to industrial technology.

Gropius (1883-1969) in 1919,
rejecting the traditional artist's
hostility to modern technology
and mass production. By the time
of its first major exhibition in 1923,
its mission was to bring functional
modernist aesthetics to the
everyday world, from the design
of apartment buildings and
electrical appliances to tubular-
steel chairs and typography.

Queen Mary, wife of King George V, visits the Empire Exhibition at
Wembley, mounted to inspire enthusiasm for Britain's imperial glory.

VLADIMIR ILYICH LENIN (1870-
1924), founder of the Soviet Union,
died of a massive stroke on
January 22. Hundreds of
thousands filed past his body in
Moscow's Hall of Columns.
Largely at Stalin's insistence,
Lenin’s body was embalmed and
placed on permanent display; his
brain was removed for study by
Soviet scientists, who were tasked

: with discovering “the substance of

: his genius.” Lenin statues were

} erected across the Soviet Union,
and the city of Petrograd was
renamed Leningrad in his honour.

: In Britain, the Labour Party,

: brief spell in government.

: Despite Macdonald’s moderation,

£ the presence of socialists in

government was a shock to the

» British establishment. When an
election was called in October, a
letter, purportedly sent by Soviet

: Comintern chief Grigory Zinoviev,

: was leaked to the press. It was
used to accuse Labour of being
soft on communism, and

: contributed to their election defeat.

The British Empire Exhibition,

: held at Wembley in London from
April, was a conscious attempt to

: promote the imperial idea as a

: source of strength and security in

: a troubled world. Its opening was
the first occasion that a British
monarch, George V (1865-1936),
made a speech on the radio

Political and economic

: conditions in Germany began to
recover from postwar chaos, with

: the help of the US. The Dawes

: Plan, named for American banker

and politician Charles G. Dawes,
arranged for the withdrawal of
French and Belgian troops from
the Ruhr (see 1923), and for
German payment of reparations
with the help of US loans.
Meanwhile, Nazi leader Adolf
Hitler was put on trial for his
attempted Munich Putsch (see
1923). Seizing the opportunity to

: make political speeches in court,

he became a national celebrity. He
was found guilty of high treason,
but given a lenient five-year prison

: sentence, of which he served less

than a year. During his time in

: Landsberg prison, he dictated

the first volume of Mein Kampf
(My Struggle), a statement of

» his political beliefs.

Meanwhile, in Italy the murder

Giacomo Matteotti (1885-1924)

: drew attention to the lawless

: violence underpinning Benito

: Mussolini’s Fascist government
| (see 1922]. Matteotti was

| presumed to have been killed

Opposition deputies withdrew

: from parliament in protest,

opening the way for Mussolini
to move more swiftly toward
a single-party dictatorship.

‘THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO
FILED PAST LENIN’S BODY AS IT
_ LAY IN STATE FOR FOUR DAYS

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1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

iit SLORY OF

Until the 20th century, human flight was an area of experiment for
enthusiasts. Ascents in balloons sparked the first flying craze but had
little practical effect. In the 19th century, engineers calculated the
forces involved in winged flight and experimented with gliders, but it
was the arrival of gasoline engines that made powered flight practicable.

Side view

wing with anhedral __/
angle (pointing
downward at back)

—

chain propeller ZL

\__ wooden ribs
mechanism =

covered in muslin

Zeppelin airship
1903

1783

Hot-air balloon
French brothers
Joseph and Etienne
Montgolfier complete
the first manned flight

in a hot-air balloon. Montgolfier balloon

c. 1485-1510

Leonardo's flying machine

Early concepts of human flight, like those
sketched by Leonardo da Vinci, are based
on bird flight but are technically impractical.

Da Vinci's ornithopter

1900

First Zeppelin flight
On July 2, German
pioneer Ferdinand
von Zeppelin’s LZ-1
successfully takes
to the skies.

1852

First powered flight

Frenchman Henri

Giffard attaches a steam

engine to a balloon filled

with coal gas; powered

flight begins. Nat

Giffard’s airship

The Wright Flyer

On December 17, the Wright
brothers complete the first
sustained, controlled flight in
a powered, heavier-than-air
machine at Kill Devil Hills,
North Carolina, US.

1909

Long-distance flight
On July 25,
Frenchman Louis
Blériot flies across the
English Channel from
France to England.

Louis Blériot

1919

Airlines progress

The first scheduled
international passenger

air service is inaugurated
between London and Paris;
the first airlines are set up.

1914

Aircraftin warfare
Use of aircraft for
combat transforms
aviation; tens of
thousands of aircraft
are mass-produced
for the first time.

THE STORY OF FLIGHT

44 WE COULD NOT UNDERSTAND THAT THERE WAS ANYTHING
ABOUT A BIRD THAT COULD NOT BE BUILT ON A LARGER SCALE. 99

Orville Wright (1873-1948), American aviation pioneer

American brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright
made the first viable powered winged aircraft by
attaching an engine to a glider in 1903. They solved
the problem of controlling an aircraft in flight and
by 1905 had a machine that would stay airborne
untilits fuel ran out. In the beginning, airships
outperformed winged aircraft, but they were slow
and fatally accident-prone. Successors to the

landing skids

Sikorsky VS-300

1930s
Helicopters evolve

The first helicopters are developed
by Louis Breguet in France, the
Focke-Wulf company in Germany,
and Igor Sikorski in the US.

1927
First non-stop transatlantic flight

On May 20-21, American Charles
Lindbergh flies solo, non-stop from New
York to Paris in a single-
engine monoplane.

1935
Air travel

Spirit of St. Louis

Englishman Frank Whittle
invents the first jet engine.
The first jet-propelled
aircraft, the Heinkel He 178,
makes successful test flight.

becomes cheaper
The Douglas DC-3
passenger aircraft
makes flight cheaper
and more viable.

Wright brothers showed that winged aircraft had
astounding potential for increase in size, range,
and speed. By the 1930s, high-performance
aircraft could exceed 400mph (640kph], while
the development of flying instruments improved
safety. Long-distance flying feats made pilots
heroes in the 1920s and 1930s. But, by the 1940s,
the same flights were available to paying

uniquely designed
propeller blades

forward elevators

1952
1939 First commercial jet
Jet aircraft e The prototype de secs
Jf Havilland Comet, the Cee ee ay

de Havilland Comet

1947
Supersonic flight
American aviator Chuck
Yeager becomes the first
to pilot the rocket-
powered Bell X-1, the
first aircraft to break

the sound barrier.

first commercial jet,
takes off. Passenger
air travel zooms into
the jet age.

1961
Manned spaceflight
Soviet cosmonaut Yuri
Gagarin becomes the
first man in space,
orbiting the Earth in his
Vostok spacecraft.

passengers in the comfort of pressurized cabins.
Jet engines carried aircraft performance to
supersonic speed and altitudes at the edge of
space. Rocket technology then propelled humans
into space itself. From the 1970s, falling prices
turned flight into a worldwide mass transportation
system and made it accessible to the majority. Air
travel had bridged distances and shrunk the world.

A narrow wing made
from ash ribs

Wright Flyer

The Wright brothers’ home-built aircraft, which they used
for trial flights in December 1903, had a complex control
system with rudders and elevators.

1976
Concorde enters service

Concorde, the world’s first supersonic passenger
aircraft, enters commercial service.

1981
Reusable space craft
The space

shuttle Columbia
becomes the first
shuttle to be launched
into Earth's orbit,

on April 12.

Space shuttle Columbia

44 THE BEST OF

AMERICA DRIFTS

TO PARIS. 99

F. Scott Fitzgerald, American author

PARIS REASSERTED ITS CLAIM as
the world leader in taste and style
with the International Exhibition
of Modern Industrial and
Decorative Arts. The exhibition
gave a name—Art Deco—to
the design trend toward angular
shapes, abstract patterns,
exuberant African, Aztec, and
Egyptian motifs, and materials
such as chromium and ivory.
Art Deco soon set the style for
everything from scent bottles and
skyscrapers to ocean liners and
movie theaters.

Less noticed at the time was
a small exhibition of works ina
Parisian gallery by artists calling
themselves “Surrealists.” The
group, which included the Catalan
artist Joan Miré [1893-1983] and

Surrealist style

Harlequin’s Carnival exemplifies
the playful, anarchic style developed
in the 1920s by Joan Mird, a Spanish
Catalan artist living in Paris.

4 Re

American dancer and singer Josephine Baker was described by writer Ernest

xv ‘

Hemingway as “the most sensational woman anyone ever saw.”

: the American Man Ray (1890-
1976), were dedicated to the

unconscious impulses to

| subvert everyday reality. Over

: the following decade Surrealism

: was to become a major
international art movement.

Man Ray was one of a host

_ of American expatriates who

| flocked to Paris in the mid-

: 1920s, lured by the vibrant
cultural scene and the favorable
exchange rate. American writers
based in the city included

: Gertrude Stein (1874-1976),

| Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961),

» and F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-

: 1940), whose classic work The

: Great Gatsby was published in
1925. African-American erotic

: the Theatre des Champs-Elysées.

: For their part, the French took an

adoring interest in American jazz.

Back in the US, in Dayton,
i Tennessee, biology teacher
| John Scopes was put ontrial
i for teaching Darwin's theory of
» evolution. Scopes was backed by
: the American Civil Liberties Union
: to test Tennessee's newly passed
: Butler Act, which had outlawed
: the teaching of evolution.
© Christian fundamentalists
brought in former
: US Secretary of State
© William Jennings Bryan
: to act for the prosecution,
: and after atrial that enthralled
' America, Scopes was found
i guilty, although the verdict was
: later quashed.
: The general world political and
: economic outlook was better
© than at any time since World War I.
| In April, Britain’s Chancellor of
| the Exchequer, Winston Churchill,
» returned his country’s currency to
: the prewar Gold Standard. This
: set the value of sterling artificially
: high, creating problems for British
: exporters, but it was an important
© gesture toward the restoration of
| international financial stability.
In December, the Locarno Pact
: Was signed. This was a series
: of treaties designed to restore
| normal peacetime relations
© between Germany and the victor
© states of World War |. The
: agreement depended on the
: relationship established between
: the German and French foreign
: ministers, Gustav Stresemann
and Aristide Briand, and opened
» the way for Germany's admission
: to the League of Nations in 1926.

Reza Khan Pahlavi on his throne after being appointed shah of Iran. His aim

was to modernize his country along secular Western lines.

IN JANUARY 1926, SCOTTISH
ENGINEER JOHN LOGIE BAIRD
(1888-1946) made the first
demonstration of a television
transmission in a loft in London's
Soho district. Fifty members of
the Royal Institution saw the
indistinct, but recognizable moving
image of a face.

In May, Britain experienced
its only General Strike. This
nationwide industrial stoppage, in
support of coal miners, paralyzed
transportation networks and
docks, and closed down factories

revolving disc
containing lenses

puppet head
is filmed

The first television camera
: Logie Baird gave the first
demonstration of television
: using a mechanical system with
5 a spinning disk as the scanner.

In Iran, another military

strongman, Reza Khan Pahlavi

_ (1878-1944), established anew

: to modernize his country. The

and newspapers. The government :

responded by mobilizing troops
and recruiting volunteers to
maintain essential services. After

nine days the unions backed down i

and ordered a return to work.

In Poland, the nation's military
hero Marshal Jozef Pilsudski
(1867-1935) led a coup d’état
in May, in reaction against
the unstable parliamentary
government. Pilsudski declined
the presidency, but effectively
took dictatorial powers.

-THE NUMBER
-OF WORKING
-DAYS LOST
TO STRIKES IN
_THE UK IN 1926

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IN MAY 1927, 25-YEAR-OLD
CHARLES LINDBERGH (1902-1974)
flew solo across the Atlantic,

a feat that made him the most
famous American alive. The offer
of a cash prize for the first
nonstop flight between New

York and Paris had stimulated
feverish competition. On May 8,
famous French war aces Charles
Nungesser and Francois Coli
attempted the flight from Paris;
they set off westward over the
Atlantic and were never seen
again. Such dramas had wrought
excitement to a high pitch when
the unknown Lindbergh, an
airmail pilot, took off from
Roosevelt Field on May 20 aboard
a custom-built monoplane. Not
only did he succeed in reaching

Paris in 33 hours and 30 minutes,

but he did it alone. Lindbergh was
mobbed on landing in France and
the mixed blessing of celebrity
accompanied him for the rest of

NUMBER OF CARS [IN MILLIONS)

1919 1921 1923 1925 1927

Car ownership in the US

In the eight years from 1919 to 1927
the number of cars on America’s
roads tripled. Five-sixths of the
world’s automobiles were in the US.

44 I OWNED THE
WORLD THAT HOUR AS
I RODE OVER IT... 99

Charles Lindbergh, American aviator

% \

St Louis

Gulf of Mexico
The Great Mississippi Flood
Following months of heavy rain, the
Mississippi broke its levees in spring
1927, submerging a vast area of land
lin purple) and killing 246 people.

: his life. His achievement

stimulated the rapid growth of
commercial aviation in the US.
America's upbeat mood was
ripe for the world’s first modern
consumer boom, which was built
around the purchase of cars and
electrical goods. By 1927, there

: was one Car for every six

Americans—enough to ensure

might aspire to a Model T Ford.
Levels of saving were high, and
many chose to invest their spare

: cash in the rising stock market.

Not everything was as positive,

' however. Falling prices for

agricultural goods were hitting
rural areas worldwide, and the US,

: with almost half its population

working the land, was not immune.

Farm owners were heavily in debt

and farm workers were badly paid.
The terrible conditions

: experienced by many rural

workers was highlighted in April
1927 by the Great Mississippi

Aviator Charles Lindbergh poses alongside the Spirit of St Louis, the aircraft
in which he achieved the first nonstop flight from New York to Paris.

Flood, which was the worst flood
disaster in American history.
Many of its victims were black
and very poor; ill-treated and
neglected in refugee camps after
the disaster, many thousands of
them swelled the movement of
African-Americans from the south
to new lives in northern cities.
Two of the greatest works in
cinema history were
released in 1927: Fritz Lang's
futuristic Metropolis and Abel
Gance’s historical epic
Napoleon. But these hugely
ambitious silent movies were
upstaged by the success of Al
Jolson (1886-1950) in a sound
film, The Jazz Singer. Anew
era of “talkies” had arrived.
Second only to the
Lindbergh flight in media
coverage in 1927 was the
controversy surrounding the
execution of the anarchists
Ferdinando Sacco and
Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Italian
immigrants dubiously
convicted of a murder in
Massachusetts in 1920,
their case became a focus
of protests by liberals and
socialists, and their execution
by electric chair on August 23
provoked riots in a number of
cities across the world.
Meanwhile, in the Soviet
Union, Leon Trotsky

First feature-length “talkie”
The first successful full-length
sound feature film, The Jazz
Singer, took $2.6 million at
American box offices and made
Jolson a household name.

(1879-1940) was expelled from
the central committee of the
ruling Communist Party in
November, along with his allies

: Stalin (1878-1953]. Accused of

© “factionalism,” Trotsky was sent
i into internal exile in Kazakhstan
: the following January and finally
Grigori Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev. :
Once the favorite to succeed Lenin =
(1870-1924) as Soviet leader,
Trotsky had been ruthlessly
outmaneuvered by the party's
General Secretary Joseph

expelled from the Soviet Union
in February 1929. Zinoviev and
: Kamenev submitted to Stalin, but
: he had them executed in 1936.

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367

Bacteriologist Sir Alexander Fleming surrounded by test tubes in his laboratory.
Fleming discovered the antibiotic properties of penicillin in 1928.

IN THE SOVIET UNION, JOSEPH
STALIN (1878-1953) began radical
economic and social reform.

Abandoning the compromise of » suffered heavy losses when Chiang = killer, José de Leén Toral, was a penicillin

Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Kai-shek turned against them in | member of the Catholic Cristero Scottish scientist

Policy (see 1921], Stalin launched : 1927. Forced out of the cities they | movement that had launched an Alexander vee

a Five-Year Plan to transform " continued their struggle in remote | armed rebellion in response to Fleming (1881- Erehibition

the Soviet Union into a major
industrial country. He cracked
down on businessmen and
successful peasants who had
made money out of the revolution.
Hundreds of “bourgeois experts”
—people, such as engineers, who
had been valued for their skills
rather than their involvement in
the revolution—were arrested
and convicted of sabotage.

In China, Chiang Kai-shek
{1887-1975}, leader of the
nationalist Kuomintang (National
People’s Party}, was close to
establishing his rule over the
entire country. The warlords who
ruled different areas of China
either became his allies or were
defeated by his army. In June,
Kuomintang forces took Beijing,
and in October Chiang Kai-shek
formally established a national

: government, but he still faced

resistance. Former allies of the

_ Kuomintang, the communists

| rural areas—a large area of
} mountainous Jiangxi and Fujian
provinces came under the control

of the communist leader Mao

| Zedong [see 1921).

Political violence was also

: widespread elsewhere. In
Yugoslavia, hostility between

Croats and Serbs led to the killing

- of Croatian Peasant Party leader
| Stjepan Radic (1871-1928). He
: was shot by a Montenegrin Serb

political opponent in the Yugoslav

: parliament on June 20, and died

later of his wounds. With his realm

i torn apart by nationalist passions,
: the following year Yugoslavia’s

» King Alexander | (1888-1934)

: banned political parties and

assumed dictatorial powers.

In Mexico, General Alvaro
Obreg6n [1880-1928], the
dominant figure in his country’s

: politics since 1920, was
: assassinated after being elected
| president for a second term. His

Obregon’s assassination led to

: the formation of the National
: Revolutionary Party, which,
i under a variety of names,

dominated Mexican politics

| for more than 70 years.

In Germany, stability seemed

: to have been achieved after the
: chaotic post-World War | period.
: In elections to the Reichstag in

: May, Adolf Hitler’s extremist

Nazi Party won less than three

| compared with almost 30

| percent for the moderate Social
: Democrats. Under the German

: Republic's rigorous proportional
: representation system, the

| Nazis’ minimal support gained

: them 12 seats in parliament.

In August, Germany was one

: of the original signatories of an
» agreement for “the renunciation
| of war as an instrument of

national policy.” This supremely

Of more practical
consequence was
the discovery of

1955] accidentally
discovered the
antibiotic mold in
contaminated specimen dishes,
but the development of penicillin
for medical use was the work of
other scientists in the 1940s.

JOSEPH STALIN
(1878-1953)

Born Josif Dzhugashvili, in
Georgia, Stalin joined Lenin’s
Bolsheviks in 1903. After
Lenin's death he cleverly
outmaneuvered other
leading Bolsheviks to achieve
dictatorial power by 1929.

era weapon
Asawn-off, double-
barrelled shotgun hidden in a violin
case was a typical weapon for an
American gangster of the 1920s.

ON FEBRUARY 14, SEVEN PEOPLE
WERE SHOT DEAD in a garage
on Chicago's North Side. The
perpetrators of the St. Valentine’s
Day Massacre were probably
members of the gang headed
by Al Capone (1899-1947], a
prominent figure in organized
crime. The victims belonged to
the rival gang of Bugs Moran.
Both Capone and Moran drew
their main income from
bootlegging—the illegal trade in
alcoholic drinks that flourished
under prohibition (see 1920). The
massacre focused public outrage
on the crime and violence that
was rife in American cities. The
authorities were forced to take
action, which led to the arrest
and imprisonment of Capone on
charges of tax evasion in 1931.
On March 4, Republican
Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) was
inaugurated as US president. His

Chinese : Pact after US Secretary of State He ran a ruthless police state arrival in office coincided with a
suffering : Frank B. Kellogg (1856-1937] that murdered millions of its high point of complacency about
Prisoners taken and French Foreign Minister citizens, yet he presided over US economic progress. Through
during fighting Aristide Briand (1862-1932), the country’s transformation the 1920s the US had become the
between Chinese : < sone 5 apes 4 2
nationalist forces Pliged states to only resort to into a major industrial power world's first automobile-owning
andthose ofthe | Warinself-defense. Within a and led it to victory over Nazi society, with 26 million cars on the
northern warlord | year it had been signed by all Germany in 1945. road by 1929. Optimism and easy
Zhang Zuolin. the world’s major powers. credit drove share prices on Wall

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é

44 ANY LACK OF CONFIDENCE IN THE
ECONOMIC FUTURE OF THE UNITED
STATES |S FOOLISH. 99

President Herbert Hoover, in a speech after the stock market crash, November 15 1929

Herbert Hoover being sworn in as US president. His inauguration speech
foresaw “the day when poverty will be banished from this nation.”

Street in an apparently endless
upward curve—about 30 million
Americans had some form of
stock market investment. In the
prevailing mood, it was easy for
the president to view problems
in the economic scene—the ruin
of small farmers through falling
crop prices and poverty-line
wages of many urban workers—
as temporary problems that
could be overcome.

Moviegoing was one boom area
of the US economy. Hollywood
had become the center of film
production, and its “Big Five”
studios churned out hundreds of
movies a year. The film industry

Winning movie

The first movie to win the Academy
Award for Best Picture was Wings, a
silent film about World War | fighter
pilots, staring actress Clara Bow.

was going through a technological
revolution, with the transition
from silent to sound movies. It
was also becoming intensely
conscious of its status and image.
The Academy of Motion Picture
Arts and Sciences made its first
annual “Oscar” awards in 1929,
awarding Best Picture to the war
film Wings—the only silent movie
to win the accolade.

In Italy, Benito Mussolini's
{1883-1945} Fascist regime
achieved a diplomatic triumph in

» signing the Lateran Treaty with
: Pope Pius XI. Since the unification

of Italy in 1871 there had been an
unresolved dispute between the
Italian state and the papacy, with
successive popes regarding
themselves as “prisoners” in
the Vatican. The Lateran Treaty

an independent state and
acknowledged Catholicism as

» Italy's official religion. Unofficially

they described as “the
enslavement of the German
people.” Although only 14
percent of voters backed it, the
referendum campaign
significantly raised Hitler's
political profile in Germany.

The long shadow cast by
World War | was also evident
in a wave of antiwar books.
They included American writer
Ernest Hemingway's novel
A Farewell to Arms, British poet
Robert Graves's (1895-1985) war
memoir Goodbye to All That, and
All Quiet on the Western Front,
written by German novelist Erich
Maria Remarque (1898-1970).
Presenting war as a futile waste
of human lives, they captured
the popular mood of the time.

By far the most important event

of the year, however, was the Wall

Street Crash. In September, the

: share rise faltered. By October 23,

shares prices were falling, and
the following day, “Black

| Thursday,” the market dropped

in a stampede of selling. In

: vain, President Hoover assured
: the American public that “the

: fundamental business of the

prosperous basis,” but the selling

: of shares went on, and there were
: further sharp falls. Speculators

who had bought shares on credit

| were ruined, as were thousands
: of modest individuals who had

entrusted their life savings to
the market. Experts spoke of a
temporary “market correction,”

: and Hoover took action to

: stimulate the economy and create
: jobs, but the crash was the start

: of a long-lasting collapse in share
: prices, and the signal for the start
: of a worldwide depression.

210
it assured the Fascist regime the
support of the Catholic Church. g 190
Another attempt was made to 3 170
draw a line under World War | a
when the wartime Allies set up a 3 150
committee, headed by American a 130
: industrialist Owen Young, to
reconsider German reparations > 110
payments. Accepting that the wo
Dawes Plan [see 1924] had fixed 4
payments too high, the Young > 70
Plan made proposals for EI
Germany to paya reduced annual | ~ 5
+ sum until 1988. Although the deal 30
was accepted by the German 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935
government, it was denounced Wall Street index
| by conservative nationalists Share prices on the New York stock exchange
and by the Nazis. They forced a experienced a speculative boom in the 1920s,
referendum on reparations, which : which was followed by an unstoppable collapse.
a) ues
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. 369

ADVANCED COUNTRIES. WE MUST MAKE
GOOD THIS DISTANCE IN TEN YEARS. 99

Josef Stalin, in a speech to the first All-Union Conference
of leading personnel of Socialist Industry, February 4, 1931

IN THE EARLY MONTHS OF 1930,
THE SOVIET UNION was thrown
into turmoil by the mass
collectivization of agriculture—
the replacement of privately
owned peasant farms with large,
state-run farming practices. In
the eyes of dictator Joseph Stalin
(see 1928), who wanted to
transform the Soviet Union into a
modern industrial state, small-
scale peasant agriculture was an
obstacle to be ruthlessly swept
aside—both inefficient and tainted
with antisocialist self-interest.
The peasants, however, were
ferociously attached to their land
and farm animals, and when
communist officials were sent

to villages to organize collective
farms, they met widespread

resistance. Peasants slaughtered =

powerful light
for working
at night

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e shy ee? we” 3a
S
per os

i their animals rather than hand

: them over to the state, and
attacked the communists with
stones and clubs. The authorities

: responded with mass arrests of

. “kulaks”—better-off peasants—

® and troublemakers. By March it

: was announced that 14 million

: Soviet farms had been

: collectivized, but the chaos it

| created was so disruptive to
food production that Stalin had to
order a pause in the campaign.

It was no coincidence that the

: following month an agency known
as the Gulag was set up toruna
system of forced labor camps

Gulag camps, providing

wheel studs to
prevent tractor
from skidding

Collectivization failed to

: mechanical harvesters remained
: largely a fantasy; instead there

: was famine [see 1933). But it did

| stimulate a mass movement of

' peasants to the cities, where they
: found work on construction sites

: and in factories. Soviet industrial
: projects, many using Gulag prison
: labor, developed on a vast scale,

i while the rest of the world plunged
| into an economic recession.

In India the wily and charismatic

: Mohandas Gandhi [see panel,

: right) was mounting a campaign

: Of civil disobedience against

» British rule. Gandhi dramatized

| his opposition to the government
: salt monopoly by staging a march

i
44 WE ARE 50 OR 100 YEARS BEHINDTHE &

mac
Pe

Unemployed men waiting for food handouts in New York during the Depression.
There was no federal unemployment benefit or welfare in the US.

from Ahmedabad to the Indian
Ocean. Setting out on March 12,
he reached the sea on April 6,
and scooped up a handful of salt
water in public defiance of the
government's ban on unlicensed
salt gathering. Although Gandhi
advocated strict nonviolence,
the Salt March triggered riots
that redoubled after his arrest
on May 5. Despite this, the
British remained committed

to gradually extending India’s
limited self-government.

The exploits of adventurous
aviators continued to fascinate the
public, as they had done through
the 1920s. Pilots became national
heroes through pioneering
long-distance flights. In May,
Jean Mermoz (1901-36), who
was employed by the French
Aéropostale airmail company,
made the first postal flight across
the South Atlantic, flying a float
plane nonstop from Dakar in

West Africa to Natal in Brazil.

This completed an unbroken

airmail link that stretched
from France to Chile.
Meanwhile, the British cheered

as amateur pilot Amy Johnson —

(1903-41) flew solo from
Croydon in England to Darwin,

Soviet tractor

By the 1930s the
Soviet Union was
manufacturing its
own tractors. There
were about 200,000
tractors in the Soviet
Union by 1934.

MOHANDAS GANDHI
(1869-1948)

Known as Mahatma (“Great
Soul"), Gandhi was born into
a privileged Indian family and
studied law in London. His
first campaigns of non-violent
civil disobedience were in
South Africa. Returning to
India in 1915 he led the
opposition to British rule,
although many nationalists
rejected his non-violence.

In 1948 he was assassinated
by Hindu extremists, outraged
by his conciliatory attitude
toward Muslims.

: Australia in a second-hand De

: especially remarkable since she

had never even flown across the

» English Channel.

This amateur triumph of British

i aviation stood in stark contrast
: with the fate of an expensive

: government project, the R101

: airship. On its maiden voyage in
: October, R707 was intended to

>
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ww wos *
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oe = BSS ge pear a mS y? to x
Sgr ws «a eye oe

Famous flight

British aviatrix Amy Johnson after
her solo flight from England to
Australia. Pilots were among the
leading celebrities of the time.

carry the British Secretary of
State for Air and other dignitaries
from England to India. The badly
designed craft only reached
northern France, where it crashed
in bad weather, killing 48 of the
54 people on board.

By far the worst disaster of 1930,
however, was the collapse of the
world economy. In the US, at
the start of the year, most
commentators believed that, in
the wake of the stock market
crash [see 1929], the country was
facing a temporary and modest
economic downturn. In May,
President Herbert Hoover
(1874-1964) reassured Americans
that they had “now passed the
worst.” Instead, unemployment
continued to rise, bread lines
became a common sight, farmers
began to go bankrupt in large
numbers, and over 1,300 US

The burned-out wreckage of British airship R101 lies in a field outside
Beauvais in northern France. Britain's Air Secretary was killed in the crash.

banks failed during the year. The
US unwisely sought relief for its
farmers and unemployed workers
through blocking imports. The
Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, which
became law in June, placed heavy
duties on thousands of imported
goods. When the US's trading
partners retaliated, the world was
set on course for a disastrous
reduction in overall levels of trade.

In Germany, economic crisis
triggered political extremism and
the collapse of democratic
government. In March, the
governing coalition fell apart
because the Social Democrats
would not agree to cuts in
unemployment benefit. Heinrich
Briining (1855-1970), leader of
the Center Party, formed a
government without majority
support in the Reichstag. He
dissolved parliament in July,

clinging to power, ruling by
Emergency Decree.

were disturbed by the growing
support for Hitler's aggressive
nationalist extremism. France
showed its lack of trust ina
peaceful future by beginning
construction of formidable
defensive fortifications along its
border with Germany. In the
pursuit of absolute security,
the Maginot Line consumed
most of France's defense
budget during the 1930s.
South American countries
were especially vulnerable to the
Depression because of their role
as suppliers of food and raw
materials to the industrialized US
and Europe. Many experienced
political upheavals as economic
conditions worsened. In
Argentina, a military coup
ushered in a decade of political
conflict and government
corruption. In Brazil, an army
revolt brought Getulio Vargas
(1882-1954) to power in
November. Vargas installed a

: populist dictatorship that pushed
: for the industrialization of Brazil
Many observers outside Germany :

and suppressed political dissent,
while introducing social welfare
measures for the poor.

In Japan, radical nationalists,
including many army and navy

: Officers, believed the answer to

Osachi Hamaguchi (1870-1931)
outraged them further by seeking

offset a budgetary deficit. On

: November 14, Hamaguchi was
: shot at Tokyo station by a member
5 of a nationalist secret society. He

never recovered, and died nine
months later. It was an ominous

: sign of the Japanese militarists’
: determination to pursue their own
aggressive expansionist policies.

Japanese assassination

: Japanese Prime Minister

Hamaguchi after being shot bya
nationalist extremist at Tokyo

: Station. He died the following year.

15
a calling a general election against
Ft 4B a background of massive
3 unemployment. Adolf Hitler's
= Nazi Party mounted a spectacular
m 9 and violent election campaign,
Z blaming all of Germany's
= 6 Nazi vote in federal problems on the Versailles Treaty
S elections 1928-1932 (see 1919]. The Nazis increased
ee! A minority extremist party their seats in the Reichstag from
= in 1928, the Nazi party 12 to 107. b Fans d
) grew to be the largest t o 3 eto eSecen
0 single party by summer argest party in the country. _
May Sept July Nov 1932. They peaked at 37.4 Briining responded to a polarized
1928 1930 1932 1932 per cent of votes cast. Reichstag by ignoring it and
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cS oe

46 THE CAPITALIST CHAIN
IS AGAIN THREATENING TO

BREAK AT THE WEAKEST LINK.
SPAIN IS NEXT IN ORDER. 99

Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary,
speaking on the revolution in Spain, January 1931

Demonstrators in Madrid celebrate the revolution of April 1931 that overthrew.

the Spanish monarchy. Among the new reforms was women’s right to vote.

ON APRIL 14, 1931, KING ALFONSO

: XIILOF SPAIN (1886-1941)

: abdicated and fled into exile, after
: his supporters were defeated in

: municipal elections. The victors

| in this bloodless revolution, a

| coalition of moderate republicans
: and socialists, set up a provisional
: government headed by Niceto

| Alcalé-Zamora (1877-1949).

: The departure of the king and
founding of Spain’s Second

: Republic gave the urban and

: rural poor, as wellas nationalists

: in the Basque country and

: Catalonia, hope, but army officers,
i landowners, industrialists, and

the Catholic hierarchy were

: adamantly opposed to change.
: Spain was on the path to civil war.

In New York on May 1 the

: Empire State Building was

: officially opened. Standing

: 1,454 ft (443 m) tall to the top of its
: spire, it surpassed the Art Deco

: Chrysler Building, which had been
: the world’s tallest building for

| just 11 months. Begun in 1929, at
| the height of the US stock market

boom, the Empire State Building

expressed the boundless
: optimism of the time. But its

completion also came against a

: background of farm bankruptcies
: and rising unemployment.

Meanwhile, the world economic

| recession took a sharp turn for
| the worse through a major

European banking crisis. In May,

Austria's largest bank, the
Creditanstalt, failed, and by July
many major German banks also
faced collapse. German
Chancellor Heinrich Briining
proposed a customs union
between Germany and Austria,
and suggested Germany might
renege on payment of war
reparations. France's hostile
response was to refuse to help
prop up the German financial
system. Germany and Austria
were forced to take emergency
measures to block foreigners
from withdrawing funds.

Britain had made substantial
loans to German banks—money
that was now frozen. As a crisis
loomed, financial experts
advised Ramsay Macdonald’s
(1886-1937) Labour government
to cut expenditure to balance the
budget. In August, proposals to
cut unemployment benefit and
government employee pay
provoked a mass resignation by
Labour ministers. Macdonald
stayed as prime minister, forming
a coalition National Government
with the other two main parties,

USSR

MONGOLIA

‘Vladivostok

the Conservatives and the
Liberals. A Royal Navy strike over
pay at Invergordon panicked
foreign investors and triggered
arun on the pound, reducing the
value of sterling by a quarter.
The most ominous event of the
year was Japanese aggression
against China. On September 18,
Japanese army officers guarding
the South Manchurian Railway
carried out an attack on the
tracks, which they blamed on the
Chinese. This “Mukden incident”
provided the pretext for the
Japanese military occupation
of Manchuria. The occupation
was condemned by the League
of Nations as an act of aggression,
but the Japanese refused to
withdraw. The following year
Japan set up a puppet government
in Manchuria under Pu Yi
(1906-67), China's last emperor,
who had been deposed in 1912.
From September to December
a Round Table Conference on
the future of India was held in
London. The Indian National
Congress, the principal Indian
nationalist movement, was

Occupation of
Manchuria

Korea became a
Japanese colony in 1910.
In 1931, the Japanese
extended into Manchuria,
which became the puppet
state of Manchukuo.

KEY
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So

American pilot Amelia Earhart arrives in England after her historic solo
transatlantic flight in a Lockheed Vega monoplane.

THE NUMBER OF
STATES WON BY
ROOSEVELT IN
THE 1932 US
ELECTIONS

Japanese troops in Manchuria
The Japanese occupation of the
northern Chinese province of
Manchuria can be seen as their
first step toward World War II.

represented by Mohandas Gandhi
(1869-1948). He had negotiated
a pact with the British Viceroy of
India, Lord Irwin, to suspend the
civil disobedience campaign (see
1930). The conference was not

a success, however, and on his
return to India Gandhi resumed
his nonviolent campaign against
the British.

In contrast with the British
treatment of India was the
passage of the Statute of
Westminster by the British
parliament in December. This law
recognized full equality between
Britain and the dominions—
Australia, New Zealand, Canada,
South Africa, the Irish Free State,
and Newfoundland. For them, the
British Empire had truly become
a Commonwealth of Nations.

THE PEAK YEAR OF THE GREAT
DEPRESSION saw declining output
and sharply reduced levels of
trade bring mass unemployment
to the world’s leading industrial
nations. At least 13 million
Americans, around 3 million
Britons, and more than 5 million
Germans were unemployed. In
Europe, national unemployment
benefit programs helped the
jobless to survive, but in the US,
where only piecemeal local
welfare programs existed,
unemployment led to abject
poverty. Thousands became
homeless, living in shanty towns
ironically called “Hoovervilles”
after the US president.

‘

Industrial unemployment
German industrial workers had
the worst unemployment rate at
the peak of the depression, closely
followed by the US.

43.8%
GERMANY

15.4%
FRANCE

In Ireland, Eamon de Valera
(1882-1975) became president
after an election victory for his
Fianna Fail party in March. As a
republican who had taken part in
the Easter Rising (see 1916) and
had led the Irish Republican Army
(IRA) in the Irish Civil War [see
1922), De Valera was renowned
for his anti-British sentiments.

He revoked the Oath of Allegiance
to the British crown and entered
into a trade war with Britain that
damaged both countries.

In Germany, Nazi leader Adolf
Hitler (1889-1945) suffered
frustration in his campaign to
win power through the democratic
process. He stood for president
in the spring elections, but was
eventually beaten by the incumbent
Paul von Hindenburg (1845-1934).
Although in elections to the
Reichstag the Nazis were the
largest single party, they
continued to be excluded from
government. Ignoring the
Reichstag, Hindenburg installed
a conservative clique in power.

There was relief from the grim
news of the Depression when
American pilot Amelia Earhart
(1897-1937] became the first
woman to fly solo across the
Atlantic. Taking off from
Newfoundland in Canada on

the morning of May 20—the
fifth anniversary of Charles
Lindbergh's famous flight (see
1927)—she landed ina field in
Northern Ireland 14 hours and
56 minutes later.

The US presidential election
was held in November, against
a background of bank failures,
farm bankruptcies, and rising
unemployment. Herbert Hoover's
inability to halt his country’s

slide into the Depression gave
him little hope against the
Democratic challenger, and
former governor of New York,

' Franklin D. Roosevelt (see 1933).

During his campaign, Roosevelt
promised “a new deal for the
American people.” He won with

: 57.4 percent of the popular vote,

but what Roosevelt actually

intended to do about the

Depression remained unclear.

In summer 1932, more than 20,000 unemployed World War |
veterans gathered in Washington, D.C., to demand payment of a
“bonus” promised by the government in recognition of their
military service. They established a shanty town within sight of the
Capitol and vowed to stay until the money was paid. Their protest
attracted widespread sympathy from Americans distressed at
mass unemployment, but President Hoover refused to pay out.

On July 28, infantry, cavalry, and tanks were deployed to attack

the protesters’ camp and disband the Bonus Army.

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1914-2011 |

TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

Instant worldwide communication has become a defining characteristic of
the modern world. Until 200 years ago, most long-distance messages could
travel no faster than the horse or ship carrying them. It was the advent of
electricity in the 19th century that transformed communications.

receiver _~

In the 18th century, the French navy developed a
system for transmitting orders between ships using
semaphore flags. From the 1790s, semaphore was
used on land, with lines of stations relaying coded
messages using large signalling devices, each
visible to the next station in the chain. From the
1830s, the development of electric telegraph
replaced this medium. American Samuel Morse
produced a robust and practical system, a simple

on-off key generating a code that was transmitted
along a wire. By the 1860s, telegraph wires spanned
continents, and underwater cables enabled almost
instant communication across oceans.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the
invention of the telephone enabled electronic
transmission of speech. The discovery that radio
waves could transmit sound opened the new
possibility of broadcasting. From the 1920s,
“wireless sets,” providing entertainment and
news, became a common feature of households.
Television, however, did not become a mass
medium until the 1950s.

KEY
® Developed world
® Developing world
@ Global average

60-
50
40°
THE INFORMATION AGE

Several lines of development revolutionized
communications after World War II, creating the
“Information Age.” The advent of transistors made
electronic goods smaller and cheaper, and advances
in rocket technology allowed satellites to be placed
in space, enabling global access to communication
networks. The triumph of digital technology and
microprocessors from the 1980s made computers
almost universal. The potential flow of information
worldwide was effectively limitless

INTERNET USERS PER 100

0-
1996

1998

2000 2002

YEAR

2004 2006 2008
Long-distance call
Alexander Graham Bell initiates the first
telephone link between New York and

Chicago in 1892. By then, New York was
already linked to Boston and Philadelphia.

The rise of the Internet

The increase in Internet usage in developed countries

was dramatic between 1997 and 2007, but access remained
available only to a minority in the developing world.

Prehistory

be sent over

set of prearr

Sumerian tablet

Smoke signals
Fire allows smoke signals to

considerable

distances. However, this
method is limited to a simple

‘anged messages.

3100-2500 BCE
Cuneiform writing
Writing is a giant
step forward in
communication.
Mesopotamian
cuneiform script is
inscribed on
clay tablets.

1st-2nd centuries
Letters by courier
Letters are written on
papyrus or on wood in
the Roman Empire. The
Vindolanda tablets from
Roman Britain include a
birthday invitation.

2900-2350 BCE
Carrier pigeons
Pigeons are used to
carry messages in
ancient Egypt and
Persia. They will
continue to be used by
armies in World War |
and World War Il.

Vindolanda tablet

17th century
Newspapers
Newspapers, which disseminate
information to a large public,
develop in 17th-century Europe.
The development of the printing
press contributes to their growth.

The London Post

1784

Mail coaches

Britain introduces
four-horse coaches
that are faster than
passenger-carrying
stagecoaches to carry

post between major cities.

1837

1791-95
Visual telegraphy
French inventor Claude
Chappe pioneers a
semaphore system that
allows coded messages
to be transmitted by
chains of relay stations.

Electric telegraphy
American inventor Samuel Morse develops
the electric telegraph in the US. British

Railways uses an electric telegraph.

Morse
receiver

Chappe telegraph

THE STORY OF COMMUNICATION

ebonite earpiece

44 THAT'S

AN AMAZING
INVENTION, BUT
WHO WOULD EVER
WANT TO USE ONE
OF THEM? 9g

Rutherford B. Hayes, US President, to Alexander
Graham Bell after a demonstration of the telephone, 1876

|_— mouthpiece

crank, which drives a
dynamo to senda signal
_— to the exchange

bell, which rings when _ Early table telephone

an incoming signal is Made of metal, the Ericsson table
_-— sent from the exchange _ telephone dates from 1890. It

‘ combined the transmitter and
receiver into a single handset.
The handle cranked a generator
that rang a bell at the telephone
exchange to contact the operator.

1920s

Airmail

The carrying of mail by

aircraft, initiated on a small

scale before World War I,

becomes important,

transforming delivery times Apple

1870s
The telephone

Inventors, including American
Alexander Graham Bell, demonstrate early
telephones in the US. The first telephone exchanges

Early 21st century
Mobile communication
Mobile phone usage
becomes a mass
phenomenon in the first
decade of the 21st century.

in North America and Europe date from 1878. on long-distance routes. iPhone

A 1850s-60s Early 1900s 1920s-30s 1960s v% Late 20th
Mal? Penny Transatlantic cable Radio Television Communication ‘a a r century
Black Telegraph cables laid Wireless Transmission of satellites winnie red The Internet
across the Atlantic telegraphy moving images leads] Telstar enables od Global
1837-40 seabed allow and sound to public television the first live f computer
Postage stamp messages to be transmission broadcasting, though transatlantic networks
Britain introduces a low, exchanged between developed, few people own television create instant
uniform rate for postage, paid Europe and North leading to radio televisions until broadcast communication

by buying an adhesive stamp. America in minutes. broadcasting Wireless the 1950s. in 1962. Telstar through email.

44 ... THROUGH GOD'S
POWERFUL AID, WE HAVE
BECOME ONCE MORE
TRUE GERMANS. 99

Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, 1933
Me) je”

Adolf Hitler being greeted by his followers at the annual Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg
in September 1933—it was a celebration of his rise to power.

: IN GERMANY, AT THE END OF

: JANUARY, after backroom
negotiations with the conservative
: clique of politicians and army

: 1945) was invited to become

» Chancellor (head of government).
: The conservatives believed they

: control, since only three members
+ of the coalition government were

: Nazis. Hitler, however, celebrated

his appointment as if it was a

On February 28, the Reichstag

: building in Berlin burned down.
| The fire was blamed on a Dutch

: communist named Marinus van

: der Lubbe. It provided a pretext

: for an Emergency Decree that

: gave the government and its

: police almost limitless powers.

: The Nazis fell short of a majority

: in elections five days later, but

: on March 23, with the support of

: German parliament had voted for
: its own destruction; Hitler soon

: banned all other political parties,

: and created a single-party state.

The consequence of Nazi rule

» soon became evident. The first

improvised concentration

Reichstag fire

A Dutch communist was executed
for causing the fire at the German
parliament building, but many
believe the Nazis were responsible.

Jewish boycott

A Nazi Stormtrooper, accompanied
by an elite Schutzstaffeln (SS} soldier,
posts a notice ona Jewish shop
window— “Don’t buy from Jews!.”

camps opened in March; in April
a one-day nationwide boycott of
Jewish businesses was enforced;
and in May the German Student
Association organized the
burning of books described as
“un-German.” These highly
publicized acts were just the
beginning. As the protection of
the law was withdrawn from
communists, socialists, and Jews,
hundreds of opponents of the
regime were murdered and
thousands tortured and beaten.
Nazi violence troubled many
Germans, but support for the
regime was guaranteed by a sharp
turnaround in the economy and
the rapid disappearance
of mass unemployment. This

Center Party

= 12.3%
Communists

18.3%
SDP

German election results

The Reichstag election of March
1933 showed stubborn support for
the communists and the socialist
SDP despite intimidation.

: Was partly achieved through

» building of a network of autobahns
{highways}, that provided

i employment. There was also a

i the nationalist and Catholic parties, B% 43.9% . restoration of confidence,

: Reichstag to his government. The ci : The US also found a strong, new

leader in the person of President
Franklin D. Roosevelt (see panel
| right). In his inauguration speech
on March 4, Roosevelt told
: Americans that “the only thing we
have to fear is fear itself.” He
: immediately applied this principle
to the tottering US banking
© system. On March 6 every bankin
© the US was closed. The president
© announced that banks would not
+ reopen until the federal authorities
- had established they were solvent.

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44 I PLEDGE MYSELF TO

A NEW DEAL FOR THE
AMERICAN PEOPLE. 99

Franklin D. Roosevelt, at his nomination

acceptance speech, 1932

Americans accepted Roosevelt's
assurance that the banks were
now safe and came forward
to deposit their savings—a
confidence trick that worked.
Through the frenetic first
100 days of his administration,
Roosevelt pushed through a raft
of legislation to fulfil his promise
of a “New Deal.” The measures
were neither entirely coherent nor
uniformly successful. The wages
of federal employees were cut.
Farmers were paid to leave land
fallow and slaughter animals, to
raise farm prices. The National
Recovery Administration
pressured businesses to raise
wages and prices, to increase
profitability and consumer
demand. The Tennessee Valley
Authority brought electricity and
modernization to one of the most
economically backward regions
in the US. Most popular were

FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT (1882-1945)

Franklin Delano Roosevelt
entered politics as a Democrat
before World War I. As governor
of New York from 1928 he led
efforts to provide relief for the
unemployed. Elected president
four times, from his first
presidential campaign in 1932
he transformed American
politics by attracting the votes
of labor unions, ethnic
minorities, and African-
Americans. His New Deal
policies won him enduring
popularity, reinforced by his
leadership during World War II.

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direct work creation programs
such as those organized by the
Civil Works Administration.
These ranged from important
construction projects to
“poondoggles”—futile jobs

to keep men employed.

Above all, Roosevelt's personal
leadership had a dramatic effect
on American morale. His warm-
hearted radio broadcasts, known
as “fireside chats,” convinced
many Americans that they truly
had a friend in the White House.

The British, meanwhile, were
desperate to restore international
free trade, and to end the slide
toward protectionism and
devalued currencies. When a
World Economic Conference
assembled in London, however,
Roosevelt insisted on the right of
the US to manipulate its own
exchange rate and to deploy
tariffs in its national interest.

Young women in Florida having their backs decorated with the Blue Eagle of the National

Recovery Administration, a major plank of Roosevelt’s New Deal.

THE AVERAGE
LIFE
EXPECTANCY
OF A MALE
CHILD BORN
IN UKRAINE
IN 1933

The conference failed and,

in the absence of international
cooperation, all the countries that
attended continued to pursue
aggressive nationalist policies,
blocking the overall recovery of
the world economy.

While capitalist countries
struggled with the Depression,
the communist Soviet Union
seemed immune to such
problems. Hidden from the
outside world, its people suffered
a different catastrophe. While
Soviet propaganda celebrated
rising output, in 1932-33 famine
gripped the Ukraine and other
grain-producing areas, killing
millions of the rural population.
It mainly came about as the
result of the collectivization of
agriculture (see 1930). But the
scale of the disaster was vastly
increased by Stalin's insistence

on forcibly extracting
grain from starving rural
areas to feed cities.

At a time of widespread
distress and upheaval, it
was perhaps ironic that
the Chicago World’s
Fair, opening in May,
celebrated a “Century of
Progress.” The American
public loved the fair’s
celebration of the
onward march of
technology, but not
everything was devoted
to “progress.” The
burlesque dancer Sally
Rand was a major hit
with her “fan dance,” so
too was the arrival of 24 Italian
flying boats commanded
by marshal of the Italian Air Force
Italo Balbo, and a visit from the
German airship Graf Zeppelin.

The Chicago Fair's emphasis
on achievements in the air was
timely, for this was the year in
which the technology of air
travel reached a critical turning
point. The introduction of the
all-metal, streamlined,
monoplane Boeing 247 airliner,
which was capable of cruising
at over 150 mph (241 kph),
transformed journey times. The
247 could carry 10 passengers
coast-to-coast across the US
in just 20 hours. The Douglas
Aircraft Company responded
with the DC-1 and DC-2, which
shaved a further two hours off a
transcontinental scheduled flight.
Air travel was still expensive
though and remained a form of
transport used only by the well off.

Ridroce

Reiieed

| World’s Fair programme

The 1933 Chicago World's Fair,

: staged on the shore of Lake

Michigan, took the theme of

: science, technology, and industry.

A strange incident occurred

: holding together the British

» Commonwealth, led toa

diplomatic crisis. The English
team touring Australia adopted
intimidating “bodyline” tactics,

| its fast bowler Harold Larwood

aiming deliveries at the Australian
batsmen’s chests and heads.

: After two Australian players were
: injured at Adelaide, Australian

protests went to government
level. Intervention by the British
foreign office, eager to maintain
good relations with an assertive
Commonwealth state, ensured

: that the unapologetic Larwood

never played Australia again.

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IN A YEAR DOMINATED BY
POLITICAL VIOLENCE and
assassinations, the French Third
Republic was rocked by the
Stavisky affair. A crooked
financier, Alexandre Stavisky
committed suicide on January 8,
after the collapse of a dishonest
investment scheme. The right-
wing press accused leading
French politicians of profiting
from Stavisky’s fraudulent deals.
On February 6, various nationalist
and anti-Semitic groups
assembled in Paris, intending

to march on the Chamber of

Black-shirted paramilitaries of Oswald Mosley’s British Union of Fascists give
the Nazi salute. Mosley was inspired by the example of Mussolini and Hitler.

Deputies and overthrow the

i allegedly corrupt Republic. Ina
_ night of street fighting between
: thousands of demonstrators and

police, 15 people were killed and
many more injured. The attempt
to force the government to resign

- failed, and the Republic survived.

In the US, the public was

| distracted from the woes of the
: Depression by the exploits and
: violent deaths of outlaws and

: gangsters. Bonnie Parker and

Clyde Barrow led a gang that
robbed banks, stores, and gas
stations, roving from Texas
to Minnesota.
Their shoot-outs
with police and
narrow escapes
were reported
with feverish
excitement in the
press. Parker
and Barrow were
finally ambushed
and shot dead by
police at Bienville
Parish, Louisiana,

on May 23, 1934,

of “Bonnie and
Clyde.” Another
“most wanted”
criminal was the

Bonnie and Clyde
American outlaw
Bonnie Parker

partner-in-crime
Clyde Barrow. This

of film found by
police in 1933.

44 VERY FEW OF THESE PANIC-
MONGERS HAVE ANY PERSONAL
KNOWLEDGE OF THE COUNTRIES
THAT ARE ALREADY UNDER
BLACKSHIRT GOVERNMENT. 99

Lord Rothermere, Daily Mirror, January 22, 1934

photo was ona reel | y
| by Hitler, who was accompanied

: by SS guards. Rohm was asked to

: gangster John Dillinger. Arrested
: in January, he escaped from

: custody, but was tracked down by
: federal investigation chief J. Edgar
: Hoover. On July 22, Dillinger was

| gunned down by federal agents

: as he left the Biograph Theater,

: a movie house in Chicago.

Another man to die by the

: the Communist Party boss in

: Leningrad and a close associate

_ of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin.

i On December 1, aman walked up
| behind Kirov in a corridor outside

: was blamed on Leonid Nikolaev,

: an expelled party member with

: a grudge, but suspicions persist

: that Stalin may have arranged the
| assassination himself. Whatever

: the truth, the Soviet dictator used

: Kirov's death to pass anew

: antiterrorist law, which was

: later used to justify the arrest

: and execution of hundreds of

i thousands of people.

In Germany, on June 30-July 1,

: Adolf Hitler confirmed his hold
sealing the legend :
: as the Night of the Long Knives.

: The main target of the killings

: was the leadership of the SA

i (Sturmabteilung or Stormtroopers).

on power by a massacre, known

These paramilitaries had provided

: the muscle for Hitler's rise to
: power, but now the disorderly
: street-fighters had become an

: embarrassment. SA chief Ernst
playfully targets her =

Rohm was one of the hundreds

| that were killed. He was arrested

early on the morning of July 1

kill himself, but refused and was
shot without trial by the leader
of the SS, Theodor Eicke. As well
as the SA leadership, scores of
individuals who had criticized the
Nazi regime were also murdered.
In Austria, a Nazi attempt to
seize power failed. The Austrian
chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss
had established an authoritarian
single-party state. In February,
Dollfuss suppressed a left-wing
uprising in Vienna, using artillery
against the socialists’ stronghold
in the Karl Marx Hof housing
estate. He also banned the Austrian
Nazi Party. In July, the Nazis
attempted an armed coup, probably
intending to achieve the unification
of Austria with Nazi Germany.
Although Dollfuss was killed, the
coup failed. Kurt Schuschnigg,
a member of Dollfuss's party,
succeeded him as chancellor.
Britain was a relative haven of
tranquility, but even there fascism
was on the rise. Former Labour
minister Oswald Mosley had
founded the British Union of
Fascists (BUF] in 1932, hoping to
turn Britain into an authoritarian
state under his rule. In June 1934,
Mosley staged a rally at Olympia
in London that degenerated into
a brawl as BUF paramilitaries
fought with anti-fascist protestors.
Such political violence had little
appeal for the British, who were
also alienated by the fascists’ links

: with the Nazis—Hitler was a guest

at Mosley’s wedding. Although it
enjoyed the backing of some
national newspapers, the BUF
remained a minority party without
significant electoral support.

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Ethiopian tribal warriors gather to
fight for their emperor, Haile Selassie.

THROUGH THE FIRST HALF OF THE
1930S, parts of the US and Canada
were swept by giant dust storms as
topsoil blew off land ruined by a
combination of persistent drought
and intensive farming. The worst of
these “black blizzards” occurred
in April 1935, affecting a vast area
of the plains of Kansas, Oklahoma,
Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado.
The Dust Bowl created by this

THE ESTIMATED
AMOUNT OF
TOPSOIL BLOWN
OFF THE
SOUTHERN
PLAINS OF

THE US BY
DECEMBER 1935

ecological disaster could no
longer support small farmers,
who were forced to migrate in
their thousands. Many of them
found their way to migrant camps
in California, where they were
exploited as seasonal labor.
Meanwhile, President Roosevelt's
administration was pressing ahead
with a raft of reforms often referred
to as the Second New Deal. These
policies were more radical than

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Benito Mussolini imposed his
authoritarian, militaristic rule
on Italy from 1922 to 1943.

His Fascist state was widely
admired, but dreams of
conquest led to military
adventures and an alliance
with Nazi Germany. Unwisely
leading his country into World
War Il, he was deposed as the
Allies invaded Italy in 1943 and
eventually killed by partisans.

Roosevelt's original New Deal
(see 1933), favoring labor unions

Mao Zedong asserted himself as
the foremost communist leader.

over big business and the poor
over the rich. The Wagner Labor
Relations Act placed the
government on the side of workers

In December 1935, Mao declared
that the Long March had been “a
manifesto, a propaganda force...
proclaiming to the world that the

who went on strike to gain union
rights. The Social Security Act
provided federal pensions for the
elderly and subsidies for state-
run unemployment and sickness
benefit schemes. Such measures,
financed by higher taxes on the
rich, were denounced as socialist
by most US newspapers and their
millionaire owners, but confirmed
Roosevelt’s popularity with the
bulk of the American people.

In the civil war raging in China,
communist guerrillas escaped
destruction by the forces of
Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist
government through a series of
strategic withdrawals to remote
areas of the north and west.
During the Long March from
Jiangxi to Shaanxi, a journey of
around 6,200 miles (10,000 km],

Long March survivors
: Chinese communists of the First
Front Army arrive at Yanan in Shaanxi
: province at the end of the strategic
retreat known as the Long March.

Red Army is an army of heroes.”
But for the time being these
“heroes” remained hunted rebels.
In Germany, Hitler's Nazi regime
formalized its anti-Semitism
through the Nuremberg Laws in
September. Jews were deprived
of German citizenship and, by
the Law for the Protection of
German Blood and German
Honor, marriage and extramarital
sexual relations between Jews
and non-Jews were banned.
Aproblem in the application of
anti-Semitic legislation was
identifying to whom it applied,
since Jewish Germans had been
intermarrying with non-Jewish
Germans for generations. The
Nuremberg Laws formally defined
a Jew as a person with three or
four Jewish grandparents.
Worried by Hitler's plans to
expand German forces, Britain
and France sought to enrol Italian
Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini
as an ally against Germany. This
policy was wrecked by Mussolini's
imperialist ambitions in Africa. In
October, troops from Italy's east
African colonies, Eritrea and
Italian Somaliland, invaded the
independent African state of
Ethiopia. Ethiopian Emperor
Haile Selassie was able to raise a
large army, and although his forces
were poorly equipped, they put up
stout resistance. Ethiopia was a
member-state of the League of
Nations [see 1919). The League
denounced Italy as an aggressor
and called for economic sanctions.
The British and French
governments concocted a peace
plan that would have given

1,345

THE NUMBER OF
OFFICERS AND
CREW ABOARD THE
SS NORMANDIE

Luxury liner

The Normandie was the largest,
fastest, and most luxurious of the
liners plying the Atlantic. Its interior
was a riot of Art Deco features.

Mussolini a large chunk of
Ethiopian territory. When news
of the deal leaked out, public
opinion in the H tl
democracies |
was outraged.
British foreign
secretary Samuel
Hoare and French
prime minister
Pierre Laval were
forced to resign,
economic sanctions
against Italy went
ahead, and Mussolini
was pushed into the
arms of Hitler.

Despite the continuing
effects of the economic
Depression and the world’s
grave political problems,
there were many signs of
technological progress. The
Hoover Dam was the most
spectacular of a series of dam
projects that would provide
electric power and irrigation
for large areas of the US. For
those who could afford it,
luxury travel—stylish ocean
liners and intercontinental air
travel—flourished. For the
masses who could not afford this
kind of luxury, there was always the
cinema. The movie Top Hat marked =
the peak of the Hollywood musical,
Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers
transporting viewers into a magical :
world of wealth and glamour.

slanted bow
and slim hull

increased ;-
ship's speed _-~

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THOUSAND

THE NUMBER OF
GERMAN TROOPS
THAT MARCHED
INTO RHINELAND

EUROPE HAD BEGUN TO SLIDE
inexorably down the slope toward
a major war. On March 7, Hitler
sent troops into the Rhineland,
a part of Germany that had been
demilitarized under the terms
of the Locarno Pact (see 1925].
The operation was perfectly
stage-managed, the marching
soldiers greeted by cheering
crowds and women throwing
flowers. However, behind the
scenes Hitler and his generals
were racked by nervous tension.
German rearmament was still

in its early stages and the German i

army could not have resisted if
France had opted for a military
response, but strong public
opinion and domestic issues
inhibited a stronger stand. By
doing nothing, the Western allies
showed they would not act to
uphold international agreements.
The British and French
nonetheless embarked on
expansion of their armed forces
in response to developments in
Germany. In Britain, Conservative
leader Stanley Baldwin had won a

general election in 1935 partly due :
to his promise to limit rearmament. :

_APLASTARA~ FAS

The main focus was on achieving =

Despite having a mandate for
military expansion, Baldwin
continued to proceed cautiously.

an effective defense of Britain
against attack by the German
Luftwaffe (air force). Two days
before Hitler’s occupation of the
Rhineland, a new fighter aircraft,
the Supermarine Spitfire, made
its maiden flight. RAF Fighter
Command was created on May 1,
responsible for air defense. It was

380

to be equipped with the Spitfire

: and the Hawker Hurricane, also
: then under development.

The importance of air power was
demonstrated in the conquest of

: Ethiopia by Fascist Italy (see 1935).

Italian aircraft were used to deliver

: poison gas onto Ethiopian troops,

German troops march across a bridge into the demilitarized Rhineland. Hitler
feared a military response by the Western democracies that never came.

occupation of Addis Ababa in May.

| Selassie fled to exile in Britain.

The following month he made a
memorable speech at the League

» of Nations, ending with the
: ominous prophecy: “It is us today;

it will be you tomorrow.”
Confronted with the successes

Workers unite

Armed workers trample on Nazi and
Fascist symbols in this Spanish Civil
War poster. Communists were initially
a minority in the Republican camp.

£ (Communist International) had

decided that communist parties
should seek to form “Popular
Front” alliances with social
democrat and center parties. This
policy bore fruit in France in May,
when the Popular Front, led by
socialist Léon Blum, won a large

majority in parliamentary elections.

At the same time, a workers’
strike had led to the occupation of
factories and department stores
across France. Blum’s first act as
prime minister was to settle the
strike by negotiating the Matignon
agreements, which gave workers
improved conditions including a
40-hour week and paid vacations.
Struggling to maintain the
support of communists on one
side and centrist radicals on the
other, however, the Blum
government was soon bogged
down in economic problems and
the diplomatic dilemma posed by
the outbreak of civil war in Spain.
A Popular Front of communists,
socialists, republicans, and

The Spanish Civil War

Crossing from Spanish Morocco,
Nationalist troops advanced north.
The Republicans held on to Madrid
in desperate fighting.

KEY

: anarchists won Spanish elections

: in February. The Popular Front

: government promised sweeping

: land reforms and autonomy for

: Catalonia, but events soon ran

: clerical attacks on convents and

: churches. On July 13, José Calvo
Sotelo, a leading anti-Popular
Front politician, was murdered by
socialist militants. Four days later,

: Nationalist army officers based

: in Spanish Morocco launched a

military uprising. Resisted by

hastily armed socialist and

anarchist militias, and a large

: proportion of the Spanish armed

: forces, the revolt failed across
much of Spain—Madrid, the

: Basque country, and Catalonia
remained in Republican hands.
When German and Italian aircraft

| began to ferry General Francisco
Franco's Army of Africa from
Morocco into southern Spain, the

: military revolt turned into civil war.

At first, a rapid Nationalist

: victory appeared probable. While

i rebels, France and Britain adopted

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44 IF YOU DON’T TRY TO

WIN YOU MIGHT AS WELL
HOLD THE OLYMPICS IN

Jesse Owens, US athlete, at the Olympic Games, 1936

a neutral stance, leaving only the

Soviet Union to back the Republic. :

Franco’s Army of Africa advanced

inexorably on Madrid, carrying out :

massacres along the way.
Meanwhile, Comintern was.
recruiting volunteers from many
European countries and North
America to fight in Spain. The first
of these International Brigades
played a vital role in the defense

=F SS
GENERAL FRANCISCO
FRANCO (1892-1975)

Franco was a career officer
who commanded the
Spanish Foreign Legion in
Morocco in the 1920s. A
Catholic monarchist, he
joined the military uprising
against the Republic in July
1936 and was recognized as
sole leader of the Nationalist
rebels in September. After
victory in the Civil War in
1939 he imposed a harsh
dictatorship. He kept Spain
neutral in World War II and
remained in power until his
death in 1975.

Finland

France

TOP SIX WINNING NATIONS

0 20 40

US athlete Jesse Owens stands on the podium after winning the long jump at the
Berlin Olympics. German silver medal winner Lutz Long gives the Nazi salute.

Germany

80 100 120

NUMBER OF MEDALS

1936 Olympic Games medal tally

The most successful countries in the 1936 Berlin summer

: of Madrid in November. The

Nationalist advance was halted and

: Madrid remained Republican.

In the highly charged political

atmosphere of 1936, the holding
: of the summer Olympic Games
: in Berlin—agreed to before the
: Nazis came to power—was
: inevitably a propaganda coup

for Hitler. He seized the
opportunity to present the Third

: Reich in a favorable light. The

: Olympics were staged on an

: unprecedentedly lavish scale with
: impeccable efficiency. Germany

sprint events and the long jump.
Hitler was accused of snubbing

: Owens because his success ran

counter to Nazi theories of Aryan
racial superiority. Owens himself
felt more insulted by the lack of

Olympics were Germany and the US. The Soviet Union and
: Spain were among countries that did not take part.

The Berlin Olympics were the
occasion for the first live TV
broadcasts. Seventy hours of fuzzy
black-and-white coverage were
shown in special viewing rooms
around the city, as well as picked
up bya handful of private TV sets.
Later in the year, the BBC began
the first regular high-definition
television service, broadcast from
Alexandra Palace in London.

In the fall, two events took
place that would enter Britain’s
political mythology. The Jarrow
Crusade was a march by 200
cloth-capped jobless workers
from a Depression-blighted
shipbuilding town on the Tyne
River. Jarrow had 70 percent
unemployment. The workers
sought to publicize its plight
by presenting a petition to
parliament in Westminster.

Their 280-mile (450-km) journey
took almost a month, attracting

press. Its effect was zero, but it

became for the British a symbol of

the era of mass unemployment.

On October 4, the black-shirted
British Union of Fascists (BUF)
staged a march througha
predominantly Jewish area of
London's East End. There they
clashed with antifascists in what
became known as the Battle of
Cable Street. The march was
abandoned. This humiliation for
the BUF was followed by a
government ban on political
uniforms. British fascism never
regained its momentum.

In the US, Roosevelt (see 1933)
won a landslide victory in the

Marconiphone television receiver
Early televisions like this one made
by Marconi were luxury products—
the Marconiphone sold in Britain for
60 guineas, equivalent to about

OF DAYS
EDWARD VIII
REIGNED AS
KING BEFORE
HE ABDICATED

i presidential elections in November,

securing a second term and

Three weeks after Roosevelt's

toward a new world war was

Explicitly an agreement to resist

was aimed against the Soviet

: Union. It created an ideological

link between the Nazis and an

On November 16, Britain's king
Edward VIII (1894-1972) informed

Simpson. Political opinion was

the king that he must choose
between Simpson and the throne.

| Edward abdicated and his

brother, Albert, inherited the

throne as George VI (1895-1952).

: congratulations from Roosevelt. sympathetic coverage in the $4,500 (£3,000) today.
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George V| at his coronation in Westminster Abbey on May 12. He ascended the
throne following the abdication of his brother, Edward VIII.

44 1 SEE ONE-THIRD OF A
NATION ILL-HOUSED, ILL-
CLAD, ILL-NOURISHED. 99

Franklin D. Roosevelt, American president, in his inauguration speech,

January 20, 1937

THE YEAR BEGAN WITH FRANKLIN
D, ROOSEVELT starting his second
term in office as US president. In
his inauguration speech on
January 20, Roosevelt drew
attention to persistent poverty in
America. He pledged to end this
injustice, denouncing “heedless
self-interest” as bad morals and
bad economics. The president's
radical policies brought him into
conflict with the Supreme Court,
while across the country a wave of
sit-down strikes pitted workers
against their employers. As the
number of jobless more than
doubled between 1936 and 1938, |
it was not obvious that Roosevelt’s =
approach was working, This
period was ironically dubbed
“Roosevelt's Depression.”

For Britain and its empire, this
was a year of change. In May, the
country saw a new king crowned,
George VI (1895-1952), and a new

44 AT 2A.M. TODAY WHEN I VISIT!

: prime minister in Downing Street,

Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940).

approved a proposal for a new
constitution. The Irish Free State

| became Eire (Ireland in Gaelic],
: and in effect a fully independent
: country, although officially still

a dominion of the British

Commonwealth. British India took
: another step toward self-
© government with implementation
: of the India Act, but the limited
: powers of its elected assembly

fell far short of satisfying Indian
nationalists. The British also
failed to find a solution to the

: Picasso's vision of war

In response to the German bombing
of the Basque town of Guernica,
Pablo Picasso painted this large
mural in support of the Spanish
Republicans. It was displayed at

: the 1937 Paris Exhibition.

THE TOWN, TH.

f, WHOL

EH OF ITWAS

A HORRIBLE S

GHT, FLAMING

FROM END TO END. 99

George Steer, British journalist, reporting the bombing of Guernica

for The Times, April 27, 1937

: problem in Palestine, and their

: proposal to split it between the

| Jews and Arabs was rejected by

: both sides.

: Political divisions, with

: Communists determined to
suppress anarchists and
Trotskyists, nullified the courage
and determination of their military

| efforts. The Nationalist rebels

H continued to enjoy the support of

: German and Italian forces,

= especially in the air. On April 26,

: the Basque town of Guernica

: became famous worldwide when,

: ona busy market day, it was

devastated by aircraft of the
German Condor Legion.
Estimates of the death toll varied
from 300 to 1,700. Graphically
described by journalists who
visited the town in the wake of the
attack, the event focused fears
about aerial bombardment,
specifically the impact of the
German Luftwaffe in any future
war between the major powers.
In an increasingly divided world,
art and literature were becoming
politicized. Prominent writers
went to Spain, either to fight in
the Civil War (mostly on the
Republican side) or as war
tourists and journalists. Among
these were George Orwell and

: W.H. Auden from Britain, Ernest
Hemingway from the US, and

| André Malraux from France.

| The most famous response to
the bombing of Guernica was

: Pablo Picasso's painting, which
was first exhibited in the Spanish

: Republic’s pavilion at the Paris

: International Exhibition in

The Paris Exhibition also
featured grandiose Nazi German

: and Soviet Russian pavilions, both
using monumental sculpture to

: trumpet the glories of their rival

= took the extraordinary decision

» to mount a show of the art they
despised, displaying confiscated

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44... THERE’S FLAMES, NOW, AND
THE FRAME IS CRASHING TO THE
GROUND... OH, THE HUMANITY... 99

Herbert Robertson, Chicago news reporter, as he watched

the Hindenberg crash, May 6, 1937

paintings by modernists and Jews
at a “Degenerate Art” exhibition
in Munich, to be laughed at by the
German public

Meanwhile, under the
dictatorship of Joseph Stalin
(1878-1953], the Soviet Union had
begun the Great Terror. The
Soviet regime had always been
ruthless toward those it defined
as enemies—for example,
peasants who resisted collective
agriculture (see 1930)—but now
the unbridled power of the secret
police was turned against the
leadership of the Soviet armed
forces, and of the ruling party
itself. The process began in 1936,
with the arrest, trial, and execution :

: following month large-

: the Japanese expected,

casualties on the invaders,

of “Old Bolsheviks” —men who
had participated in the 1917
Revolution. While arrests of Old
Bolsheviks continued through
1937, other people also came
under suspicion. Between

| 1937 and 1939 almost half the

Although the fate of the Soviet
elite attracted most attention,
Stalin's reign of terror spread

» through the entire population.

At least 680,000 people were
killed during the Great Purge,
and some historians believe

: the real figure could even be

closer to 2 million.

In summer 1937, gradual
Japanese encroachment on
Chinese territory erupted

| into full-scale war. Japanese and

Chinese forces clashed at the
Marco Polo Bridge outside
Beijing in July, and the

scale fighting developed in
Shanghai. Chiang Kai-shek’s
Chinese Nationalist forces put
up much stiffer resistance than

inflicting around 50,000

but they were forced to
abandon the city. The Japanese
then advanced on the Chinese
Nationalist capital, Nanking,
which they took in December.

Nanking’s civilian population was

subjected to a brutal attack by

Japanese troops, while thousands

of surrendered Chinese soldiers
were also killed. This massacre,

The German Zeppelin airship Hindenburg exploding into a fireball while docking

at Lakehurst in New Jersey. The cause of the disaster remains uncertain.

sickle is the
symbol of
agriculture

hammer

observers, shocked the public
in the US and solidified the
sympathy of the US government
for the Chinese. US hostility to
Japan's actions in China was the
first step on the path tothe
Pacific War (see 1941).

: senior army commanders were is the Elsewhere, the year was $1,334,000
executed, imprisoned, or fired. symbol marked by air disasters. German surplus
of industry

airships had begun scheduled
transatlantic passenger flights.
On May 6, the airship Hindenburg,
with 97 passengers and crew on
board, burst into flames as it
docked at Lakehurst, New Jersey.
Within seconds the fire had
spread through its hydrogen-filled
gasbag. Remarkably, only 35
people were killed, but the
disaster brought an abrupt
end to the brief era of
luxury airship travel. Two
months later, America’s
most famous woman
pilot, Amelia Earhart
(1887-1937), took
off from New

sculpture made
from stainless
steel panels

This giant sculpture,
by Vera Mukhina,
dominated the
Soviet pavilion at
the World's Fair
in 1937. Itis

an example

Worker and peasant

$27,125,000
construction

$4,068,000
financing

| $2,050,000
engineering
and inspection

$423,000
administration
and preliminaries

» Golden Gate Bridge building costs

The original budget for building San
Francisco's Galden Gate Bridge was

: $27 million, but the actual building

costs totaled $35 million.

Guinea with co-pilot Fred Noonan
for the Pacific leg of an attempted
around-the-world flight. Their
aircraft was never seen again.
Technology continued to

: progress throughout the year,

culminating in the race for the
first successful trials of turbojet
engines, between Frank Whittle
in Britain and Hans von Ohain in
Germany. Whittle won, but the
Germans forged ahead with
development of a jet aircraft—
Ohain’s engine powering the
first jet flight in August 1939.
Another marker for progress
was the opening of the Golden
Gate Bridge in San Francisco. At
4,200 ft (1,280 m), its central span
was the longest of any suspension
bridge in the world, a record that
stood until it was surpassed by

witnessed by Christian of Socialist the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge
missionaries and other Western Realist style. in New York in 1964.
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a 383

British prime minister Neville Chamberlain (right) visited Nazi Germany
for the Munich Conference on September 28.

WALT DISNEY’S REWORKING OF
THE FAIRY TALE OF SNOW WHITE
and the Seven Dwarfs marked
the transition of animated movies
from cartoon shorts aimed
primarily at children to a major
strand in film culture. Dismissed
in advance as “Disney's Folly,”
Snow White was an immediate hit,
briefly holding the record for the
highest grossing movie of all
time before being overtaken by
Gone with the Wind [see 1939).
The ability of Hollywood to
manufacture universally
appealing, mass-market films,
along with the influence of
American big-band “swing”
dance music, was laying the
foundations for a US-dominated,
international popular culture.
All was not well with the US
economy, however. A sharp rise

Animated feature

Walt Disney's Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs was the first
feature-length, animated movie
to be released worldwide, in 1938.

in unemployment in 1938 drew
attention to the fact that President
Roosevelt's New Deal [see 1933]
had failed to solve the economic
problems of the US Depression.
By comparison, although

pockets of high unemployment
persisted in Britain, the British

§ economy was performing well in
: the late 1930s, with high levels of

house building, burgeoning
production of consumer goods—

: from cars to vacuum cleaners—

nationwide electrification, and
growth in high-tech industries
such as aircraft manufacturing. A
symbol of Britain's technological
success was the performance of
the streamlined A4 Pacific-class

: locomotive Mallard. On July 3 it

reached 126mph (203kph),
setting a world speed record

for a steam engine that has never
been surpassed.

The year’s first major
international crisis came in
March, with the German
annexation of Austria—the
Anschluss (“unification”). Hitler
had been applying mounting
pressure on the government of

180
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z Germany @ Japan
ww 140
8 @France M@ussR
= 120) @ italy a
&
E
zZ 100
a
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a

1929 193119331935

Austrian Chancellor Kurt
Schuschnigg (1897-1977) to back
the Nazi movement inside Austria.
When Schuschnigg attempted to
hold a referendum on Austrian
independence, Hitler forced his
resignation and launched an
invasion. German troops crossed
the border unopposed; Hitler was
greeted in Vienna by cheering
crowds. The annexation was

Economic
growth

The Soviet
Union achieved
high economic
growth in the
1930s. Japan
and Germany
also recovered
well from the
Depression.

1937

1939

accompanied by widespread
attacks by Nazis on Austria’s
large Jewish population

Although the unification of
Germany and Austria was a major
breech of the Versailles Treaty
(see 1919], Britain and France
made no attempt to intervene.
Instead, British prime minister
Neville Chamberlain embarked
upon an active policy of

44 | BELIEVE IT IS PEACE
FOR OUR TIME. 99

British prime minister Neville Chamberlain, on his return to London
from the Munich Conference, September 30, 1938

“appeasement,” based on the
belief that a durable peace could
be secured by settling Germany's
“legitimate claims.” Attention
focused on the German minority
in Czechoslovakia, concentrated
in the Sudetenland area. Hitler
stirred up unrest among the
Sudeten Germans, while ordering
his generals to prepare for an
invasion of Czechoslovakia. The
British and French governments
were desperate to avoid war,

THE APPROXIMATE ADDITION
TO THE GERMAN POPULATION
BY THE ANNEXATIONS OF
AUSTRIA AND SUDETENLAND

Arab prisoners are guarded by a Brit
during the suppression of the revolt against Britain's rule in Palestine.

but were committed to defending
the Czechs. In September,
Chamberlain embarked on an
unprecedented diplomatic
initiative, flying twice to Germany
for face-to-face talks with Hitler.
Although Britain pressured the
Czech government into making
major concessions, this only made
Hitler raise his demands.

War seemed inevitable, and
military preparations were under
way in Britain and France when,
on September 28, Italian dictator
Benito Mussolini proposed a
four-nation conference. Hitler
accepted and met the French
premier Edouard Daladier
(1884-1970), Chamberlain, and
Mussolini at Munich. A deal was

struck that preserved peace at
the expense of Czechoslovakia,
which had to hand over the
Sudetenland to Germany.
Chamberlain and Daladier were
greeted as heroes when they
returned home, the British and

French people profoundly relieved

to have avoided war. Conservative

MP Winston Churchill [1874-1965]

was among the minority who
denounced the Munich
agreement, calling it “a defeat
without a war.”

Post-Munich optimism only
lasted until November, when
Kristallnacht (“the Night of
Broken Glass”} provided graphic
evidence of the extremist
nature of the Nazi regime.

Steam record holder
Designed by Nigel
Gresley, the steam
locomotive
Mallard was
a masterly
fusion of
form and
function. It achieved
an enduring world

The assassination of a German
diplomat by a Jew in Paris served
as a pretext for Nazi-orchestrated
attacks on Jewish homes and
businesses across Germany and
Austria. Synagogues were burned
down and sacred objects
desecrated; 30,000 Jewish men
were rounded up and taken to
concentration camps, where

beatings and torture were routine.

Those countries still committed
to democracy and freedom
expressed outrage at Nazi
anti-Semitism, but they were not
keen to provide a home for Jews
now desperate to escape Nazi
persecution. At an international
conference on the issue held at
Evian in July, the Australian
representative T. W. White stated
bluntly: “As we have no racial
problem, we are not desirous of
importing one.” Britain agreed to

ish soldier in the Old City of Jerusalem,

Night of broken glass

A shopkeeper clears up
shattered glass from a looted
Jewish shop in the wake of
attacks on German and
Austrian Jews in November.

children, without their
parents, and the US
maintained its existing
barriers to immigration.
Jews were trapped
because, although the
Nazis were ready to let
them leave, they had
nowhere to go.

One potential destination
for Jews from Europe was
Palestine, which was
recognized by the British
: as asite for a Jewish homeland
: [see 1917). But the British were

struggling with an armed uprising

by Palestinian Arabs who were
bitterly opposed to the expansion
of Jewish settlement. In an

: attempt to defuse the situation,
Britain imposed tight limits on
Jewish immigration.

: The high pitch of anxiety in the

: world at the time became evident

: when a radio broadcast induced

: Mass panic in the US. Orson

Welles’s radio version of the
: alien-invasion classic The War of
© the Worlds was broadcast by CBS
» at Halloween. The news bulletin

format convinced millions of

Americans that a genuine invasion

by Martians was underway. When

speed record. accept a limited number of Jewish :
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country’s civil war. Defeated opponents of Franco faced harsh oppression.

44 WHEN STARTING AND
WAGING WAR IT IS NOT

BY 1939 MILITARY DICTATORSHIPS
WERE SPREADING ACROSS
EUROPE. Only a handful of
countries, chiefly Britain and
France, maintained a liberal
democratic system. In the spring,
General Francisco Franco's
Nationalists triumphed in

the Spanish Civil War, occupying
the surviving Republican
strongholds of Barcelona and
Madrid. Tens of thousands of
Franco's enemies were executed.
Others fled into exile, and many
were interned in camps in France.
Meanwhile, Italy's dictator Benito
Mussolini (1883-1945) had
annexed Albania, and driven

out its monarch, King Zog
(1895-1961).

More threatening for the peace
of Europe was German Fuhrer
Adolf Hitler's occupation of
Prague. The Munich agreement

Baltic

Sea

Danzig

POMERANIA EAST

PRUSSIA

Warsawe

Lodze

(see 1938] had left Czechoslovakia :

RIGHT THAT

MATTERS,

BUT VICTORY. 99

Adolf Hitler, military and political leader of Germany, 30 January 1939

: a defenseless state, and the

: Germans encouraged Slovakian
: nationalists, who were resentful
+ of Czech domination, to declare

independence. In March, Hitler’s

Prague, turning the Czech lands

: of Bohemia and Moravia into a

German “protectorate.” After

| Hungary annexed the east,
: Czechoslovakia ceased to exist

asa country.

LITHUANIA

—~

rest-Litovsk

The German occupation of
: Prague forced the leaders
| of the Western democracies to
© acknowledge the ruthlessness
: of Nazi expansionism. It was
. obvious Poland was to be the
: next target. Believing a threat
© of force would deter Hitler, the
» British and French gave the
: Poles a guarantee of military
: support, but Hitler was not
: deterred. In April he began
: military planning for an invasion
: of Poland.
Desperate Jews tried to flee
: the expanding area coming under
: Nazi control, but many countries
refused to let them in. Among
» the more fortunate were those
| rescued by the Kindertransport
scheme that arranged for almost

Invasion of Poland
German forces invaded Poland

At the start of September,
Britain and France began to
evacuate civilians from danger

areas. Expecting air attacks, the

British evacuated 1.5 million

children from large cities, along GA

with mothers with babies and
young children. The French
carried out mass evacuations
from the border provinces of
Alsace and Lorraine in eastern
France. Germany did not carry
out mass evacuations until
heavy bombing began in 1942.

10,000 unaccompanied Jewish
children to find refuge in Britain.
Adults were not allowed to
accompany them, however, and
many of the children never saw
their parents again.

While all eyes were focused

: on Europe, the Soviet Union

was fighting an undeclared war

: with Japan in Asia. Throughout
= the summer, clashes occurred
_ along the border between

i Mongolia, a Soviet client state,

and Japanese-occupied

: Manchuria. Soviet General

Georgy Zhukov's hard-fought

: victory at the battle of Khalkhin
: Gol decided the outcome. This

: defeat influenced the Japanese

: to pursue naval-led expansion in
: the Pacific and Southeast Asia,

rather than further land

POLAND USSR from East Prussia, Germany, and pees 5
Yr
GERMANY Slovakia on September 1. With Nazi Anticipating a war with
agreement, the Soviets occupied _ Germany, Britain and France
SILESIA GALICIA eastern Poland. : unenthusiastically pursued
Lwow!
KEY World War II British gas mask
—* German advance/operation All British civilians were issued with
SLOVAKIA ~ Soviet advance gas masks, for protection against
ROMANIA — German/Soviet demarcation line poison gas air attacks. This brightly-
in Poland colored mask is for a child.
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During the period known as the “phony war,” preparations for conflict in suburban

a military alliance
with the Soviet
Union—a country
they disliked and distrusted
No one anticipated a deal
between Hitler and the Soviet
leader Joseph Stalin, but on
August 23 the Soviet and German
foreign ministers, Vyacheslav
Molotov [1890-1986] and Joachim
von Ribbentrop (1893-1946),
signed a nonaggression treaty,

known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop :

Pact, which included a provision
to divide Poland between them.
German forces invaded
Poland on September 1. Two
days later, unable to escape their
commitment to the Poles, the

declared war on Germany.
Australia, New Zealand, Canada,
and South Africa followed.
Britain brought India into the war
without consulting its elected
representatives, while Ireland
and the US declared their
neutrality. Much to Hitler's
annoyance, Italy also declared

THE NUMBER

Britain often seemed bizarre, with no real enemy to fire at.

: Finnish Rifle
The Finnish Lahti anti-tank rifle was
used against the Soviets during the
Winter War, which began with the
Russian invasion of Finland.

itself neutral. The war was
greeted by all countries with
fear and resignation. There were
no cheering crowds in Berlin,
London, or Paris.

The destruction of Poland
was achieved with breathtaking
speed. German troops reached
the outskirts of Warsaw within
a week. The Poles fought with
| courage and tenacity—Germany

sustained more than 40,000
: casualties—but once Soviet
: troops moved in from the

east all was lost. Warsaw

surrendered on September

28, and the fighting stopped

a week later. Dividing the

country between them, the

Soviets and Nazis set about

imprisoning and massacring

Poles in large numbers.

Throughout the autumn the
: Germans began confining

Poland’s Jews to ghettos, a

major step toward the Holocaust

(see 1942). Hitler had already

With Poland crushed, the
Western democracies entered
the period known as the “phony
war.” After the fall of Poland the
British and French rejected a
peace offer from Hitler, but the
troops they assembled in France
remained passive. The lack of
military action was a relief to the
British and French governments.
German air attacks and massive
civilian casualties had been
expected, but did not occur.

The only dramatic action in
Britain’s war against Germany
was at sea. In October, the
German Navy’s U-boat U-47
penetrated the defenses of
Britain’s main naval base at Scapa
Flow, in the Orkney Islands off

Scotland, and sank the battleship :

Royal Oak. British morale was

Star Wars 1977

10-round magazine

cheek rest

raised two months later when the
: German battleship Graf Spee was
: driven by British cruisers to take
» refuge in the neutral port of
: Montevideo in Uruguay, where the
: Germans scuttled it.

At the end of November, the

: Soviet Union launched an attack
: on Finland. The Winter War
: revealed severe deficiencies in
: the organization, equipment, and

: By the end of the year, the Finns

still held their Mannerheim Line

: defenses, and the Soviets had
suffered heavy losses.

: Movie attendance

: Movies of the late 1930s achieved
: extraordinary ticket sales. Around
80 million movie tickets were sold
in the US every week.

The Sound of Music 1965

Remaining neutral, the US
seemed a world away from the

: blacked-out cities of Europe. The

New York World's Fair, opened

: Tomorrow’ as its theme. Around
» 44 million visitors came to see

: such novelties as nylon stockings
: and color photography.

Hollywood was enjoying a

» golden era, with classic releases
: including Gone With the Wind, The
: Wizard of Oz, and Stagecoach

» Grand picture palaces, some of

: than 4,000 customers, were filled.
: The American economy was

: Act allowed US factories to equip
: the British and French war effort.
leadership of the Soviet Red Army. :

© signed an order inGermany at the
OF DAYS 3 oe Bambi 1942
| start of the war for the killing of 3
GERMANY people with incurable mental Gone with the Wind 1939 a ;
disabilities. Over 70,000 German | Off to see the Wizard
TOOK TO mental patients were murdered Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 1937 = Julie Garland played Dorothy in
OVERRUN by lethal injections or gassing, | the 1939 movie The Wizard of Oz—
before the operation was 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 ! perfect fantasy entertainment
POLAND suspended in August 1941. MOVIE ATTENDANCE [IN MILLIONS) : for hard and dangerous times.
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FINLAND?

, MLeningrad
Sea } Sep 8, 1961-Jan 27, 1946
2 BUESTONIA

UNITED

KINGDOM
LITHUANIA
Hull Moscow
= P x *
Coventry : #8 a LATVIA Oct 2, 1941-Jan 7, 1942

Birmingham. NETHERLANDS

Cea : S" Danzig PRUSSIA Minsk
Rotterdam Hamburg Jun 22-29, 1941
Berlin

Plymouth
Dunkirk.
May 26-Jun 4, 1940 Sedan BELGIUM

May12-15, 1940
LUXEMBOURG
5 Paris__ Prague POLAND

Essen

Cologne eae

Sep 8-28, 1939 Kiev Sralingrsd
GERMANY ‘Aug 22-Sep 26, 1941 Aug 23, 1942-Feb 2, 1943

Bay of 6
Biscay FRANCE Munich LOVAKIA
SWITZERLAND :
AUSTRIA Budapest
HUNGARY

wait Milan
Genoa

* 2 * OSLAVIA
4 BULGARIA
Rome’ %

ser
. = TURKEY

ROMANIA

Sevastapol
Oct 30, 1941-Jul 4, 1942

Y
~
ALBANIA Fa,

GREECE

.
ALGERIA =

German expansion
Between September 1939 and August 1942 Nazi fe ‘ KEY
German forces conquered most of mainland Europe, ue Germanradvance
seizing control of an area from Norway to Crete, and May 20-Jun 1, 1941 ‘

fi Q jay 20-Jun 1, Major battle
from France to the Black Sea. Britain remained free of
German domination, but was subjected to air attacks. 3€ Major German air attack
Nazi U-boats also preyed on Britain's shipping lanes. Major Allied air attack

other
countries

France

31.4
BILLION

THE ALLIED BATTLE TO TURN BACK THE TIDE OF NAZI CONTROL

The German invasion of Poland in September 1939 provoked Britain and Savi
France to declare war on Germany. At first the Germans won an astonishing aaa ps
. . US lend-lease

series of victories, but from 1942 onward they were overwhelmed by the The US provided its Allies with vast quantities

combined strength of the US, the Soviet Union, and Britain. lee tcjuaanlibseielupy ai abate
lend-lease program. Britain and the Soviet
Union were the major beneficiaries.

After the rapid defeat of Poland in April 1940, defeat, the German army swept south to Crete and

the Germans invaded Denmark and Norway. intervened in North Africa. Hitler's invasion of the EUROPE IN 1942 By 1942 Nazi Germany

Their devastating campaign swiftly overran the Soviet Union in June 1941 brought German forces dominated mainland Europe. Its allies and

Netherlands, Belgium, and France. British Forces _ to the gates of Moscow and Leningrad. But the
escaped from Europe through an evacuation from German drive eastward came to a catastrophic
Dunkirk in France. The Luftwaffe failed to end at Stalingrad in late 1942.

overcome the RAF in the Battle of Britain in Defeated in North Africa, the Germans then

satellites included Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria,
Slovakia, Croatia, and Vichy France. Greater
Germany expanded before and during the war
to include Austria, French Alsace-Lorraine,
and much of Poland (which ceased to exist as a
state in October 1939). Although the Nazis
found some willing collaborators, their
ambition to found a “New Order” in Europe
eventually came to nothing.

me
FINLAND

USSR
Fiat BA ESTONIA
lori DENMARK
Sea Ti
‘ LATVIA, Moscow #
NETHERLANDS“ hd ,
. EasT LITHUANIA
Hamburg PRUSSIA x
= > MaAmhem Minsk
er hate é vw pattie Berlin = Jun 29-Jul 4, 1944 Miursk
: 2 BELGIU Apr 16-May 2, 19. Jul 5-13, 1943
‘g - MArdennes Dresden
Paris a diate GERMANY Mstalingrad
, 7
Bayot % yy» POLAND UKRAINE Feb, ia
Biscay sovnt nis
’ FRANCE SWITZERLAND oo ei, HUNGARY,
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Budapest
Dec 29-Feb 13, 1945

i} CROATIA
SERBIA

“

SPAIN

+
Ss
e
S
Qa

x4
Z
Anzio %

Jan 22-Jun 5, 1944
Pe ff

Cassino Rome 2,
Jan 17-May 18, 1944 Salerno —7

Sep 9, 1943
Mice maar TURKEY
fed

Messina

Allied offensives
The tide of war turned
ALBANIA| “% with the British victory at
Gat < a El Alamein in North Africa
rclly and the Soviet triumph at
ALGERIA i
Wisse * Stalingrad. Italy surrendered
in 1943 after the Allies landed,
and after the Normandy

“ROCCO

= 5 A

fe invasion on D-day in 1944,
KEY ae my racin Germany was crushed
we Allied advance “4 Oct 23-Nov 5, 1942 between Soviet forces

S€ Major battle

Major Allied
firebomb attack LIBYA

advancing from the east and
the Western Allies attacking
from the west.

EGYPT ™

6
KEY
om RAF
a wm USAAF

0 5 - ‘ FINLAND
UNITED ;
KINGDOM UNITED

KINGDOM

IRELAND,

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

ATLANTIC
0

BOMBS DROPPED ON EUROPE [IN 100,000 TONS)
wo

0
1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 UIST ISU dinar

MoROccO World War Il, Eastern European —j Soviet territory
YEAR - ;
ALGERIA countries that were occupied by Bl Soviet-dominated
Stategic Allied bombing in Europe the Soviets were placed under communist states
RAF Bomber Command and the US communist governments. In ERIS)
KEY Bl Axis satellite Army Air Force carried out a sustained, DEL nese teent a Peat CtIN TO
i q = i communist regime refuse
Frontiers 1937 Wi Italy and Italian large-scale bombing campaign on a ues
ee Front ‘ occupied territory mainland Europe. The Allies dropped Soviet tutelage. The divide I Independent
rontiers Nov 1942 A ‘li between communist east and communist state
By Great © Finnish territory 3 million tons of bombs, killing around HES :
Srealey Reet We Neivai 500,000 people. The US bombed industrial capitalist west, which ran down ~ Iron Curtain in 1949

the middle of Germany, was Cities divided into

bjectives by day, while the RAF attacked y
Re au AM TS pee dubbed the Iron Curtain. Zones of occupation

IH German occupation _ i Allied territory cities by night.

389

Allied soldiers form lines on the beach at Dunkirk, France, awaiting boats
to carry them to England. German air attacks harassed the evacuation.

THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

‘\

TOGETHER

ALTHOUGH BRITAIN AND FRANCE
WERE AT WAR WITH GERMANY,
the only fighting in Europe in early
1940 was between the Soviet
Union and Finland (see 1939). The
British and French governments,
both strongly anticommunist,
planned to send an expeditionary

force to aid the Finns. Troops were :

assembled, but Soviet military
successes led Finland to seek
peace in March. In France, the
failure to help the Finns led to the
fall of the government of Edouard
Daladier, who was replaced as

WINSTON CHURCHILL (1874-

Churchill led an adventurous
life as a soldier and war
correspondent before entering
politics. As First Lord of the
Admiralty in World War | he
was blamed for the Gallipoli
disaster. A backbench MP
during the 1930s, he opposed
the appeasement of Hitler.

In 1939, he returned to the
Admiralty before becoming
prime minister in May 1940. He
led Britain through the war but
lost the 1945 general election.

United
Commonwealth

A British propaganda
poster shows men
from the dominions
and colonies united in
the war effort. Even in
1940 Britain did not
‘stand alone,”

prime minister by
Paul Reynaud
(1878-1966).

Also in March, Soviet dictator

_ Joseph Stalin (see 1928)

western Poland (see 1939]. Most
of the region's educated elite—
doctors, lawyers, and teachers—
were also murdered. Some 22,000

: victims were buried in mass

graves in Katyn Forest and

* elsewhere. In June, when the
: Soviet Union occupied the Baltic
: states—Lithuania, Latvia, and

Estonia—tens of thousands more

1965)

people were executed or deported
to labor camps. Stalin’s ruthless
reach extended as far as Mexico,
where his exiled rival Leon

On April 4, British prime minister
Neville Chamberlain announced
that Hitler had “missed the bus”
by failing to launch a major
offensive as British rearmament
accelerated. Five days after this
complacent speech, German forces
occupied Denmark and invaded
Norway. Britain and France sent
troops and warships to aid the
Norwegians but could not prevent
a German victory. Norway's King
Haakon VII was evacuated to
Britain with his government to
continue the fight from exile.

In Britain, the disastrous
campaign in Norway destroyed
confidence in the Chamberlain
government. On May 10, Winston
Churchill became prime minister
at the head of a broad coalition.

On the same day, German
forces invaded the Netherlands,
Belgium, and Luxembourg. After
Rotterdam was heavily bombed,
the Dutch forces surrendered to
avoid further destruction. Dutch
Queen Wilhelmina defiantly set up
a government-in-exile in London.

Allied troops in northern France
advanced into Belgium to meet the
German offensive. The Germans
unexpectedly delivered a powerful
thrust through the Ardennes
region into France and broke
through the French defenses at
Sedan. Fast-moving German

THE HILLS; W]

Winston Churchill, British prime minister,
addressing Parliament on June 4, 1940

North
Sea

44 WE SHALL FIGHT THEM ON THE
BEACHES... WE SHALL FIGHT
AND IN THE STREETS, WE SHALL FIGHT IN

E SHALL NEVER SURRENDER. 99

IN THE FIELDS

Rotterdam ®,

NETHERLANDS

GREAT
BRITAIN ‘Antwerp >
Dunkirk 2
=
4
a
Brussels 3
English
Channel BELGIUM
E
Ss
SZ
©,
co}
%
o
FRANCE — _—
Paris
Battle of France KEY
After the Dunkirk » German = Allied front — Allied front
evacuation of the Allied advance line May 21 tine Jun 4
forces, German troops Allied front Allied defensive = Allied front
advanced into central line May 16 line May 28 line Jun 12

and western France.

formations of tanks and motorized :
infantry supported by Stuka
dive-bombers drove northward to
reach the Channel coast and cut
off the Allied forces in Belgium.
The Allies established a defensive
perimeter around the port of
Dunkirk and a remarkable escape
operation was mounted. Between
May 26 and June 4, 338,000 Allied
troops were evacuated by sea
before Dunkirk fell to the Germans.

Belgian King Leopold III
(1901-83] surrendered on May
28, overruling his government's
wish to continue fighting.

The French army was driven into

: retreat, allowing the Germans to
: occupy Paris on June 14. France
: was also attacked by Italy,

: Mussolini belatedly entering the
: war to pick up some of the spoils

of German victory. The French
government, along with much

© of the population, fled to the
© southwest. In Bordeaux, a new
£ government was formed under
© the defeatist Marshal Pétain

(1856-1951). General Charles de
Gaulle, a junior minister under

i Reynaud anda serving army

officer, escaped to Britain and

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390 =

German troops march down the Champs Elysées after the occupation of Paris
in June 1940. The French capital was an open city and taken without fighting.

launched an emotional plea for
continued resistance, but few
heeded the call. Pétain sought an
armistice, which was agreed on
June 22. At Hitler's insistence, the
armistice was signed in the same
railroad car in which the 1918
armistice had been signed.
German troops occupied the
north and west of France. Pétain
established a regime in the town
of Vichy that held responsibility
for all of France, although policy
in the occupied part had to be
agreed with the Germans. Taking
almost dictatorial powers as head
of state, he affirmed conservative
principles of religion, patriotism,
and the family. The Vichy French

collaborated on some points with |

the Nazis, introducing their own
anti-Semitic laws.

In Britain, Churchill quashed
defeatism. He encouraged a
popular mood of defiance with
his broadcast speeches and
pushed through radical
measures to stiffen
resistance. These
ranged from the
internment of
aliens to the creation
of the Home Guard
militia to resist
German invasion

Since the
British refused to
negotiate a peace deal, Hitler
began preparing a cross-Channel

Supermarine Spitfire

The Spitfire, the RAF’s most famous
fighter aircraft of World War Il, could
match the performance of the
German Messerschmitt 109.

449

THE NUMBER

OF GERMAN

| BOMBERS

_ INVOLVED IN
THE 10-HOUR

RAID ON THE
BRITISH CITY

_ OF COVENTRY

invasion. In August, the Luftwaffe
began a sustained air campaign
over southern England,
initiating the Battle of Britain.
British air defenses were well
prepared, with radar early
warning stations linked
to command centers that
coordinated a response by
Spitfire and Hurricane fighters.
Despite this, RAF

\__ laminated wood
propeller blade

464 FRANCE HAS LOST THE
BATTLE, BUT FRANCE HAS
NOT LOST THE WAR. 99

Charles de Gaulle, French General, June 18, 1940

Fighter Command was hard
pressed as waves of bombers with
fighter escort attacked airfields,
radar stations, and aircraft
factories. It was a relief for the
RAF when the Luftwaffe switched
to bombing London from early
September. On September 15,
attacked by over 1,000 German
aircraft, the British shot down 60
for the loss of 28 of their own.
Such figures meant that Germany
could not win the command of the
air needed to cover an invasion.
German invasion plans were
abandoned in October, but from
autumn 1940 until May 1941,
British cities were subjected to
the Blitz, a series of night raids
by Luftwaffe bombers that caused
heavy casualties—more than
40,000 civilians were killed—
and widespread destruction.
Contrary to prewar predictions,
however, the raids brought neither
social breakdown nor the collapse
of morale. British stoicism under
fire won many admirers in the
neutral US.

Going underground

In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt
stood for and won a third term
in office. Before the election,
Roosevelt had made his hostility
to Nazi Germany and Japan clear.
He had begun rearmament and
introduced a measure of
conscription, but he was
aware of the antiwar
feeling among people in

the US. Ina “fireside chat” on

radio, Roosevelt told Americans
: their country was to become the
» “arsenal ofdemocracy,” its
» factories providing the arms

for Britain to fight the Axis.

all-metal monocoque
fuselage structure

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German tanks and infantry, belonging to Erwin Rommel Afrika Korps, advance

across Libya during the hard-fought campaign in North Africa.

THE ENTRY OF FASCISTITALY INTO :
WORLD WAR II IN JUNE 1940
extended the war into the
Mediterranean and North Africa,
where Italy had colonies, including :
Libya. Early in 1941, British
Commonwealth forces, advancing
from Egypt, captured the Libyan
port of Tobruk and took 130,000
Italian prisoners. In response,
Hitler sent General (later Field
Marshal} Erwin Rommel
(1891-1944) to North Africa

Airborne operation

The Germans used paratroopers
to great success in their invasion
of Greece at Corinth, and in the
subsequent attack on Crete.

: Korps—to rescue his fascist ally.

: into Greece, which was swiftly
© overrun. British Commonwealth
: forces attempted to defend the
| Greekisland of Crete, but it fell

: assault by paratroopers.

' was merely a sideshow. He had
: already set in motion preparations :

with an armored force—the Afrika

Rommel soon pushed the British
back and placed Tobruk under
siege, while German aircraft

The Italian army also attempted
an invasion of Greece in 1940,

Yugoslavia in April, which was

German i
parachute badge ~
German
paratroopers,
like airborne
forces all over
the world, were
considered to be
an elite, a status
reflected in their
stylish badge.

UstaSe movement.
German troops pressed south

to the Germans after an initial
For Hitler, the Mediterranean
for an invasion of the Soviet

Union, codenamed Operation
Barbarossa. Nazi intentions were

DEATHS (IN THOUSANDS)

: as Einsatzgruppen, were detailed
: to follow the armies and kill
£ communists and Jews in occupied

territory. Nazi administrators

: anticipated the extermination of
£ 30 million Soviet citizens to free
: up food supplies for Germany.

Launched on June 22, Operation
Barbarossa was warfare on a

: vast scale. Hitler had assembled
| more than 4 million troops,

: including a million from his Axis
: allies. At first the invasion was

= an overwhelming success. Ina

: series of encirclements, around

3 million Soviet soldiers were

and thrust toward Moscow, but

: the Axis advance slowed with the
: autumn rains and eventually
: ground to a halt in the snow. The

Soviets launched furious, often
suicidal, counterattacks to drive

» the enemy back from the outskirts
: rapidly defeated and dismembered, :
© creating an independent Croatia H
: under the rule of the fascist

of Moscow. For the first time

800

o
a
°

eB
=)
=

N
=)
o

1939 1940 1941

| Axis war casualties
: The casualties suffered by Germany

and its Axis allies rose dramatically

: between 1939 and 1941, as the war
: widened its grip on Europe.

44 DON’T FIGHT A BATTLE

IF YOU DON’T GAIN
ANYTHING BY WINNING. 99

Erwin Rommel, German Field Marshal and commander of the
Afrika Korps, in his war diaries Infanterie Greift An, 1937

FINLAND

Helsinki

Tattinn,

EAST
PRUSSIA

Warsaw ©

POLAND

HUNGARY

ROMANIA

Operation Barbarossa

| The Axis invasion of the Soviet Union

made great progress in the second
half of 1941. It inflicted heavy losses
on Soviet forces, but failed to achieve
the quick victory that Hitler needed.

Germany had failed to achieve
a lightning victory.

In the Baltic republics (Estonia,
Latvia, and Lithuania], Belarus,
and Ukraine, much of the

Germans as liberators from
Stalinist rule. However, few

maintained their enthusiasm once :

they experienced the brutality of
Nazi rule. In Leningrad, placed
under siege by German and
Finnish forces, thousands died
every day, mostly from starvation.
Almost all the prisoners of war

Leningrad

USSR

BYELORUSSIA

‘*Rustov

Black © aw

#Sevastopol

KEY

~* German/Axis advances
Front line June 21, 1941

— Front line Sept 1, 1941
Front line Nov 15, 1941

~~ Front line Dec 5, 1941

: captured by the Axis were
* executed or perished from
: Starvation and neglect.

The Jews suffered the worst. At

Babi Yar, outside the Ukrainian
population initially welcomed the ©
: Jewish people were murdered in
| two days. The Nazis also began

capital Kiev, more than 30,000

systematic killing of Jews in
Poland, using gas vans at an

: extermination center at Chelmno.

Throughout 1941, Britain fought

: onagainst the Nazis, ignoring a
_ bizarre peace initiative by

Hitler's Deputy Fiihrer Rudolf

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44 THAT THE PEARL HARBOR
ATTACK SHOULD HAVE SUCCEEDED
IN ACHIEVING SURPRISE SEEMS A
BLESSING FROM HEAVEN. 99

Hideki Tojo, Japanese Prime Minister

Battleships USS West Virginia and USS Tennessee are engulfed in smoke
and flames during the surprise Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor.

Hess [1894-1987]. On May 10, Roosevelt felt he lacked the
Hess parachuted into rural popular support needed for
Scotland, convinced that he could a declaration of war.

persuade the British government ‘ ‘ Roosevelt's dilemma was

to ally itself with Germany. Instead, resolved by the Japanese.
he was arrested and remained a THE NUMBER OF LENINGRAD’S The US opposed Japan’s
prisoner for the rest of his life. RESIDENTS THOUGHT TO HAVE expansion into Asia, and

The chief threat to Britain at this after Japanese troops

stage in the war lay in the Battle | DIED DURING THE SIEGE entered French Indochina

of the Atlantic—German in July Roosevelt imposed
attempts to cut off the country’s an oil embargo. Since Japan
seaborne supplies of food and : Canadian navies were less Churchill's [see 1940) strong was entirely dependent on
war material.In May, the German | successful at protecting merchant = dislike of Soviet communism. imported oil, its government had
battleship Bismarck sortied into convoys against German But the British really needed the choice of abandoning its i
the Atlantic. After sinking th _ submarines, h dl the US to enter th iit bitions or fighti jiieatt Harbor Baave

e Atlantic. After sinking the submarines, however, and losses e US to enter the war. military ambitions or fighting a The slogan "Remember Pearl
Royal Navy battle cruiser HMS were soon mounting. The British President Roosevelt (see 1933) war with the US. | Harbor” was widely used in the
Hood, Bismarck was tracked people felt the effect of this in made no pretense of neutrality. In Following a plan advocated by == =_US to inspire patriotic support for
down, halted by torpedoes dropped : reduced food rations. March, he introduced Lend-Lease = Admiral lsoroku Yamamoto, on the war against the Japanese.
from Swordfish biplane aircraft, Britain did not hesitate to ally to supply Britain with military i
and then sunk by British itself with the Soviet Union, equipment paid for by the US : December 7, Japanese carrier
battleships. The British and despite Prime Minister Winston government. American shipyards aircraft delivered a surprise

: attack on the American naval

: base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.

: The raid sank or damaged 18

i warships and destroyed around

: 300 aircraft, which severely

: damaged the US Pacific fleet.

: Other Japanese forces invaded

the Philippines and the British
colony of Malaya.

: The shock of the raid on Pearl

and factories benefited greatly
from this, as did American workers
with plentiful and well-paid jobs.
Later in the year, free military
aid from the US was extended to
the Soviet Union.

In August, Roosevelt and
Churchill met at Placentia Bay
in Newfoundland, Canada, where ISOROKU YAMAMOTO
they signed the Atlantic Charter, (1884-1943)

a statement of joint war aims : Harbor ensured popular American
embodying liberal democratic In the 1930s, Japanese : support for war against Japan, but
principles. American warships Admiral lsoroku Yamamoto not against Germany. To the relief
were already escorting convoys became a leading advocate © of both Churchill and Roosevelt,
in the eastern Atlantic, and in of naval air power. As naval : Hitler chose to declare war on
October a US destroyer was commander-in-chiefhe was —_—~_ the US in support of his Japanese
sunk by a German torpedo, but the architect of the raid on : allies. At the Arcadia Conference
Pearl Harbor in 1941. He : in Washington at the end of the

Say ae was killed in April 1943 when = year, Britain and the US agreed a
Fighting in the bla ee ee his aircraft, identified by : military strategy that gave priority
A German soldier experiencing the A intelli © to defeating the G Th
Russian winter during the invasion merican intelligence, was _ to defeating the Germans. The _
‘af the Soviat Union: Axis farcas shot down over Bougainville : two countries also agreed to unify
were ill-equipped to cope with the Island in the Pacific. their military command under the
conditions. » Combined Chiefs of Staff.

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1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

—————
WAR IN THE

THE ALLIES DEFEAT IMPERIAL JAPAN IN THE PACIFIC

At war with China since 1937, the Japanese decided in 1941 to take a gamble
that, if successful, would secure them an empire in Asia and the Pacific. On
December 7, they attacked the US base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and launched
an invasion of the Philippines and European colonies in Southeast Asia.

BATTLES [IN THOUSANDS)

o
=
3
=
a
=
7)
ae
=
<
wi
a
>
<
[=
=
=

Tarawa Saipan IwoJima Okinawa
1943 1944 1945 1945

Price of the Pacific KEY
The human cost of victory in the Pacific us

rose sharply, but the Japanese death toll JAPANESE
was always far higher than that of the US.

The British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia Battle of the Coral Sea. A new phase of the war The Japanese navy was routed at the battles of the
proved easy prey for Japan—the British base at began with an ambitious thrust by the Japanese Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf, while the seizure of
Singapore fell with virtually no resistance. Within navy against Midway Island, which led to heavy the Mariana Islands brought the Japanese within
five months, the Japanese had reached the border _ losses. From August 1942, the most intense fighting | range of US bomber aircraft. In August 1945,

of British India in Burma. Australia seemed focused around Guadalcanal, which the US defeated in Burma and Okinawa, facing a Soviet
threatened, but Japan's southward push was eventually held. It was not until 1944 that the US had __ invasion of Manchuria, and the destruction of cities

checked by a clash with US aircraft carriers atthe _ built up sufficient strength for a sustained advance.

; Sea of
Okhotsk
MANCHURIA

Beijing

CHINA

FRENCH Sea v >

INDOCHINA Ee SS

| as
¢.

rmosa
Hong Kong

Mariana Islands
Manila Saipan
Bataan C
i: leg, Jan 7-Apr 9, 1942 Guam
PHILIPPINE

Saigon

Caroline Islands

STRALIA

by atom bombs, the Japanese surrendered.

nee ~~
. . ds jutch Harbour
iska®. Aleutian 1512? Bp yun, 1962

Japan on the offensive

The Japanese onslaught, begun in
December 1941, gave their armies
control of the Philippines, Indonesia,
Malaya, and Burma, while their navy
established a defensive perimeter in
the mid-Pacific. A naval defeat at
Midway in June 1942 ended the
period of Japanese expansion.

Midway

Battle of Midway
Jun 4-6, 1942 Hawaiian
Islands
” ae
Pearl Harbor >
< Dec 7, 1941
%
*
%
*
saree eS PYMCHHAIIE
Islands +
* OCEAN
«
s
Kwajalein ¥
ef im

WAR IN THE PACIFIC

tet) G6 | REALIZE
THE TRAGIC
SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE ATOM
BOMB... WE
Lop THANK GOD

7 . PACIFIC (ah HAS COME

« “| 70 US INSTEAD

Big Six” fire bomb target

’ % Atomic bomb target OF OUR
Attacks on Japan
Taking off from bases in the Mariana Islands, US B-29
Superfortress bombers devastated Japanese cities with
incendiary devices from March 1945. The dropping of E NE MIE S nod
atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6
and 9, 1945) was followed by Japanese surrender.

The Big Six

City Number of Percentageof Batween

raids citydestroyed arch 10 and
June 15, 1945, six
major Japanese
31% cities, including
56% Tokyo and Kobe,

were decimated

by heavy US
44% bombing raids.

50%

Sea of Japan
(East Sea]

26%

33%

ARK

Burma campaign
2 Sixty percent (three in five] of the
Japanese troops who fought in the
Burma campaign in 1942-45 lost their lives. Total
Japanese casualties numbered around 200,000,
compared with the 71,000 British and British
Indian men who were killed and wounded.

US president Harry S. Truman, August 9, 1945

me ys
Au “Dutch Harbour
~- Kiska, RSI islands re

USSR bal” Sea of
Okhotsk

Manchuria & 4

Aug 8-21, 1945 er
MANCHURIA we Zs Allied counterattack
25 The US army led a fightback against the
Japanese in the southwest Pacific, from
New Guinea to the Philippines. In the
Central Pacific, the US navy and marines
spearheaded a thrust from the Gilbert
Islands to the Marianas. The loss of
CHINA Okinawa in June 1945 placed Japan under
2 imminent threat of an Allied invasion.

Beijing

Midway
o ini
t w SS Apr tedun 22, 1945
INDIA Maer Jul 18, 1946 = ¢. ye Rie Beane PACIENG setae,
Formosa eb 19 -Mar 26, Islands
Ce Hong Kong OCEAN pps
Mariana Pearl Harbor

Islands

Rangoon

— i = Marshall Islands

INDOCHINA SuLzT-Aug, 1946
’ "

co}

Borneo
Balikpapangg <
Bette oi Hollandia

New
Guinea

Darwin

STRALIA

Wounded Allied soldiers are carried through the jungle by New Guineans. The harsh
environment was as deadly an enemy as the Japanese.

ON JANUARY 20, 1942, SS GENERAL
REINHARD HEYDRICH (1904-1942)
chaired a conference at Wannsee,
a suburb of Berlin. The purpose
of the meeting was to brief
German civil servants and foreign
ministry officials on plans to
systematically deport Jews
en masse from every country
in Europe. The Jews were to be
transported to camps—chiefly in
Poland—from which, it was made
clear, none would return.
Meanwhile, a Japanese tide of
conquest flowed across Southeast
Asia. The fall of Singapore, a
major British base that was
surrendered to the Japanese

in February after token resistance,
was a blow to the prestige of the

Determined resistance by

» American and Filipino soldiers
: on the Bataan peninsula in the
: Philippines ended in April. Large
= numbers of the troops died as

prisoners of the Japanese on the
brutal Bataan Death March—a

» 62-mile (100-km] trek that was
: forced upon the malnourished

and disease-ridden men.
As the Japanese advance swept
over Dutch-ruled Indonesia and

: British-ruled Burma, Australians

: worried that their country might

= be next, An attack by Japanese

naval aircraft on the port of

: in February caused over 500

: casualties, and Japanese midget

: submarines penetrated Sydney
Harbor at the start of June. In

: a sharp change of attitude,

: Australia began to look on the

| US, rather than Britain, as its

: chief military ally.

: Amid intense anti-Japanese

: feeling, in February President

: Roosevelt signed Executive

: Japanese Americans living in the

: western United States to be

: deported to internment camps.

: were interned during the war.

g = battles in the Coral Sea in May

: and at Midway in June were

44 | CAME

OUT OF

BATAAN AND I SHALL
RETURN. 99

General Douglas MacArthur, US commanding officer, after his
escape to Australia following defeat in Bataan, March 20, 1942

battles in which both sides
suffered heavy losses. In New
Guinea, Australian troops played
a leading role in fighting in hostile
jungle terrain.

In India, the British faced a
political as wellas a military
challenge. With Japanese troops
threatening an invasion from
Burma, in August Mohandas
Gandhi (1869-1948) and other
National Congress leaders
launched the Quit India

Movement, demanding full
independence. Their campaign

of civil disobedience was
ruthlessly repressed by the British
authorities, and more than
100,000 Indians were arrested,
including Gandhi. Some Indian
nationalists joined Subhas
Chandra Bose’s Indian National
Army, which fought alongside the
Japanese, but far more fought for
Britain: around 2.5 million Indians
volunteered for the British army.

: duels between aircraft carriers, North ene Jungerhof@ *Rg2
: fought without the Japanese and Sea ORR Baltic
» American fleets coming within ore
| sight of each other. The CoralSea | NETHERLANDS Rauircesine Omen
: encounter brought neither side BELGIUM | POLAND
: decisive advantage, but Midway Berline Treblinka USSR
: Wasa disaster for the Japanese uate “\rjdaneks ®S0bibor
: Navy, which lost four aircraft GREATER GERMANY,
H 4 ‘ = Auschwitz *Belzec
: carriers to American dive- Prague® Birkenaum™ eCracow
—_—_—_—_——SSSSSSSSSS=== = = : bombers and torpedo aircraft. FeRNCE czech, SLOV-
The Nazis murdered people from many groups, including Slavs, The American victory at Midway Viennae *Bvatisiava ROMANIA
homosexuals, and gypsies, but their treatment of the Jews was : wasa turning point, but far from SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA PATOL
without parallel. By 1942 they had embarked upon the total : decisive in itself. When American
extermination of European Jews. To achieve this “final solution,” : forces landed on Guadalcanal in
the Nazis transported Jews to specially built camps equipped with _:_ the Solomon Islands in August, #
eee Nib Wes TIC PRIS tec ! the J ded with Naziideath camps Key
gas chambers. Most were killed within hours of arrival, butsome _the Japanese responded with The Germans built death camps, mostly in Sie Mn ertre
were kept alive and used as slave labor. About 6 million Jews | ferocious determination, landing occupied Poland, expressly for the killing of camp
were murdered, two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population. | their own troops to counterattack _Jews. There were many other concentration
: and initiating a series of naval camps in which tens of thousands died.
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Soviet infantry fight amid the ruined buildings of Stalingrad. German defeat in
the city was a decisive turning point in World War Il.

Naval power

US Navy dive-bombers fly over
Midway Island in the Pacific. This
was the location of a decisive duel
between American and Japanese
aircraft carriers in June 1942.

Operation Torch. Opposition
from French colonial forces
loyal to the Vichy
government (see 1940}

was easily overcome, = Wik

leaving Rommel
trapped between

Tr 7?
In the desert war in North armies to his east
Africa, after suffering repeated and west. The i tlt sd
defeats at the hands of Field Germans responded
Marshal Erwin Rommel (1891- by extending their
1944), the British Eighth Army, military occupation of Penk tank

commanded by General Bernard
Montgomery (1887-1976), won a
great offensive victory at Alamein
in October-November,

As Rommel's Axis army
retreated westward across Libya,
Allied forces, including a large
contingent of American troops

commanded by General Dwight D.

Eisenhower (1890-1969), landed
in French North Africa during

3,500

3,000

NUMBER [IN THOUSANDS OF TONS)

WARSHIPS

American industrial miracle

France to the Vichy-ruled area.
The war being fought in the
Soviet Union (see 1941) came
to its climactic turning point at
the Battle of Stalingrad. The
eastward advance of Axis forces
had continued through most of
the year, reaching the Caucasus
by July and threatening the vital
oilfields of Azerbaijan. Hitler
insisted his troops capture

140
120

100

NUMBER [IN THOUSANDS)

PLANES

» American-built Grant tanks were

' supplied to the British in North
Africa. This one was used by General
Monigomery as an observation post.

the city of Stalingrad—of
symbolic importance because

: of its name. German soldiers
entered the city in September,
but the Soviets defended it

' street-by-street amid the

: ruined buildings. In November,

: Soviet General Giorgi Zhukov

* encircled the Axis forces,

- men inside Stalingrad. Ordered

: of ammunition. The German
commander, Field Marshal

: Friedrich Paulus, was among

the 90,000 men who lived to
surrender the following
February—and one of only

: a handful who then survived

The output of US factories and shipyards soared during World War II.
The number of workers employed in shipbuilding alone rose fram
around 100,000 in 1940 to 1.7 million late in the war.

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US President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill meet at
Casablanca in January to discuss the conduct of the war.

IN JANUARY 1943, Franklin D.
Roosevelt met British prime
minister Winston Churchill for

a conference in Casablanca,
Morocco, which set the future
course of World War II in Europe.
Britain persuaded the US to plan
for an invasion of Sicily, knowing
this meant an invasion of northern
France would have to be
postponed until 1944. The Allied
leaders also agreed that their air
forces would mount a combined

bomber offensive against Germany. =

At the end of the conference,
Roosevelt announced that the
Allies would accept nothing less
than the “unconditional
surrender” of their enemies.
The surrender of Axis forces at
Stalingrad (see 1942] in February
was a massive setback for
Germany, but the Germans
remained in occupation of most
of Europe. In many places,
armed resistance movements
contested the occupation. A

France was the decision in 1943

JOSIP BROZ TITO (1892-1980)

to conscript French men to work in
? German factories. To avoid forced
labor, thousands of young men
: slipped away to form guerrilla
bands in remote rural regions.
Resistance movements were
» plagued by political divisions. In

the Balkans, partisans led by the
: communist Tito (see panel, below)

Born in Croatia, Josip Broz
adopted the name Tito as a
communist activist in the 1930s.
After the German occupation of
Yugoslavia in 1941, Tito leda
guerrilla movement that took
control of the country in 1945.
He made Yugoslavia a
communist state, but resisted
the dominance of the Soviet
Union. He remained Yugoslav
president until his death.

Casablanca

The general release of the film
Casablanca was timed to take
advantage of the widely reported
Casablanca Conference.

= fought hard against the Germans,

: but were also actively hostile to

: the Chetnik guerrillas, led by Serb
nationalist and monarchist Draza
Mihailovic. In France, Resistance

: leader Jean Moulin strove to unite

Spring 1943 brought the climax

of the struggle against German
U-boats known as the Battle of
the Atlantic. In March, the Allies
lost 285,000 tons (260,000 metric

: tons) of merchant shipping to
German submarine attacks and
there seemed a risk that Britain's
lifeline of seaborne supplies would
be severed. German U-boats
operated in groups known as “wolf
packs,” coordinated by radio. But
then, a combination of factors,
including increased use of aircraft
on ocean patrols, intelligence from
decrypted German naval
messages, and the equipping of
convoy escorts with improved
radar and radio direction-finding
equipment, tilted the balance
against the submarines. By May,
U-boat losses were so high that
submarine commander Admiral
Karl Dénitz had to withdraw his

: forces from the Atlantic. The

: U-boat offensive never regained

: its momentum.

By far the heaviest land fighting
: of 1943 was on Germany's
: eastern front. Despite the

French Resistance fighters pose for a group portrait. The R

esistance carried out acts
of sabotage, gathered intelligence, and mounted guerrilla warfare operations.

44 GERMANY IS A FORTRESS,
BUT IT IS A FORTRESS
WITHOUT A ROOF. 99

Franklin D. Roosevelt, US President, 1944

disaster at Stalingrad, Axis forces
were able to mount a successful
counteroffensive at Kharkov in
the spring. This left the Soviets
holding an exposed bulge of
territory, or salient, at Kursk.
German generals planned to
attack from north and south to
trap the Soviet forces inside the
salient and destroy them. But
deputy supreme commander
Georgi Zhukov anticipated the
German offensive and prepared a
formidable defensive system. The
forces assembled at Kursk were
huge—the two sides together

Soviet badge

This badge was awarded to Soviet
tank crewmen during World War II.
The Soviets lost around 5,000 tanks
at Kursk in summer 1943.

totaled over 2 million men, with
more than 6,000 tanks and 5,000
aircraft. The Axis onslaught began
on July 5, initiating the largest
tank battle in history. Soviet
losses were heavy, but after four
days the Axis offensive had stalled
and the Red Army launched a
counterattack. The Germans
organized a fighting withdrawal
but the tide of the war in the east
had turned for good.

While the battle of Kursk was
at its height, the Western Allies
mounted a large-scale invasion
of Sicily. US and British armies
were put ashore and advanced
around opposite sides of the island,
receiving little opposition from
Italian forces, who quickly
surrendered. The campaign turned
into a race between US general
George S. Patton and British
general Bernard Montgomery.
Patton was first to reach Messina,
but between them the two armies
allowed most of the Axis forces
to escape to mainland Italy.

The loss of Sicily was a fatal blow
to the Italian dictator Benito
Mussolini. After a vote of no
confidence from the Fascist
Grand Council, Mussolini was
dismissed by King Victor
Emmanuel Ill (1869-1947) and
arrested. His replacement,

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Men of the US Coast Guard cutter Spencer watch the explosion of a depth
charge that sank a German U-boat in the Atlantic on April 17.

Woman Oronance WORKER

Marshal Pietro Badoglio
(1871-1956], signed an armistice
with the Allies in early September.
But the Germans had time to take
over key positions in Italy and
defend the peninsula against
Allied invasion forces. German
paratroopers rescued Mussolini

from captivity. They set him up as
ruler of a puppet Italian Social
Republic, which was founded in
the town of Salo. As Allied forces
fought their way northward from
Naples toward Rome, the
Badoglio government joined the

Allies, declaring war on Germany.

Women at war

AUS poster suggests that working
in munitions factories can be as
glamorous as joining the various
uniformed women’s services.

Germany came under heavy air
attack through 1943. RAF Bomber
Command, equipped with the new
Lancaster bomber, achieved a
spectacular success in the
“Dambusters” raid in May. Using
“bouncing bombs,” Lancasters
made a low-level night attack on
four Ruhr dams, breaching two of
them. In July, bombers saturated
the port city of Hamburg with
incendiary devices. In hot, dry
weather conditions, separate fires
blended into a single immense
firestorm. More than 37,000 people
were killed, most of them civilians.

While the RAF bombed Germany
by night, the US Army Air Force
began a daylight bombing
campaign. The US bombers,
bristling with guns, were expected
to fight off attacks by German
aircraft and drop bombs on
targets using technologically
advanced bombsights. In practice,
the B-17s and B-24s suffered
alarmingly heavy losses and
precision bombing proved hard to
achieve under combat conditions.

The impact of bombing on the
German civilian population was
huge. Aside from the casualties,
hundreds of thousands were
made homeless and there were
severe food shortages. Over two

from the cities. Many factories
were relocated underground to
avoid the bombing.

The shortages experienced by
German civilians were replicated,
in greater or lesser degree, in all

| European countries, including
neutral Spain. In Britain, labor
shortages led to the conscription
of women for work in civil

defense, military auxiliary services,

: factories, and in agriculture. In the

US, women workers were

» employed in heavy industrial jobs

traditionally reserved for men.

Black workers also took jobs
that in peacetime were reserved
for whites. This led to racial

: tensions that erupted into

rioting in Detroit in June. White
and black mobs clashed, and 34
people were killed before federal
troops restored order.

One of the worst tragedies of
1943 was the Bengal famine that

: killed more than a million people
million children were evacuated —

in British India. Responsibility for
this catastrophe is disputed, but

: Prime Minister Churchill refused

to allow shipping space, which

Flying fortress

The crew of an
American Eighth Air
Force B-17 Flying
Fortress at a base in
England prepares for
a bombing mission
over Germany. The
Eighth Air Force lost
26,000 men between
1942 and 1945.

prevented food
from reaching
the starving.

In Asia, 60,000
Allied prisoners of
war (POWs) and
almost 200,000 Asian laborers
were forced to build a railroad
from Thailand to supply Japanese
troops in Burma. Around 16,000
POWs and 90,000 Asian workers
died while they were building it.

650
Americans

13,000
AUSTRALIANS

18,000
DUTCH

Building the Burma Railroad
Alongside Asian forced laborers,

: chiefly British, Australian, and Dutch
: prisoners of war were used by the

Japanese to build the railroad.

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: S97,

THE NUMBER OF ALLIED
TROOPS THAT LANDED ON
THE NORMANDY BEACHES

THE NUMBER OF ALLIED
CASUALTIES DURING
THE LANDINGS

150,000

American soldiers wade ashore from a landing craft during the invasion of Normandy

on June 6. The landings began the liberation of Occupied France.

IN EARLY 1944 THERE WAS HEAVY
FIGHTING IN ITALY as German
troops blocked the Allied advance
on Rome. In January, Allied
seaborne landings at Anzio,
behind the Germans’ defensive
Gustav Line, failed to break the
deadlock. In February, Allied
commanders decided to bomb the |
medieval abbey at Monte Cassino, |
a key point in the Gustav Line,

but this much-criticized act of
desecration was also ineffectual.
Monte Cassino eventually fell
to the Polish infantry in May,
allowing Rome to be liberated

the following month.

In the spring, British Indian
troops withstood a Japanese
attempt to invade northeast India
from Burma. The Japanese
offensive was so successfully
repulsed that Allied forces were
able to mount their own offensive
to retake much of Burma later
in the year. With the Quit India

Cherbourg

US 1ST ARMY
UTAH
. OMAHA
StMere
Eglisee

Vierville

= movement (see 1942]
: also suppressed, the
: British had reasserted
: their authority over

: the subcontinent.

: invasion of Occupied
+ southern England into
: anarmed camp. Operation
: Overlord, was commanded
: Eisenhower (1890-

» Normandy as the target

: Postponed because
: of bad weather, the

.
>
Pointe du Hoc Bayeuxe
Arromanches!

Meanwhile, Allied
preparations for an

France turned

by General Dwight D.
1969). The Allies chose

for their invasion.

Normandy landings took place

: on June 6, referred to as D-Day.

During the night, 18,000 airborne

: troops landed by parachute or
: glider behind the German coastal
: defenses. At dawn, a fleet of 5,000
: ships carrying around 130,000

English Channel

BRITISH 2ND ARMY

GOLD
JUNO
‘SWORD
j Lion-sur-Mer

Caen

FRANCE

D-Day Landings

The Allies landed on five Normandy
beaches—Sword, Juno, Gold, Utah,
and Omaha. Allied troops also
parachuted in behind enemy lines.

KEY

™® Allied landing/advance

Burma Star

This military medal was
awarded to British and
Commonwealth soldiers
for service in the Burma
campaign between 1941
and 1945.

soldiers arrived offshore.

It was the largest

amphibious operation in

history. Three of the five
landing beaches,
codenamed Sword,

Juno, and Utah, were

taken with relative ease

by British, Canadian,
and US troops, but
the British at Gold

beach and especially the

Americans at Omaha beach

: suffered substantial losses before

: securing ground.

: Two ingenious innovations, the

i Mulberry floating harbor and

| the Pluto undersea oil pipeline,

: allowed supplies to reach Allied

forces once ashore. A grueling

: struggle ensued to break out of

: Normandy, and German resistance

: was not overcome until August.

: Meanwhile, Adolf Hitler

: (1889-1945) survived an

: assassination attempt. A plot

= was mounted by patriotic German

| officers and officials to overthrow

: the Fuhrer and seek peace with

» the Western allies. On July 20,

: Colonel Claus Schenk von

| Stauffenberg (1907-1944] carried

: a bomb in his briefcase to a

= meeting at Hitler’s headquarters

» at Rastenburg, East Prussia. He

: placed the bomb under a table

: at which Hitler was sitting. It

,000

exploded, devastating the room
and killing four people, but the
dictator survived unscathed.
Stauffenberg and some of the
other leading conspirators were
shot by firing squad; thousands
more were arrested and tortured,
many suffering lingering deaths.
Field Marshal Erwin Rommel
(1891-1944) was also implicated
in the plot, but he was permitted
to commit suicide.

The breakout of Allied forces
from Normandy in August
(see p.389) led rapidly to the
liberation of Paris. After
French Resistance fighters began
an uprising in the city on
August 19, General Charles de
Gaulle’s Free French forces,
fighting as part of Eisenhower's
Allied armies, raced for Paris. A
column of French tanks reached
central Paris on August 25.

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44... AN OPERATION
OF THE MOST
EXTREME DARING. 99

General Alfred Jodl, Chief of Operations on Hitler's counteroffensive

Soldiers of US 7th Armored Division patrol the snowy Belgian town of St. Vith, a site
of fierce fighting during the German Ardennes offensive in December.

As the Germans withdrew, the
celebrations in Paris began, and
so too did reprisals against
alleged collaborators. Around
9,000 French people were
summarily executed and tens

Liberation of Paris

Parisians celebrate the liberation
of their city, and welcome the return
of General de Gaulle to France as

leader of the Free French.

: of thousands subjected to public

humiliation—for example, women
were paraded with shaved
heads—before De Gaulle formed
a provisional government
and restored order.

At the beginning of August the
Polish resistance movement

: staged an uprising against the

Germans in Warsaw. The Soviet
Red Army had almost reached
the city, after pushing westward

: through the summer, but Stalin
: had no desire to help the Poles,

who were mostly anti-Russian
and anticommunist. The Red
Army stopped short of Warsaw,

: and did little for two months

while the Polish uprising was
crushed by Nazi troops. Several
hundred thousand Poles were
killed. After the survivors

: surrendered in early October,

the Germans destroyed Warsaw.
In the west in September, with

leaving the Netherlands to suffer
a harsh winter under the Nazis.
The US offensive in the Pacific

: gathered momentum through the

determination.
In the battle for
the island of Saipan
between June 15 and
July 9, almost the entire
garrison of 30,000 Japanese
soldiers were killed. The
Japanese Imperial Navy was
almost wiped out in two great
battles—the Philippine Sea in
June, and Leyte Gulf in October.
Facing near certain death in
unequal combat with superior
US forces, some Japanese naval
pilots mounted “kamikaze”
suicide attacks, deliberately
crashing their aircraft into US
warships. These tactics proved

using hundreds of virtually
untrained rookie pilots.

Facing defeat in Europe, Hitler
put his faith in secret weapons.

: but had no decisive effect, nor did

| the V2 rockets, the world’s first

: ballistic missiles. Around 3,000

: V2s were launched, mostly at

: London and Antwerp. They arrived :
: without warning and there was

: no defense against them, but they

were inaccurate, and failed to
have the impact Hitler desired.

In December, the German
Fuhrer made his last gamble with

: a surprise offensive in the

BSA BeeS A

Flying bomb

The German unmanned V-1 flying
bomb was propelled by a primitive
jet engine and packed with
explosives. In summer 1944
more than 100 a day were
fired at London.

Ardennes, which became known
as the Battle of the Bulge.
German tanks broke through the
US front line and headed for

Antwerp. Stiffening resistance,

especially by US airborne troops

: at Bastogne, was followed by a
well-organized Allied counter-

: attack. The German tanks ran
out of fuel, and improved weather

: allowed Allied aircraft to strike in

: support of ground forces. Hitler's

: last throw of the dice had failed.

» Belgium, British general Bernard 250 tal 1882 1348 wes 228
| Montgomery (1887-1976) devised
a plan to end the war quickly by
e - 200
an airborne invasion of the yg
szulgtheriands Bish, prayer tr ste i
For good luck, some Japanese io
| attempted to seize and hold a servicemen carried theirnational =| &
series of bridges that would allow = flag with a special prayer written z 7 100
Allied tanks to advance into on it, asking for a safe return. +2
northern Germany. The last : 50
© bridge at Arnhem was not taken, so effective that they were
: however, and the operation failed adopted as a form of mass attack, 0

Bre Ste Aes BSA Bees

NAVAL UNITS

i US and Japanese naval strengths
: A combination of vastly productive

year (see pp.374-95). Qutnumbered | The first jet aircraft, the German US chipyards and heavy Japanese KEY A Aircraft carriers
and militarily outclassed, the Messerschmitt 262, entered the = losses enabled the US to win naval Mus B Battleships
Japanese fought with suicidal conflict, but failed to reverse the =: dominance in the Pacific. Japan S Submarines
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“ < rc : 401

1914-2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

Anti-submarine weapon
BRITAIN

Depth-charge launchers were
carried by British Navy ships
to counter attacks by German
U-boats. The charge
exploded ata

preset depth.
Party member Yellow star
GERMANY GERMANY
This membership book, dated July 15, From September 1941, all Jews
1937, certified that the holder was a in the German Reich were forced
member of the Nazi party, the ruling to wear a yellow star with Jude
party in Germany during World War Il. (German for “Jew") written on it. \
Me depth-charge
launching tube
SS motto

LEUR (odes LA VOTRE

i — =e French Canadian poster
ae ee heidi symbol of CANADA
——— a British monarch This poster, addressed to Canada’s
(King George VI) French-speaking population,
SS dagger appeals for naval volunteers to join
i a tee Me symbol of the fight against German U-boats.
rem 99 ee the Third
all members of the Nazi elite SS. The Reich

blade bears the SS motto Meine Ehre
heiGit Treue (“My Honor is Loyalty”).

WORLD WAR Il

A GLOBAL CONFLICT THAT INVOLVED NOT ONLY MILITARY PERSONNEL BUT ALSO CIVILIANS

World War II cost more lives than any other conflict in paper tape on which
human history. Battle was joined on land, at sea, and Sia eat eee
in the air, with weapons ranging from the bolt-action

rifle to the atomic bomb. setting knob

Cipher machine

World War Il involved more than 100 million military personnel and most ig

nations of the world. As well as being the most widespread war in history, The M-209 was a mechanical
it was also marked by mass casualties among civilians, who were subjected cipher machine that provided

; swift and basic encryption,
to large-scale aerial bombardment, massacre by German and Japanese

providing sufficient security
soldiers and security forces, and the dropping of atomic bombs on Japan. for use on the battlefield.

rifle bolt

movable arm

e . A scale
Lee Enfield bolt-action rifle marked in
BRITAIN degrees

This rifle, which fired .303 cartridges froma
10-round magazine, was the standard British and
Commonwealth infantry rifle in both world wars.

Field telephone
us

Portable telephones, such as the eyepiece
American EE8 shown here, were
used for battlefield communication
over relatively short distances.

Prayer card

JAPAN

This wooden prayer card
belonged to a Buddhist
Japanese serviceman.
Troops of all nations
sought comfort in religion
and in superstition.

Naval sextant
JAPAN

Used to calculate a ship's
position, the naval sextant dates
from the age of sail but was still
in use during World War II.

rotatable
mirror

402

Suicide pill

BRITAIN

The British sent agents into

Nazi-occupied Europe to liaise
= with local resistance fighters.
Each agent carried a suicide
pill to swallow if captured.

Sniper rifle
USSR

The Soviet Red Army
made extensive use of snipers,
especially in the Battle of Stalingrad.

They used a standard-issue Mosin-Nagant
infantry rifle with a telescopic sight.

Improvised boots
GERMANY

German troops invading the USSR in
1941 were not equipped to face the
Russian winter. Some made straw
boots to protect against frostbite

viewing window shows
_— code letters

be of Bereta

Reichefleiiehtarte|~

Civilian ration card

GERMANY

Shortages of food, fuel, and other
essentials led most combatant
countries to introduce rationing.
This German ration card is for meat.

Red Cross parcel
BRITAIN

Prisoners of war received Red
Cross food parcels. As a result,
by the end of the war, Allied POWs
were better fed than their captors.

plugboard; its setting can be
altered to change the cipher

Klappe

schileBen Anti-tank mine

GERMANY
This Teller mine had a fuse \
activated by the pressure oftank
tracks. Over three million of these
mines were made in World War Il.

Enigma cipher machine

GERMANY

The Germans believed messages
encrypted by Enigma were secure,
but with the help of an early
electromechanical computer, Allied
codebreakers cracked the code.

telescopic
sight

Blackout poster
GERMANY

scorpion
A dramatic poster calls on German badgect
citizens to observe blackout regulations Long Range
Desert Group

during air raids. The slogan says “The
enemy sees your light! Make it dark!”

Desert headgear

NEW ZEALAND

The Long Range Desert Group,
set up by the British, was initially
formed of New Zealanders. They
found Arab-style headgear a good
defense against desert conditions.

pressure
activation plate

Nuclear relic

JAPAN

This melted glass bottle
shows the extreme heat
generated by the US atom
bomb that destroyed
Hiroshima on August 6, 1745.

403

44 THIS IS YOUR VICTORY! IT IS
THE VICTORY OF THE CAUSE OF
FREEDOM IN EVERY LAND. 99

Winston Churchill in an address to the crowds in London, May 8, 1945

Exuberant Londoners celebrate on Victory in Europe (VE) Day, May 8, after the
announcement of the final unconditional surrender of German forces.

IN FEBRUARY 1945, JOSEPH © Landing on on March 9-10 killed at least
STALIN, FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT, Iwo Jima 80,000 people.
AND WINSTON CHURCHILL met for | American President Roosevelt did not

the last time at a conference at
Yalta in the Crimea. Stalin agreed
to hold democratic elections in
Poland—a promise he did not
intend to keep. To aid the Soviet
troops invading Germany from the
east, the Western leaders agreed
to step up bombing of German
rail centers, including Dresden.
On the night of February 13-14,
Britain’s RAF dropped explosive
and incendiary bombs on
Dresden, causing a firestorm that
destroyed the city’s historic center
and killed some 25,000 people.
There was little pity for the
Germans, as the liberation of
the death camps exposed Nazi
crimes. The major extermination
centers, including Auschwitz,
were liberated by the Soviet Red
Army. The Western Allies met

: Marines are

: pinned down by

: Japanese fire on
| a beach of the

: volcanic island of

: February 19.

| their most

: experience of
» Nazi barbarity
_ at Belsen, a

: concentration camp in Saxony.

: Liberating the camp in mid-April,

Iwo Jima during
the landings on

graphic

British troops found thousands of

: prisoners dying of starvation,

mistreatment, and disease, and

left unburied. Cinema newsreel

» footage of Belsen convinced most

people that the war against

i Germany had been justified.

The human cost of the war with

: Japan continued to mount. In

February-March, US Marines

Dresden in ruins

Inhabitants of the German city of
Dresden attempt to cope with the
aftermath of Allied bombing that
created a firestorm in the city.

: suffered 26,000 casualties

: capturing the island of lwo Jima,
: avolcanic rock in the Pacific

: defended to the death by an

: 18,000-strong Japanese garrison.

The American invasion of the

+ much larger Okinawa Island,

launched in April, resulted in

: a bloodbath. Japanese soldiers

| kamikaze attacks (see 1944].

Meanwhile, American B-29

i bombers began the systematic

destruction of Japanese cities.
An incendiary raid on Tokyo

live to see the defeat of Germany
and Japan. The news of his death
on April 12 came as a shock
to the American people. The
inexperienced Harry S. Truman,
vice-president for less than three
months, took over at the White
House, facing formidable
responsibilities.

The Allies had agreed that
the Soviet Union should have the
honor of capturing Berlin, and
the heavy casualties that went
with it. Hitler was determined
to fight to the end, although
much of the defense of
Germany had devolved upon
adolescents and the elderly.
While American and Soviet
troops advancing across
Germany from west and
east met amicably at the
Elbe River, the Red Army
fought street by street
to take Berlin. As the
Soviets drew near his
bunker, on April 30
Hitler shot himself.

By then, former Italian
dictator Benito
Mussolini was also
dead, executed by
communist partisans.

MILLION tue
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
“DISPLACED PERSONS”
IN EUROPE IN 1945

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ws Ks 97 OF & e® SHH ooh os
or cs a BP ~ &
J

A formally dressed Japanese delegation prepares to sign the surrender papers on board
the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2.

KEY
Military toll
Civilian toll

Soviet Union

Germany

CASUALTIES [IN MILLIONS)
o

China
Britain and Commonwealth
Japan

Poland
France
Italy
US

World War II casualties

More civilians than servicemen died in World War Il. The Soviet
Union and Germany had the heaviest military death tolls. Poland
lost one in five of its population, including most Polish Jews.

His body and that of his mistress
Clara Petacci were hung upside
down from meat hooks ina Milan
gasoline station.

The surrender of German
forces was complete by May 8,
sparking heartfelt victory
celebrations in Allied countries.
Although war continued with
Japan, the British Labour Party
withdrew from the wartime
coalition to fight a general
election against the Conservatives
led by Churchill. To general
astonishment, Labour won a
landslide victory, their promise
of a welfare state and democratic

socialism outweighing the popular
appeal of Churchill's war record.
On July 16, the New Mexican
desert was lit up by the world's
first atomic explosion. This was
the culmination of the top-secret
Manhattan Project, a feat of
science and engineering that had
cost America $2 billion, spent on
presidential authority without
Congressional approval.
The explosion produced
temperatures higher than
those at the core of the sun.
The successful atomic
test coincided with the
gathering of Allied
leaders for a

Raising the red flag conference at

between the Western Allies
and the Soviet Union were
growing, Stalin agreed to
join in the war on Japan. At
the end of the conference the
Allies issued the Potsdam
Declaration, calling on Japan to
surrender immediately or face
“prompt and utter destruction.”
The Japanese government
rejected the callto surrender
as “of no important value.”
Preparations for dropping atom
bombs on Japanese cities were
well advanced even before the
first atomic test. The first bomb
was dropped on Hiroshima as
soon as it was ready and weather
conditions permitted (see panel,
right). Three days later, on
August 9, a second bomb
devastated the city of Nagasaki,
killing at least 35,000 people. The
Soviet invasion of Manchuria
was a further shock to Japan.
Since June, the Japanese
government had been split
between those who wanted a
negotiated peace and militarists
insisting on a fight to the death.
On August 10 Emperor Hirohito
intervened decisively in favor
of the peace faction. The
Japanese agreed to

Time of death
A pocket watch
retrieved from the
body of a citizen
of Hiroshima
records the exact

The American B-29 bomber,
Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel
Paul Tibbets, took off from
Tinian Island in the Marianas
at 2:45 on the morning of
August 6 carrying an atom
bomb. It dropped the bomb
on the Japanese port-city

of Hiroshima at 8:15. Heat,
light, and the explosion killed
some 70,000 people instantly.
The lingering effects of
radiation raised total deaths
to an estimated 140,000.

i surrender if the status of the

emperor was guaranteed

: Although Truman refused to offer

any such assurance, on August 15

: Hirohito told his people the war

| had developed “not necessarily to
: Japan's advantage,” and that he

: was making peace.

The war had ended with
unexpected suddenness. Dealing

| with the aftermath of devastated

cities, broken economies, occupied

Taken by a Red Army photographer, Potsdam, EB moment when jememy: countries, refugees
this photo reconstructs the moment _ Berlin suburb. the atom bomb ( displaced persons’), and war
when soldiers raised the Soviet flag Although exploded above criminals posed almost as great
on the Reichstag building in Berlin. differences the city. a challenge as the war itself.
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wer %

Jewish refugees make their way to Palestine. Thousands attempted this journey before
Britain stopped allowing illegal entry into Palestine.

REPRESENTATIVES OF 51 NATIONS
BEGAN THE YEAR BY FORMING

the United Nations (UN) General
Assembly, the successor to the
League of Nations (see 1919). Its
aims were to provide a forum for
the nations of the world and to
uphold peace and security.

The peace after World War Il was
short-lived, as relations between
Western allies and the Soviet
Union continued to cool. In March,
Winston Churchill summed up
the threat of communism ina
speech that described an “iron
curtain” falling across Europe.

| States.” Communist governments
: were set up in Czechoslovakia,
» Bulgaria, Albania, Poland,

i and Italy, communist parties
: narrowly missed seizing control.

: after the war. The leader of the
» Muslim League, Muhammad Ali
» Jinnah (1876-1948), demanded a
» separate Muslim state, while

The Soviet Union tightened its grip
on Europe by creating “satellite

(464 AN IRON CURTAIN
HAS DESCENDED ACROSS
THE CONTINENT. 99

i Winston Churchill, British politician, March 5 1946

Romania, and Hungary. In France

Tensions increased in India
following Britain's declaration that
India would gain independence
i August 16, Jinnah declared a
_ Direct Action Day, a mass protest
: against British proposals for an
i all-India government. Violent
: fighting erupted and thousands

longer allow illegal entry into

Palestine, igniting a diplomatic war.
Civil war resumed in China,

having been suspended during the

Hindus opposed this idea. On world war. The communist leader

: died. Inresponse, Mohandas

» Karamchad Gandhi {1869-1948}

= began a campaign for reconciliation

: between Hindus and Muslims.

: The US granted independence

: the gift had strings attached: the

» US kept sovereignty over several

: military bases, the Philippine

+ economy was dependent on US

: markets, and a “parity” clause
gave US citizens equal economic

: rights with Filipinos.

: The drive for liberation in Africa

® Farce Islands
(to Denmark)

OS S i

THE NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
LUXEMBOURG:
SWITZERLAND

FRANCE H E a :
% Beit, Black Sea » continued with the establishment
7 Corsica + | of the Pan-African Federation by
3 SPAIN Sardinia ALBAN » Kwame Nkrumah, from Ghana,
= Me GREECE : and Jomo Kenyatta, from Kenya.
= PIBRACTAR vo : They aimed to promote African
6

: unity and end racial discrimination.
: In Palestine, conferences were

» of admitting Jewish refugees

Si into Palestine, but no agreement
: was reached. The problem was

» compounded in August, when

» boats carrying refugees were

_ blocked by British warships.

: Britain told the US it would no

“ag |
\P2een eid SYRIA
: LEBANON 4

MOROCCO
ISRAEL

LIBYA EGYPT

The division of post-war Europe

After the war, Britain, France, and the US occupied
West Germany, while the Soviet Union controlled East
Germany. Lithuania, Latvia, Moldavia, and Estonia
were absorbed into the USSR.

Mao Zedong [1893-1976] declared
war on the ruling Kuomintang
nationalist party and its leader
Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975).

France remained determined
to hold on to its colonies in

: Indochina, beginning one of the

longest guerrilla wars in history.

: In November, clashes intensified
: between the Viet Minh, led by
: Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969), and the

Juan Peron

Fiercely nationalistic, anti-US, and
anti-communist, Perén pledged a
“Third Way” between capitalism
and communism.

: Dead Sea Scrolls

: The discovery of the Dead Sea

: Scrolls was one of the most

: important archaeological finds of the
: century. The scrolls are fragments of
: manuscripts of the Old Testament.

| Far East Expeditionary Corps, led
| by France. The First Indochina

| War, involving the rebellion of

: Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos

| against France, was declared on
: December 19 (see 1954).

The Argentine former secretary

» Perén (1895-1974), was installed
: as president of Argentina on

| promised social security and

_ higher wages.

Technicians at the University of

: Pennsylvania began operating the
: first practical electronic digital

_ had 18,000 vacuum tubes, and

: weighed almost 50 tons.

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The UN General Assembly in session in Central Hall, London. The General Assembly

is the only part of the UN where all members have equal representation.

LORD LOUIS MOUNTBATTEN WAS
APPOINTED THE LAST VICEROY

of India to oversee the end of
British imperial rule. He
believed that the only way forward
for the country was to partition it,
dividing it in two parts based on
the religion of those areas. In
July, the British passed the Indian
Independence Act, dividing the
Raj into India (Hindu and Sikh}
and Pakistan (Muslim], leaving
Kashmir to determine its own
fate. Pakistan was split into East
and West Pakistan, with India
separating the two areas. On
August 14, Pakistan gained
independence, and Muhammad
Ali Jinnah became its first
governor-general. The next day
an independent India was born.
Partition set off waves of violence
and displaced millions of Hindus
and Sikhs who had lived in what
was now Pakistani territory, as well
as Muslims who lived in newly
Indian territory.

4,
MALAYAS

INDIA

EAST

WEST
PAKISTAN PAKISTAN

The partition of India

Partition split the former British
Raj into two separate new states:
India and Pakistan. Pakistan was
formed of two territories, 1,050
miles (1,700 km] apart.

The rulers of Kashmir were left

with a momentous decision: to

| become independent, or to join
India or Pakistan. In October,
war broke out between India

: and Pakistan after Pakistan

: supported a Muslim insurgency in
Kashmir. India agreed to a request
for armed assistance from

: the accession of Kashmir to India

: once the hostilities between India
and Pakistan ceased [see 1949).

After six years of war, Britain's

status had diminished, and the
US emerged as the only power

: capable of matching the Soviet
Union. The “Truman Doctrine”
was established on March 12,
when Winston Churchill requested

: US aid in Greece, where a civil

war had broken out between
communists and the royalist
government. In response, 400
million dollars were sent to Greece
to help end the communist threat.
President Truman's doctrine
pledged support to all states
struggling to uphold democracy
against the threat of communism.
With fears that all of Europe
could fall to communist regimes,
the US secretary of state George
Marshall (1880-1959) introduced
a plan to help Europe's shattered
economies recover from the war,
helping victors and vanquished
alike. The European Recovery
Program, or “Marshall Plan,”
provided fuel, raw materials, loans,
food, and machinery, aiming to
help jump-start economic growth.

Anne Frank’s diary
The publication of
Het Achterhuis [The
Secret Annex] on
June 5 introduced
Anne Frank, a young
Jewish girl whose
diary chronicled her
years hiding from the
Nazis in Amsterdam
during World War II.

The crisis in Palestine (see
1946) continued to worsen as
Britain referred the situation to
the UN. A plan was devised to
partition the area into separate
Jewish and Arab states. The
UN General Assembly agreed to
this resolution on November 29,
butit was unpopular with Arabs.

: While the British organized their

: withdrawal from the region,
Arab and Jewish communities
clashed and terrorist attacks

: intensified [see 1948).

i Uprooted by partition

Partition caused the largest mass migration in history—around 10 million people were displaced.
These Sikh refugees are leaving the Muslim section of the Punjab.

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407

Mohandas Gandhi lies in state after his assassination by a Hindu fanatic
who blamed him for the partition of India.

THE CROWNING ACHIEVEMENT
OF MOHANDAS GANDHI (b. 1868)
was realized when India won
independence in 1947. However,
the concessions he made to
Muslims led to his assassination
by a Hindu fanatic who blamed
him for the partition of India, even
though Gandhi had bitterly
opposed the splitting up of the
subcontinent. The news of
Gandhi's assassination had a
profound effect throughout the
world, and a state of mourning
was declared in India.

South Africa held May elections
that saw the National Party take
power from Jan Smuts’ United
Party. Dr D. F. Malan (1874-1959)
became prime minister and
formed the first government
dominated by Afrikaners.
Immediately after the election,
the government began
institutionalizing segregation.
Malan believed that Africans
threatened the prosperity and
purity of the Afrikaner culture.

THE DIVISIONK C!

WHITE AREA

0) 9ak6 Meats

Dit AFDEUNGSRAAD VAN DIE KAAP

BLANKE GEBIED

Segregation sign

Under apartheid, separate residency
areas were created, and social
contact between different races was
strictly prohibited.

He based his policy on a system
that became known as apartheid
and enforced a racial hierarchy
privileging white South Africans
(see 1994).

Anticolonial sentiment grew
in the Malay Peninsula after
World War II. Groups of guerrillas
took to the jungle, led by
communist fanatic Chin Peng
(b. 1924]. In February, there were
terrorist attacks on European

settlers, and later an “emergency”

was declared.
All-Korean elections had been

called for in 1948, but Kim IL Sung :

(1912-94), the leader of North
Korea, persuaded the Soviets not
to allow the UN north of the 38th
parallel (the boundary between
the northern zone of the Korean
Peninsula, occupied by the USSR,
and the southern zone, controlled
by US forces], believing he could
not possibly win a free election.
Asa result, a month after the
South was granted independence
as the Republic of Korea, on
August 15, the Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea
(DPRK] was proclaimed, with Kim
as premier. On October 12, the
Soviet Union declared Kim's

: and extended its borders in what

: became known as the first

| Arab-Israeli War (see 1949]. The
| realization that the Israeli nation

| might survive increased anti-

: Israeli and anti-Jewish sentiment
: throughout the Arab world.

on the peninsula. By 1949,
North Korea was a full-fledged
communist dictatorship.

The UN had devized a plan to
split Palestine into Jewish and
Arab nations, but it was not
adhered to when the state of
Israel was proclaimed by its first
prime minister, David Ben-
Gurion, on May 14. The last
British troops withdrew on

: 1) proposed

: UN PARTITION
: PLAN 1947
H LEBANON
! @ proposed
Arab State
: proposed SXBIA

Jewish State

International
zone

Mediterranean
Sea

i Gaza Strip

EGYPT TRANSJORDAN

Eilat

: Plan for Palestine

The UN General Assembly proposed
: to split Palestine into Jewish and

: Arab states, with Jerusalem under

: International administration.

: May 15. Five Arab armies from

: Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon,

» and Iraq immediately invaded the
: new Jewish state but were

repulsed. The Israeli army

The Organization of American

| States [OAS] came into being
» on April 30. Its members were

; the independent states of

North and South America. They
pledged to fight communism,
increase security, and aid
economic growth.

Harry Truman (1884-1972)
had steered the US through
the end of World War Il and the
beginning of the Cold War.
However, he was not expected to
win the 1948 presidential
election against the Republican

: Thomas E. Dewey, due to his

pro-Civil Rights policies, which
had alienated many southern
Democrats. As the campaign
continued, he won the following
of the people and was reelected

: in one of the biggest election

upsets in history.

In Britain, the debate over free
healthcare had been ongoing
since the 19th century. After
Labour's election victory in 1945,
Aneurin Bevan (1897-1960)
presented a plan to provide free
healthcare to all for the first
time. Bevan formally launched

"DAVID BEN-GURION (1886-1

The founder of the state of
Israel, Ben-Gurion was born
in Poland and immigrated to
Palestine in 1906. He became
an active supporter of the
struggle for an independent
Jewish state and was expelled
from Palestine in 1915 due

to his nationalist activities.
During World War II, he helped
Jews fleeing from the Nazi
Holocaust. Ben-Gurion retired
from politics in 1970.

: the National Health Service
: (NHS] on July 5.

With World War II over, the

: once again select a nation to host
: the Olympic Games. London was
: chosen, but six years of war had

: left Britain with shortages of food
: and clothing, and the 1948

: celebrations became known as
the “Austerity Games.” These

_ the West when the head of the

: Czechoslovakian gymnastics

: team, Marie Provaznikova,

refused to return home.
Czechoslovakia had been

: within their sphere of influence
: to become a democracy.

» Communists, supported by the
» Soviets, carried out a coup in

| Prague, in February. The Czech
_ president, Edvard Benes

: (1884-1948), was removed from

44 1 KNOW OF NO OTHER MAN IN OUR TIME,
OR INDEED IN RECENT HISTORY, WHO SO

CONVINCINGLY DEMONSTRATED THE POWER
OF THE SPIRIT OVER MATERIAL THINGS. gy

Sir Stafford Cripps, British statesman, on Gandhi, 1948

power and replaced by the leader
of the Czech communist party,
Klement Gottwald (1896-1953;
see 1989]. This was a tense period
in Czechoslovakia. Jan Masaryk,
the Czech foreign minister, had
tried to assure the Soviets that a
democratic Czechoslovakia posed
no security threat. However, he
had been in favor of accepting aid
from the Marshall Plan (see
1947), which Stalin refused to
endorse. On March 10, the Czech
government reported that
Masaryk had committed suicide.
Despite suspicions that the
communists had murdered
Masaryk, nothing was proven.
Berlin was divided into four
zones after World War II, under
an agreement between Britain,
France, the US, and Russia [see
1961). Berlin as a whole was an
enclave within Soviet-occupied
East Germany. The Soviets were
determined to force Western
powers out of Berlin and, in the
first crisis of the Cold War, cut

fresh yeast for baking

whole milk for children

cheese

coffee

powdered milk

salt

fat

meat and fish

YY cereal

dehydrated vegetables
dehydrated potatoes
sugar

Chicage Kially Tribune

DEWEY DEFEATS. TRUMAN

aoe

Harry Truman holds up a newspaper that prematurely
announced Thomas Dewey had won the election.

The Berlin Airlift

A crowd of Berliners watch a
Douglas C-54 Skymaster plane
carrying vital supplies to the Allied
sectors of the city.

road and rail links between the
city and the West in June. The
Allies responded to the “Berlin
Blockade” by organizing a
massive airlift to supply the
people of Berlin, and the blockade
was lifted in May 1949.

The end of World War II brought
mass movements of refugees as
millions of displaced people fled
or were expelled from Eastern
Europe. Many were treated
brutally and found it hard to
assimilate. In response, the UN
adopted the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights,
which guaranteed a “right to seek
and to enjoy in other countries
asylum from persecution,” as
well as the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide.

Feeding Berlin

At the height of the
Berlin blockade,
one plane reached
Berlin every 30
seconds. This
graph shows the
quantity of food
that was flown in
daily to sustain

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Berlin's 2 million
FOOD WEIGHT (TONS) citizens.
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44. A ROOF STRETCHING OVER
THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 99

Emest Bevin, British foreign secretary, describing

the North Atlantic Treaty
t the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington, on April
Atthi sf the North Atl Wi hi D.C., on April 4,
US president Harry S. Truman gave an address on its significance.
: Germany. West Germany held the Civil war in China [see 1946) ! December and conceded
Pema. DENMARK Tonal). first free elections since 1932, and _ drewto an end in 1949. Beiping independence after four years of
= \\ yoiciiin Te the Christian Democrats under : was taken by the communists and : war. President Ahmed Sukarno
Bee ND. a alist he Christian Di ds ken by th i id President Ahmed Suki
CANADA xINGDOM N POLAND : Dr. Konrad Adenauer (1876- its name changed back to Beijing, | (1901-70), who had cooperated
NETHER ae a Se REPUBLIC © 1967) won a small majority. and between April and November, : with the Japanese in the war,
vuxeBoune. aN | In July, the Vatican issued the most major cities passed to © emerged as the strongest
UNITED STATES. Mag, - ||) | TURKEY | Acta Apostolicae Sedis under communist control with minimal _: national leader; he was faced
Baw _ Pope Pius XII, which effectively resistance. Mao Zedong (see » with the task of welding all the
| excommunicated Catholics who roclaimed the founding o| | separate regions into a unite
Cin H icated Catholics wh 1921) procl d the founding of p gions i ited
GREECE collaborated with or supported the People’s Republic of China nation under a new constitution,
KEY BULGARIA i : PP P ne Hate :
Original : the Communist Party. The decree = on October 1, and in December, with Jakarta as the capital of
signatories pane : represented a significant Chiang Kai-shek and his © the Republic. On September 26,
§ Joined after » counteroffensive by the Holy See Nationalist troops fled from : 1950, Indonesia was admitted
1969 : inareligious Co ar against the mainland to the island o' ‘othe see
Ligious Cold War against h land to the island of | to the UN [see 1965)
NATO alliance i the communist regime, following Formosa [Taiwan], naming Taipei New 7-inch vinyl records
ATRUCE WAS REACHED IN THE This map illustrates the 12 nations: the persecution of Catholics in the temporary capital of China. (also called 45s) were

ARAB-ISRAELI WAR [see 1948],
bringing an end to eight months of
hostilities. The Israelis referred to

while the Arabs called it “Al
Nagqba,” or “The Catastrophe.”
The Arab states negotiated
separate armistice agreements.
Egypt was the first to sign on
February 24, followed by Lebanon,
Jordan, and Syria. The agreement
established a line between Israel
and the Jordanian-held West
Bank, which became known as
the Green Line.

Representatives of Belgium,
Britain, Canada, Denmark, France,
Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,

that originally signed up to NATO in
1949. The alliance enabled the US to

would try to settle disputes by
peaceful means.
The Soviet Union stunned the

: West by exploding its first atomic
= bomb, on August 29, at a remote
: test site in Kazakhstan. Named

“First Lightning,” its development

: was facilitated by US spies, such
: as Julius and Ethel Rosenberg,
: and British spy Donald Maclean,
: who had passed technological

secrets to the Soviets (see 1951).
The loss of nuclear supremacy

» communist states

On Easter Monday, April 18, Eire
: became the Republic of Ireland,
: following the bill of 1938. It meant
: Ireland had officially broken free
: of allegiance to the British crown.
© In May, the British Parliament
» approved a bill continuing the
) status of Northern Ireland as a part
: of Great Britain; six northern Irish
: counties had shown a majority in
: favour of remaining British in
: the Northern Ireland General
: Election held on February 19.
: The Fourth Geneva Convention
» was adopted in August. It brought
© together the elements of the
: previous three Geneva
: Conventions of 1864, 1906, and

The Dutch finally gave up their
struggle over Indonesia in

* RTT SARK SD

introduced in the US by record

company RCA on January 10.

With its format of
one song per side,
the “single” was
perfect for rock ‘n’
roll, and it went on
to revolutionize the
pop music
business. In the
first year of
production, RCA
pressed more than

25 million 45s.

and the US met in Washington, » led US president Harry Truman —-_—:1929, and added rules to protect People’s Republic

D.C., in April, to sign an historic : to order the development of : civilians during war. It came in Following the

treaty that established the North | the much more powerful | response to Nazi atrocities during proclamation of the

Atlantic Treaty Organization, | hydrogen bomb. » World War Il and the practice of People’s Republic of

or NATO. The alliance was
intended for mutual defense;
countries promised to develop
their capacity to resist armed

attack, and to consult one another i

when any of the countries was

The Berlin Airlift (see 1948)

by the Western Allies had aided

solidarity with the West German
leaders. On May 23, the western
occupied zones were united to
form the Federal Republic of

» “total war.” The international

| treaty governed the treatment

| of civilians during wartime,

: including hostages, diplomats,

: spies, bystanders, and civilians in
: territory under military occupation.

China, propaganda
posters showed a
smiling Chairman
Mao Zedong
encouraging his
people to build a new,
prosperous country.

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The civil war in Korea quickly escalated and drew in troops from across the world under
UN command, including these British machine gunners.

AFTER NEARLY
100 YEARS OF
BRITISH RULE,
India became
a republic on
January 26. India
had been managing
its own affairs since
the partition in 1947,
but this day marked
the official cutting of
allties. Ina formal
ceremony, president
Rajendra Prasad
(1884-1963)
took the oath
of office anda
new constitution
came into force.
Since it was first created as
Transjordan after World War |,
the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan faced problems arising
from its disputed status, weak
economy, and artificial frontiers.
On April 24, King Abdullah of
Jordan (1882-1951) annexed
Arab Palestine to create an
expanded kingdom, to the fury of
his Arab neighbors. The annexed
territory included East Jerusalem
and doubled Jordan's population.
South Africa, with its oppressive
apartheid laws [see 1948), began

44 COMMUNISM
IS AHAMMER
THAT WE USE
TO CRUSH TH
ENEMY. 99

Mao Zedong, 1950

Emblem of India
India adopted this
emblem, taken
from a sculpture
called Lion Capital
of Ashoka, after it
became a republic.
The words “truth
alone triumphs”
are inscribed in
Devanagari script.

to witness
increasing racial
tension. Whites
and blacks were
segregated ona
large scale, and
identity cards
specifying a person's race were
introduced. On May 1,a general
strike was held protesting against
all discriminatory laws. Police
opened fire in the Alexandra
Township, killing 18 people
and wounding 30.

Ayear after communists had
assumed power in China they
invaded neighbouring Tibet. The
military assault took place in
October, and by April 1951, Tibet's
leaders claimed to have been
strong-armed into signing a
treaty, known as the “Seventeen
Point Agreement,” which gave
China control over Tibet's external
affairs and allowed Chinese
military occupation.

Anti-communist witch-hunter
Senator Joseph McCarthy
launched a “red scare” crusade in
America on February 9, claiming
that the US State Department was
harbouring 205 communists. His
claims were never substantiated,

but many lost their jobs and their
reputations (see 1954).

In June, a new crisis divided
former wartime allies in Korea
Split into a Soviet-occupied
northern zone and an American-
occupied southern zone, once
these two powers had withdrawn,
the north—still backed by the
USSR—invaded the south.

The US, determined not to appease
the Russians, provided the main
contingent for a United Nations
army that went to the support of
the South Koreans. Within four
months, the UN force had driven
deep into North Korea; only the
intervention of China saved North
Korea from collapse (see 1953).

9
MILLION

POPULATION IN 1950

South
Korea

North

Korea

135,000

ARMY SIZE IN 1950

Korean population and army
Despite having less than half the
population of South Korea in 1950,
North Korea's army was superior
in size and much better equipped.

46 WE SHALL
LAND AT INCHON,
AND I SHALL
CRUSH THEM. 99

Douglas MacArthur, US General, 1950

Named for senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-57), McCarthyism
became synonymous with the hunt for communists in US public
life during the 1950s. The triumph of communism in Eastern
Europe and China provoked a severe crisis in the US. Fears of a
worldwide communist conspiracy resulted in a campaign against
people suspected of communist leanings. McCarthy held senate
hearings to “out” communists, and so-called “anti-American”
books were removed from public libraries.

The first human organ
transplant took place on June
17 at the Little Company of
Mary Hospital in Illinois. A kidney
from a dead body was used to
replace a damaged kidney.
Although it was later rejected,
the transplant gave the patient's
remaining kidney time to recover.

German-born physicist Albert
Einstein (see 1919), who had
become actively involved in
advocating nuclear disarmament
and civil rights, published
“On the Generalized Theory of
Gravitation” in April's Scientific
American. In this paper, he
attempted to unify gravity and

electro-magnetism in a way that
led to anew understanding of
quantum mechanics.
The first modern credit card,

» which could be used at a variety

: of stores, was introduced in the
US by Diners Club on February 8.
It was established mostly for
businessmen to use for travel
and entertainment expenses.
Cardholders had up to 60 days to
pay in full. Merchants were quick

_ to accept the card because they
found that customers who used
a credit card usually spent more

: if they were able to “charge it.”

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radio antennae
8-10ft
— |2.4-2.9 ml long

steel sphere
weighing
185 lb (84kg)

Sputnik 1

1957 « ussR

The first artificial satellite, launched
ahead of the US version, contained a
radio transmitter. Orbiting hundreds
of miles above the Earth, it helped
scientists understand more about
Earth's atmosphere.

THE SPACE RACE

TWO SUPERPOWERS COMPETE TO PROVE THEIR TECHNOLOGICAL MIGHT

Two nations dominated the race to explore space in the

1914-2011 TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

1960s—the US and the USSR. What had begun as a
search for long-range missiles became a battle for

international prestige, which neither wanted to lose.

In 1957, the Soviet Union stunned the US when it launched Sputnik 1 into
orbit. Then, in 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human
to orbit the Earth. It looked like the US was lagging behind. But after the
creation of the Apollo program, the US eventually won the ultimate prize:
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin stepped onto the lunar surface on July 21,

1969, marking the beginning of a new era in space exploration.

Brush

Sample testing kit

1969 e us

The crew of Apollo 11 took special
tools and containers with them to
collect rocks, soil, and dust from
the lunar surface to return to Earth

Moon rock

1969

Collected by Apollo 11 astronauts, Moon
rock resembled volcanic lava found on Earth,
suggesting that the Moon was once molten.

Cosmonaut’s suit

1965 © ussR

Soviet Aleksei Leonov was the
first man to walk in space,

in March 1965. His suit, the
Berkut, came with a backpack
life-support system.

seal connects
Marine award helmet to suit _
1962 eus

John Glenn, the first American to orbit

the Earth, was awarded a special medal

by the US Marine Corps to commemorate

the event. Alan Shepard had become the i
first American in space in the previous year. 4

suit includes
an airtight

insulation layer__.
Gagarin poster
1961 © ussR ;
This Soviet poster shows a beaming | *
Yuri Gagarin, who made history as
the first man in space aboard Vostok |. f

pressure we

gauge

insulated gloves with __
rubber fingertips to
assist grip

SPECIAL SEC

4E VIEW
LIFE FROM THE
Wis vom MOON

Life magazine
January 20, 1969 e us

Images from the Apollo 8 mission appeared
on the front cover of Life magazine, such was
the interest in space exploration. The Apollo 8
crew were the first to orbit the Moon.

THE SPACE RACE

7
>
Lunokhod 1 space probe , J directional
tunnel hatch __ 1970 ® ussR a helical
Lunokhod, meaning “moonwalker” , 7 _-— antenna
rendezvous in Russian, was the first of two roving .
‘window remote-controlled robots to land on <y

the Moon on November 17.

solar cell recharges

access batteries

hatch

Apollo 10 command module
1969 «us

This module, carrying three crew, wheels
went into orbit around the Moon

ina rehearsal for the Apollo 11

mission that landed on the Moon

two months later.

independently
powered

Space food tray

DATE AND PROGRAM UNKNOWN
This food tray is magnetic
to combat low gravity, with
metal cutlery and Velcro
fastenings to secure
shrink-wrapped food
packages and liquid.

magnetized
Apollo patch Mir patch surface
1969 us DATE UNKNOWN © USSR
An eagle carrying an olive branch This is the official mission patch
perches on the lunar surface in for the Russian Space Station
the Apollo 11 patch, which was Mir program. The word “Mir”
designed by the crew. appears in Cyrillic.

Space tools

DATE AND PROGRAM UNKNOWN
Special tools were designed

to help astronauts collect
specimens. Because bulky space
suit gloves made grasping
difficult and tiring, tool handles
were thicker than normal.

_..

-TRIPULACION. CONJUNTA. SOVIETICO-CUBANA

LDO TAMAYO
CIRCUNDAN LA TIERRA EN LA SOYUZ-38

soft lunar boots
ideal for

a Commemorative cigarettes
spacewalking

1975 ¢ US AND USSR
These cigarettes were made

to celebrate the Apollo-Soyuz Cuban newspaper

mission in 1975, when craft from 1980 « cuBA

the US and USSR docked together During the space race, astronauts from many
in space. The packets were printed communist countries, such as Cuba, went into
in both English and Russian. space as crew members on Soviet spacecraft.

413

44 IT HAD
TO BE. 99

Julius Rosenberg, convicted
spy, on his death sentence, 1951

EGYPT RENOUNCED ITS 1936
TREATY THAT GRANTED BRITAIN
a lease on the Suez base, in
October. Britain refused to
withdraw and a guerilla war
began in the Suez Canal Zone.

In March, the Iranian government
nationalized its oil industry, which
had been dominated by the Anglo-
Iranian Oil Company. Britain
responded with a worldwide
embargo on Iranian oil.

A new era dawned in nuclear
power when the first nuclear
power plant, in Idaho, produced
around 100 kW of power—enough
for four 100 watt light bulbs.

Fears about the spread of
communism deepened as Julius
and Ethel Rosenberg were
accused of stealing information
from the US for the Soviets.
British Foreign Office officials Guy
Burgess and Donald Maclean
disappeared on 28 May—it was
later found out that they had
defected to the Soviet Union.

The Rosenbergs awaiting trial
Americans Julius and Ethel

Rosenberg were found guilty of
smuggling atomic secrets to the
Soviet Union.

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Thousands of suspected Mau Mau activists in Kenya were arrested following

open revolt against British rule.

INDOCHINA PROVED VOLATILE
THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. In April,
the French launched a big push to
smash the Viet Minh resistance
northwest of Saigon. In October,
another French operation
targeted Viet Minh supply bases.

A peace treaty that Japan had
signed in San Fransisco, US, in
1951 went into effect on April 28,
making the country an
independent state again. i

On May 27, East Germany closed =
its border with West Germany. :
A 30-ft (10-m) wide “control stri
was dug along the border.

King George VI of Britain died
on February 6. His daughter,
Elizabeth, was officially
proclaimed queen two days later.

Opposition to British rule led to
the Mau Mau Rebellion in Kenya.
The Mau Mau were an anticolonial
insurgent army. They began raiding
white-settler farms, and by the
end of the year the British had
declared a state of emergency.

The European Coal and Steel
Community came into being in
July. Comprised of six nations, it
created a “common market” for
coal and steel, and laid down the

EVA PERON (1919-52)

Maria Eva Duarte de Peron,
or “Evita,” played a crucial
role in helping her husband,
Juan Perén, become
Argentinian president. She
was idolized by the poor, and
began many programs of
social welfare and reform.
She died of cancer at age 32.

A military coup in Egypt headed

= by Colonel Gamal Abdal Nasser’s

Committee of Free Officers seized
control of the government in July.
Egypt became a republic in 1953.
The first atomic bombs had
been dropped on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in 1945. The much more
powerful hydrogen bomb, or

: H-bomb, was tested by the US

on November 1.
The world’s first successful use
of amechanical heart was

THE NUMBER OF
AFRICANS WHO
DIED IN THE MAU
MAU UPRISING

The Dodrill-GMR machine kept
blood circulating for 50 minutes

: during open-heart surgery.

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STALIN’S POLICIES WERE
BECOMING INCREASINGLY
ANTI-SEMITIC. At the end of 1952,
he told his Politburo that all Jews
were sympathetic to America.

On January 13, nine doctors were
arrested for conspiring to murder
prominent figures in the Soviet
armed forces. Six of them were
Jews. These accusations were

: met by reactions of foreboding in
Western Europe. The doctors
© were freed after Stalin died of
: a stroke in March
Stalin's death led to a major
power struggle in the Kremlin
: where a moderate coalition,
' headed by Georgi Malenkov
(1902-88), took over. His moderate
© policies became unpopular and
: Lavrenty Beria (1899-1953), who
: had been the head of Stalin's
secret police, tried to gain power.
Beria was charged with
treason and was then shot
in the back of a truck, in
what seems to have
been a summary
assassination.

Hillary and Norgay

Edmund Hillary and Sherpa
Tenzing Norgay become the
first to successfully reach the
summit of Mount Everest,
the highest point on Earth,
during the British Everest
Expedition of 1953.

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The Indochinese conflict lasted eight years, ending in 1954. This photograph shows

French forces evacuating Hanoi.

A scientific breakthrough was made in 1953, when the blueprint
of life, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), was mapped out by James
Watson and Frances Crick. DNA is the hereditary material that
contains the coded information needed to build and maintain all
living organisms. Watson and Crick proposed a model for

DNA called a double helix. It explained heredity and led to

the development of an entire biotechnology industry.

coiled structure

War in Korea (see 1950) ended
when an armistice was signed on
July 27, but a state of suspended
hostility remained. The Republic
of Korea (South) and the
Democratic People’s Republic
of Korea (North) chose not to sign
the peace treaty.

Mount Everest, the world’s
highest mountain, was first
climbed on May 29, by New
Zealander Edmund Hillary
(1919-2008) and the Nepalese
Sherpa Tenzing Norgay
(1914-86). They stayed only
15 minutes at the summit as they
were low on oxygen.

Anew “absurdist” play, Waiting
for Godot by Samuel Beckett
premiered at the Theatre de
Babylone in Paris on January 5.
Critics were at once divided over
its merits.

chromosome

base pair

FRENCH RULE IN INDOCHINA
CAME TO AN END ON 21 JULY.
Laos and Cambodia became
independent, while Vietnam was
divided into North Vietnam, with
a communist government, and
South Vietnam. In all three
noncommunist states, communist
guerrilla movements sprang up.

Senator Joseph McCarthy
intensified his campaign to root
out communists [see 1950). He
set his sights on the US army
and made unsubstantiated
allegations against them. This
led to his being censored by the
Senate on December 2. Public
support dwindled, and McCarthy's
reign of fear ended.

A vaccine for polio was tested
in a huge field trial in the US, in
April. The trials were successful,
and a nationwide vaccination
scheme was started the
following year.

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ISRAELI FORCES CONDUCTED A
‘SURPRISE RAID on the Egyptian-
held Gaza Strip in February. The
raid was the largest of its kind
against Arab forces since the end
of the First Arab-Israeli War in
1949 [see 1956).

Under its apartheid legislation,
the South African government
forcibly evicted 60,000 black people
from Sophiatown, in February, to
make it a white-only suburb. The
African National Congress (ANC),
an antiapartheid organization,
responded with a day of prayer.

The Friendship, Cooperation and
Mutual Assistance Treaty, known
as the Warsaw Pact, was signed
on May 14. The treaty set up a
military alliance of communist
states to counter NATO in the West.

The Soviet Union ended its
occupation of Austria, which had
been ongoing since the end of
World War Il, on condition that

Eastern alliance

The Warsaw Pact united the Eastern
Bloc in a similar alliance to NATO. The
signatories were Albania, Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
Hungary, Poland, and the USSR.

POLAND

EAST
GERMANY.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA
HUNGARY —

avpania__/“

ROSA PARKS [1913-2005]

Rosa Parks made history when
she refused to give up her seat
on a bus for a white man. Her
arrest mobilized a boycott of
the bus system, which ended
segregation on Montgomery's
buses. The boycott also
brought international attention
to the civil rights cause. Parks
remained committed to her
cause, and was a symbol of the
struggle for civil rights until
her death in 2005, aged 92.

Austria remained neutral. The
Austrian State Treaty was signed
on May 15, reestablishing Austria
as an independent sovereign state.
It joined the UN the same year.
Juan Perén’s position as
president of Argentina was
weakened by his wife's death and

December 1, when Rosa Parks
broke Alabama race laws by
refusing to move to the back of a

In the West, by the mid-1950s,

a quarrel with the Roman Catholic :

Church. He was overthrown ina
coup on September 19, and exiled
to Paraguay.

There was a turning point in
the US Civil Rights movement on

group with interests, musical
tastes, and their own fashions. This
led to disapproval from adults who

slang was condemned, dances
were closed, and some institutions
banned the wearing of jeans.

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44 WHAT COULD WE
DO? THERE WAS A REIGN
OF TERROR. 99

Nikita Krushchev, on Stalin, February 25, 1956

The Soviets began the “Race for Space” with the launch of the world’s first
satellites, Sputnik | and II—an achievement celebrated by this poster.

Nikita Krushchev, photographed during an eight-day visit to London. Khrushchev’s
“de-Stalinization” of the USSR prompted a thaw in the Cold War.

THE US CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
experienced a turbulent time this
year when a black student began
attending the University of
Alabama. White community
members attacked African-

March 2, although Spain retained
: control of Ceuta and Melilla on
: the coast. Border disputes with
: Algeria led to fighting in 1963.
Riots erupted in Cyprus in
: March, after British authorities

: Chevrolet Bel Air Convertible

: The 1956 Chevy was just what the
: American public wanted—it was

: fast, big, and affordable. It soon

: became a classic symbol of the

: American Dream.

KASHMIR WAS FORMALLY
INCORPORATED INTO INDIA on
January 26, defying a UN ruling.
Itwas granted special status
under India’s constitution, which
ensured, among other things, that

Britain [see 1948]. Eventually,

_ Britain realized that this situation
: could not be resolved by military
! means, and made constitutional
: advances that culminated in the
: independence of the Malayan

Federation on August 31.
President Sukarno of

"Indonesia had struggled to

: maintain a parliamentary

: democracy since independence
: in 1945. On March 14, he decided
: to dispense with parliament

and imposed martial law. On

: December 3, Sukarno nationalized

Dutch businesses; two days later

= he expelled all Dutch nationals.

The Space Age began on

Sputnik 2, which carried a dog

Americans, and the activities of : deported Archbishop Makarios, non-Kashmiri Indians could not called Laika.
the Ku Klux Klan, an organization © leader of the campaign to unify : Egypt and Israel following the buy property there. Pakistan
of white supremacists, increased. | Cyprus with Greece. He was "crisis, which became known as the _ strongly objected (see 1917, 1965). °
Morocco declared its : accused of fostering terrorism. » Second Arab-Israeli War. Ghana became the first black
7 ‘ e cu : zm te North
independence from France on Egypt's President Nasser Nikita Khrushchev, Communist — African country to gain its Sea
nationalized the Suez Canal on : Party First Secretary of the Soviet independence from colonial
TURKEY. © July 26. Britain and France had : Union, denounced Stalin as a rule on March 6. The first prime
CYPRUS _ : shares in the Suez Canal Company, : “brutal despot” ina speech on minister, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah
LEBANON — = TTA _ and met with Israel in October | February 25. It outraged Stalinists, | (1909-72), initiated ambitious Fad
CaircepeOROAN )cuwarr _ to conclude a secret agreement i but led to the prospect ofathawin development programs and
Suez Canal. BAHRAIN. TRUCIAL that Israel should attack Egypt, £ relations with the US. In Eastern spearheaded the political LUXE!
EGYPT ouTan =. STATES providing a pretext foran Anglo- Europe it had a dramatic effect on advancement of Africa.
a oA uni 2 : French invasion of the Suez Canal = raising expectations for change. The Treaty of Rome was signed
ke ss : Zone. On October 29, Israel The Hungarian Revolution, in on March 25, It set up the EEC
¥ . invaded the Sinai Peninsula. The — October, led to the formation of a (European Economic Community]
SUDAN YEMEN SOUTH YEMEN

KEY
Areas affected by the Suez Crisis

The Suez Crisis

The Suez Canal was a vital trading
route from the Mediterranean to the
Red Sea. It was especially important

: US pressured Israel to withdraw,

and UN forces were stationed
along the Egyptian-Israeli

: border. The Anglo-French assault
: was launched on November 5.

| International criticism forced a

: ceasefire and then a withdrawal.

: liberal government and Imre
: Nagy, a moderate, became prime

minister. On November 3, Nagy

: announced a plan to withdraw

| from the Warsaw Pact (see 1955).
| The next day, Warsaw Pact troops
. invaded, crushed the rebellion,

and provided for the countries’
social and economic programs.
It also gave former colonies free
trade with the EEC, and made
them eligible for aid.

The suppression of communist
guerillas in Malaya had been a

| European Economic Community
: This map shows the composition

of the EEC at its inception in 1957,
when six countries signed the

for the shipment of oil. : Tensions remained high between and reestablished control. constant source of concern to : Treaty of Rome.
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416

Elvis Presley, seen here singing to an adoring young crowd, joined the US Army
and set sail for Germany, putting a temporary halt to his extraordinary career.

MAO ZEDONG, FOUNDER OF THE
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA,
initiated a program of reform in
1958 that would ultimately kill
millions. The “Great Leap
Forward” was intended to
rapidly industrialize China's rural

economy. However, Mao's scheme =

plunged the country into one of
the worst famines in history. At
least 35 million people were
worked, starved, or beaten to
death in the following four years.

Great Leap Forward

This propaganda poster urges
workers to make more steel as part of
Mao Zedong's “Great Leap Forward,”
an attempt to modernize China.

THE NUMBER
OF DEATHS IN

_ THE GREAT
LEAP FORWARD

The Middle East felt the
repercussions of the Suez Canal
crisis this year (see 1956]. In
February, Egypt and Syria merged

to form the United Arab
Republic. Pro-Western regimes
in the Middle East saw the union
as a threat to their security, and
Iraq and Jordan formed a loose
union. In July, a civil war broke
out in Lebanon between the
predominantly Christian and
strongly pro-Western regime of
President Camille Chamoun and
the Muslim Socialist National
Front. On July 14, a group of Iraqi
Free Officers led by Brigadier
Abdul Karim Qasim captured
power in Baghdad in a savage
military coup. King Faisal Il,

the regent Abdul Illah, and

Prime Minister Nuri al-Said

were murdered.

The Iraqi coup threatened to
destabilize Western control
over the Middle East and its oil
resources. To counter this, within
48 hours of the Baghdad coup the
US sent a battalion of marines
into Lebanon in Operation Blue
Bat, to help prop up the tottering
regime of President Chamoun.
Tensions eased, and the US
withdrew its forces on October 25
without a shot being fired.

French wars in Indochina, civil
war in Algeria, and a series of
unstable governments led to the
recall of General Charles De
Gaulle (see panel, above] to
French politics. He demanded
special powers for six months
to restore order, and to draft a
new constitution for a Fifth
Republic, which was submitted
to the French public ina
referendum on September 28.
De Gaulle won an easy victory
to become president on
December 21, 12 years after he

CHARLES DE GAULLE (1890-1970)

A soldier, politician, and
statesman, Charles de Gaulle
became head of the provisional
government of France in 1944.
Elected president in 1945, he
resigned in 1946, returning to
power in 1958 to solve the
crisis brought about by the
Algerian War. He resigned
again in 1969 after being
defeated ina referendum on
constitutional reform.

Russia's success in

launching a satellite in 1957

: spurred the Americans into

: forming NASA, the North

: American Space Agency. On

: July 29, President Eisenhower

| signed the National
Aeronautics and Space Act,
and NASA opened formally

: three months later.

: Elvis Presley had become

: a huge star with a series of

: chart-topping records, and this

year would prove to be pivotal.
On January 20, he began
work on his fourth motion
picture, King Creole. Then, at

: the height of what seemed a

! promising career, Presley was

: conscripted into the army,

: and in September he set sail
for Germany. Billboard noted

: a drop in sales of his records
and Elvis's army years would

: mark a clear line between the

» old Elvis and the new.

| GANG WE! GANG QUAN MIAN YUE JIN i <
had relinquished power.
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44 A REVOLUTION IS NOT

A BED OF

ROSES. 99

Fidel Castro, prime minister of Cuba from 1959-76

THE RACE BETWEEN THE US AND
USSR TO SEND A MAN INTO SPACE
accelerated in 1959. On January 2,
the Soviets launched the first
spacecraft to escape Earth's orbit
and reach the Moon, Luna 1. The
US also had its first successful
mission this year, when the Juno 2
rocket sent the Pioneer 4 probe
toward the Moon. Luna 2 was
launched on September 12, and
on October 7, pictures taken by
Luna 3 gave mankind its first look
at the far side of the Moon.

Cuba had been ruled by a series

of dictators, culminating in the
corrupt regime of Fulgencio
Batista (r. 1940-44 and 1952-59).
Agroup of revolutionaries led by
law student Fidel Castro took up
arms and set up a base in the
Sierra Maestra mountains,
provoking Batista to indiscriminate
repression. Batista’s regime
collapsed, and Castro took
over—he was sworn in as prime
minister on February 16. A
“honeymoon” period with the

US soon ended as Cuba became
a totally socialist state.

In Vietnam, northern guerrillas
under Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
attacked the southern army in
March. Ho Chi Minh aimed to unite

: Vietnam under communist rule.

: The US, seeking to stop the spread
of communism, trained the Army

» of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)
and provided advisors to South

* Vietnam. On July 8, two Americans
were killed by Viet Minh troops.

| These were the first American
deaths in the Vietnam War.

: The Dalai Lama, the spiritual

: leader of Tibet, fled his country on

: March 31 and escaped to India
with his ministers. This came
after widespread open rebellion
against Chinese rule within
Tibet, which had culminated

) ina full uprising. Thousands

FIDEL CASTRO (1926-}

Fidel Castro was jailed for his
revolutionary activities in Cuba
in 1953. After his release he
went into exile, but returned in
1956. He was Cuban prime
minister from 1959-76 and the
first communist head of state in
the Americas. His relations with
the US were originally good, but
speedily deteriorated. Although
stilla prominent figure, he
retired as president in 2006.

were reported killed as China

: suppressed the revolt. Over the
next few months, an estimated

: 80,000 Tibetans fled to India.

: Antiapartheid riots continued

| in South Africa. Those in the

: township of Sharpeville resulted

: in the deaths of 70 demonstrators,

: and the African National

» Congress (ANC, see 1994) was

: banned. These events prompted

- worldwide condemnation of

: South Africa's apartheid policies.

: When the British prime minister

» Harold Macmillan visited the

| February 1960, he made a speech

: independence for black Africans.

VW Beetle

Produced by the German
company Volkswagen, the Beetle
survived the war and decorated
Beetles became a symbol of

peace around the world.
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John F. Kennedy and his wife, Jacqueline, smile from the back

of an open-top car during Kennedy's inauguration celebrations.

THE STRAIN ON DIPLOMATIC TIES
BETWEEN CHINA AND THE USSR
became public in June, at the
congress of the Romanian
Communist Party, when Nikita
Khrushchev and China's Peng
Zhen clashed openly. The Soviets
were alarmed with China's “Great
Leap Forward” (see 1958}, while
the Soviets reneged on their
earlier commitment to help China
develop nuclear weapons, and
were seen as too conciliatory to
the West. Ata meeting in
November, the Chinese delegation
clashed with the Soviets again,
but eventually a compromise was
reached, preventing a formal split.

The Belgian Congo became
independent on June 30, ushering
in a period of turmoil. It was
renamed the Federal Republic of
Congo, with Joseph Kasavubu as
president, and Patrice Lumumba
—a socialist—as prime minister.
In July, the province of Katanga
declared independence and asked =
for Belgian help—Belgium sent
an invasion force in response,
causing Kasavubu to appeal to
the UN. In September, Kasavubu
dismissed Lumumba as prime
minister, and in December he
was arrested. Lumumba was
murdered the following year.

In September, the major
oil-exporting countries outside
the communist bloc set up the
Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC).
They combined to fix oil prices by
controlling supply {see 1973].

The laser was first operated on
May 16. A device that emits an
intense beam of light, it was

invented by the US physicist
Theodore Maiman (1927-2007).

_ It drew the attention of scientists
: around the world and led
: to advances in engineering,

medicine, and technology.

The influential civil rights
activist Martin Luther King
(1929-1968) rose to international

October 19. He was sentenced

: toa four-month term in prison.
: Presidential candidate John F.

Kennedy (1917-1963) intervened

: to secure King’s release after
: eight days in jail.

John Fitzgerald Kennedy

: was elected as 35th President

of the US in November. He

» narrowly defeated the

Republican candidate Richard

: Nixon after some fiercely
: contested television debates.

Nixon Kennedy

Race for the White House

The presidential race between Nixon
and Kennedy was incredibly tight.
Kennedy beat Nixon by less than

1 percent—just 118,574 votes.

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Paratroopers hold back a crowd of French nationals angry at news

of self-determination for Algeria.

THE PORTUGUESE LUXURY
PASSENGER LINER SANTA MARIA
was hijacked in January while
sailing in West Indian waters.
The hijackers were Iberian
leftists who opposed the
Portuguese government and

the fascist regime in Spain.

The 900 people on board were
released after 11 days.

The Soviet Union scored a
victory in the space race when
Yuri Gagarin [1934-68] became
the first man to be launched into

space. He orbited the Earth just
once on April 12, traveling at more

First man in space

Yuri Gagarin is pictured here in the
cockpit of his spacecraft, Vostok 1.
His groundbreaking first flight into
space lasted 1 hour 45 minutes.

place on April 29, in Switzerland.
The “Morges Manifesto” became
the blueprint for the first global
green organization, the World
Wildlife Fund (WWF). The
organization’s headquarters were
established in Switzerland, and
national offices were gradually set
up across the world, starting with
Britain, in November. South
America's first ever National
Park was also established this
year, in Brazil. The government
created the 5.6 million acre (2.3
million hectare) Xingu National
Park to resettle the indigenous
people of Brazil, as their lands
were taken over and developed.
Seventeen tribes were settled in
the new park.

South Africa focused on its
anti-British policies and won the
vote for independence on May 31

invasion on the southern
coast was immediately repulsed

}
FRENCH _/

It became a republic and left the
Commonwealth. In the same year,
Nelson Mandela [b. 1918] headed
the ANC’s new military wing, and
launched a sabotage campaign.
President Charles de Gaulle
called for self-determination
in Algeria (see 1954), but the
atmosphere between France and
Algeria remained murderous.
French settlers living in Algeria
reacted with outrage, and
France braced itself for civil war.
On October 17, thousands of
Algerians converged on Paris
to protest against repressive
measures taken against them.
About 10,000 people were arrested

» and hundreds were killed.

Berliners found themselves
living ina physically divided city on
August 13, as troops in East
Germany closed the border
between East and West Berlin.
Barbed wire fences up to 6ft (2m)

: high were erected. Within days,

these were replaced by concrete
blocks, and the wall became
permanent (see 1989).

Dividing wall

The Berlin Wall
enclosed the three
sectors of West Berlin,

than 17,000 miles per hour (see 1962).
(27,000 krn per hour] in his Vostok One of John F. Kennedy's first SECTOR aepang E Aa caer
1 spacecraft. proposals as US president was A) Germany.
In 1960, the Russians had scored the establishment of a Peace BRITISH ¥ acide
a triumph by winning the Corps to help in developing SECTOR SECTOR
allegiance of Fidel Castro, the nations. The aim was for young 4
newly installed dictator of Cuba people to take one or two years AMERICAN \
(see panel, opposite). Washington working abroad as teachers, SECTOR >
responded in April by financing healthcare workers, or advisors
1,500 anti-communist exiles in the in Africa, Asia, and South America. KEY
ill-fated “Bay of Pigs” expedition. Worldwide action to conserve — Berlin Wall

This badly conceived attempt at

the natural world was put in

Berlin city limits

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419

Soviet missiles are displayed at a parade in Havana. The US came close to confrontation with

the Soviet Union over the establishment of Soviet nuclear installations on Cuba.

44 WE'RE EYEBALL TO
EYEBALL AND THE OTHER
FELLOW JUST BLINKED. 99

Dean Rusk, US Secretary of State, on the Cuban crisis in 1962

PRESIDENT CHARLES DE GAULLE

OF FRANCE reached an agreement |

with Algerian nationalists in
March to proceed with Algerian
independence. The Organization
Armée Secréte (OAS), a secret
organization of army officers
who wanted Algeria to remain a
French colony, launched a wave
of bomb attacks across Paris and

: made repeated attempts on

De Gaulle's life. Algeria gained

: independence from France on

: July 3, after a referendum held

: In January backed the move. It
brought an end to eight years of
civil unrest and guerrilla warfare.

: French officials estimated it

: had cost 350,000 lives; Algerian
sources put the figure at

1.5 million.

Telstar, the world’s
first communication
satellite, was
launched on July 10
from Cape Canaveral.
In the early hours
of July 11, live
transatlantic
television pictures

in the US to Goonhilly
in Cornwall, England.

The US was back
in the news when
screen idol Marilyn
Monroe, was found
dead in her Los

Marilyn Monroe

At the time of her
death Marilyn Monroe
was a huge star who
had appeared in 29
movies. The Misfits
was her last film.

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420

were sent from Maine =
| victims of the Berlin Wall's border
: guards after he was shot trying to
: cross from East to West Berlin.

Angeles apartment on August 5.
| She was 36 years old. There was
| much speculation about the cause
: of her death; the coroner reported
: a “probable suicide,” but many
© believed she had accidentally
: overdosed on sleeping tablets.

Meanwhile, Nelson Mandela—

_ leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the
armed wing of the African
: National Congress (ANC)—was

arrested on August 5 after 17

: months on the run. Convicted
: of sabotage, he was jailed for
: five years on November 7.

Jamaica became independent

: within the British Commonwealth
» on August 6, with Alexander
_ Bustamante (1884-1977) of

the Jamaica Labor Party as prime
minister. He would oversee

: several years of growth under
: his moderately conservative
: government.

The people of Berlin were not
celebrating any such freedom
after the construction of the

| Berlin Wall (see 1961). Peter

Fechter, an 18-year-old German
bricklayer, became one of the first

In Britain, Liverpool-based

i rock band The Beatles finally

signed with the record company

the enthusiasm of their manager,
Brian Epstein, they had been

» turned down. “Love Me Do”,
H their first single, was released
i on October 5, and spent 18 weeks

in the charts.

In the US, concerns were growing
over the alliance of Cuba and the
USSR. The installation of Soviet
missiles on Cuba had reduced the
warning time of a nuclear attack
on the US from 15 minutes to two.
In October, President Kennedy
ordered a blockade of the island
to prevent the arrival of more
missiles, and delivered an
ultimatum to the Russian leader,
Nikita Khrushchev, to remove
existing missiles. The world was
on the brink of nuclear war, but
Khrushchev finally backed down.
This incident became known as.
the Cuban Missile Crisis.

India and China were fighting
their own battle in a short but
bloody border war over their
claims to the Aksai Chin Plateau,
on India’s northeast frontier.
Chinese troops advanced into
India on October 20, but declared
a ceasefire on November 21.

5,000
attemped to
cross the wall

around 150 were
killed trying to
cross over

Crossing the Berlin Wall

Many people made desperate
attempts to escape over the Berlin
Wall from East to West Germany
between 1961 and 1989.

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from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.

THE 1960S SAW THE REKINDLING
of the women’s liberation
movement. Betty Friedan
(1921-2006) identified some of
the frustrations felt by American
housewives in her book The
Feminine Mystique, which was
published in February, and
helped start a “second wave” of
feminism in the US.

In another display of unity, the
heads of states of 32 African
countries signed a charter on
May 25, setting up the
Organization of African Unity
(OAU). Their aims were to
promote African solidarity, end
colonialism, and to coordinate
the economic, political, health,
scientific, defence, and cultural
policies of the members. The
conference, hosted by Haile
Selassie of Ethiopia, also planned
to support African freedom
fighters by supplying arms,
training, and military bases.

Kenya, an early member of the
OAU, became the 34th African
nation to achieve independence.
Jomo Kenyatta (1894-1978) was
elected leader of the Kenya African
National Union after nine years in
prison, and won the national
election in May. Kenyatta became
prime minister and led Kenya
from self-government to full
independence on December 12.

In Europe, US president
John F. Kennedy madea
morale-boosting speech in
Berlin on June 26. In it he offered
solidarity to the citizens of West
Germany, who were alarmed at
the construction of the Berlin
Wall. Thousands gathered in

The “first wave” of feminism
addressed legal obstacles,
such as votes for women,
while the second focused on
sexuality and family. Simone
de Beauvoir's Le Deuxieme
Sexe defined the woman's
movement and exploded the
myth that women were
second class citizens.

SHWONE DE REAUVOLR

LE.
DEUXIEME
SENI

Hs PUTS bes SIONS

front of the Rathaus Schoneberg
(City Hall) to hear him speak. Ina
strongly defiant message to the
Soviets, Kennedy described West
Berlin as a symbol of freedom.

His speech dashed any hopes
held by Moscow that the allies
would abandon West Berlin.

Relations between East and
West were still strained following
the Cuban Missile Crisis (see
1962). The incident had raised
worldwide concerns about
nuclear contamination, which
led to talks about a treaty to
ban nuclear testing in the
atmosphere, space, and under
water. The Test Ban Treaty was
signed in Moscow by the foreign
ministers of the Soviet Union, the
US, and Britain on August 5. It
was ratified by the US Senate on
September 24 and came into
force on October 11.

Meanwhile, the campaign for
racial equality in the US moved
a step closer to victory on August
28. A crowd of over 250,000 civil
rights protestors gathered at the
Lincoln Memorial for a mass
“March on Washington” for jobs
and freedom. Many leading figures
spoke, including Martin Luther
King Jr who famously stated
“have a dream,” while predicting
a day when the promise of
freedom and equality for all

would become a reality in the US.

Another historical day for the
US was November 22, when
president John F. Kennedy was
assassinated as he traveled

44 ALL FREE MEN... ARE
CITIZENS OF BERLIN. 99

John Fitzgerald Kennedy, June 26, 1963

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through Dealey Plaza, Dallas, in
a open-top car. Texas governor
John Connally was also injured.
Both of their wives, who were
with them, were unharmed.
Secret Service agents immediately
stormed the School Book
Depository building, where shots
had been heard, and found a
rifle with a telescopic lens. Just
under an hour later, a policeman
approached Lee Harvey Oswald
and was shot dead. Oswald was

arrested and charged with the
murder of the policeman and
Kennedy's assassination.
Traveling back to Washington,
DC on board the presidential

plane, Air Force |, Vice President
Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn
in as the 36th US president.
Kennedy's funeral took place
on November 25. The world’s
reaction to the news was one

of overwhelming shock.

Two days after Kennedy's
assassination, Lee Harvey
Oswald, the man charged with
the murder, was shot and killed.
Oswald, a former marine, was
being transferred from police
headquarters to jail. He was
surrounded by police and
journalists. In the melee, Jack
Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner,
stepped forward and shot

46 WE CANNOT
WALK ALONE...
WE CANNOT TURN
BACK... [HAVE A
DREAM TODAY! 99

Martin Luther King Jr
speaking at a rally in 1963

Oswald. He later stated that he
had done it “for Jackie Kennedy.”
The murder was filmed and seen
live on televisions across the

US. Oswald had denied he was
responsible for Kennedy's death,
which fueled conspiracy theories.
In an attempt to investigate the
truth, the Warren Commission
was set up on November 29 to
examine the facts.

Kennedy funeral

Over one million people lined the route
of Kennedy's funeral procession, which
ended at Arlington National Cemetery.
Millions more watched it on TV.

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1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

Empire in 1938
Imperialism was still widespread before
World War II. The largest foreign-held

territories were in Africa, a product of KEY
the “Scramble for Africa” in the 19th ©) United Kingdom and possessions
century. France and Britain were the I France and possessions

leading colonial powers.

Denmark and possessions

COLONIAL DOMINATION CRUMBLES AS INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS GROW

MODERN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
Overseas territories are countries that often
Up until World War II, empires belonging to Britain, France, Belgium, REN 6) Clos He i el ernaniys aul lo ites eee
Portugal, and the Netherlands stretched back centuries. At the end of the Hdl oelttcell tele einstein er Sava INVES E
state. Many colonies fought for self-rule after

war, the political landscape had changed significantly, and there was Worl amen aeeversentherteeinere
mounting opposition and challenge to imperial rule. In the modern world, independence. Some overseas territories, for

all that is left of the European empires is a sprinkling of islands. example, are too small and lack the resources
to survive as viable independent countries.
By 1945 the empires of Italy, Germany, and Japan The last throw of the imperial dice for France Others, such as French Guiana in the

had collapsed. The British Empire emerged from and Britain came with the Suez crisis in 1956. Caribbean, which is ruled by France, and the
the war relatively unscathed, but it was the British | The French were being defeated in Indo-China Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic, which
who made the first move to end colonialism when — and were engaged in a brutal civil war in Algeria, are ruled by Britain, are of special strategic or
they granted India independence in 1947. However, while Britain was trying to put down rebellions in economic importance to the states that
change was slow. In the mid-1950s, the globe was = Cyprus, Kenya, and Malaya. When Egyptian control them, so not easily let go.
still circled by British possessions. president Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, it

Despite a wide ief that imperi

AUSTRALIA Ashmore and Cartier Islands

Heard Island and the McDonald
Islands

Christmas Island
Coral Sea Islands
Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Norfolk Island

END OF EMPIRE

1960

1960 1960

1960

Modern imperialism

oa ~ The world today looks very
different: colonies in the West
Indies, Africa, and Asia have

@ dustralia and possessions 1960 Date of independence gained independence. France is

now the leading colonial power.

1) Spain and possessions Norway and possessions

@ Belgium and possessions |” US and possessions

Netherlands and possessions I Japan and possessions

UNITED
KINGDOM

Anguilla
Bermuda

British Indian Ocean Territory
British Virgin Istands

Cayman islands

Falkland Islands

Gibraltar

Guernsey

Jersey

Isle of Man

Montserrat

Pitcairn Islands

Saint Helena

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Istands

Turks and Caicos Islands

Faroe Islands

Greenland

Cook Islands
Niue

Tokelau

Bassas da India
Clipperton Island

Europa Island

French Guiana

French Polynesia

French Southern and Antarctic Islands
Glorioso Islands
Guadelope

Juan de Nova Island
Martinique

Mayotte

New Caledonia

Réunion

Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Tromelin Island

Wallis and Futuna

Bouvet Island
Jan Mayen

Svalbard

American Samoa
Baker Island

Guam

Howland Istand

Jarvis stand

Johnston Atott

Kingman Reef

Midway islands

Navassa Island

Northern Mariana Islands
Palmyra Atoll

Puerto Rico

Virgin islands

Wake Island

Antarctica
Gaza Strip

Parcel Islands

Spratly Islands

West Bank

Western Sahara

44 NOTHING IS MORE IMPORTANT
THAN INDEPENDENCE AND
FREEDOM. 99

Ho Chi Minh, president of North Vietnam, on a propaganda poster during Vietnamese war

Nelson Mandela was among eight men sentenced to life imprisonment during
the Rivonia Trial—they left the court with their fists raised in defiance.

THE YEAR BEGAN WITH
INCREASING TENSION between
Greek and Turkish Cypriots. In
March, the UN sent 7,000 troops
into Cyprus to try to keep the

finally brought an end to the
violence on August 10.

On May 27, Jawaharlal Nehru—
the first prime minister of an
independent India, and regarded
by many as the founder of modern
India—died, aged 74. Gathering in
mile-long lines, 250,000 men,
women, and children filed past his
body to pay their respects.

In South Africa, Nelson Mandela,
a prominent figure of the

antiapartheid struggle, was jailed -
: against the communist regime in
: North Vietnam. As a result the

for life on June 12. During the
trial, Mandela and other members

Beatlemania begins

The Beatles took the US by storm in
1964. Their faces were splashed
across newspapers and magazines
as their tour of 23 cities sold out.

Meanwhile, race equality in the

: US took a positive turn when the
: Ci

lL Rights Bill became law on
July 2. The bill created equal

» Martin Luther King, Jr., who had

religion, or color. The signing was

emerged as the symbolic leader

: of the worldwide struggle for civil

rights. At 35, he became the

: youngest man to receive the
_ Nobel Peace Prize for his work.

In Vietnam, the US was adamant

: that South Vietnam should
: not fall to the communists. On

August 7, US president Johnson
received approval from Congress
to “take all necessary action”

war escalated, but it was largely

Capturing the American public’s

i attention, the Warren Report,

| investigating the assassination of

| Kennedy (see 1943] was released
= on September 28. It asserted that

: there had been no conspiracy, and
» concluded that gunman Lee

Harvey Oswald had acted alone.
In the East, Nikita Khrushchev,

| leader of the Soviet Union,

“retired” in October, having been in
power since 1958. His policies had

: become increasingly unpopular

and he was voted out of office.
The Beatles made it big this year,

singles occupied all top five spots

: on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.

Hostile terrain

The US army was technologically
superior in Vietnam, but struggled
with unfamiliar territory such as
the swamp that these marines
are wading through.

ON FEBRUARY 18, THE GAMBIA
ACHIEVED INDEPENDENCE from
British rule. Dawda Kairaba
Jawara became the first prime
minister, and was knighted the
following year. By contrast,
Southern Rhodesia, led by prime
minister lan Smith, announced

a Unilateral Declaration of
Independence on November 11.
Britain declared this action illegal,
and through the UN most countries
applied economic sanctions
against Southern Rhodesia.

In Vietnam, the conflict was
escalating. President Johnson
ordered Operation Rolling Thunder,
a massive bombing campaign
against North Vietnam, and in
March the first American ground
troops landed in South Vietnam.
By June they were fighting
alongside South Vietnamese
forces against the Viet Cong.

Back in the US, racial tension
was at boiling point. Following the
arrest of a black man for drunk
driving, Watts, a suburb of Los

: Angeles, erupted into violent race
: riots. Some blamed the heat

wave, while others pointed the
finger at police brutality.

In September India launched
an invasion of West Pakistan,

} following covert operations by

Pakistan across the ceasefire line.
Since the ceasefire line had been

: agreed toa UN ceasefire.

President Sukarno of Indonesia

: barely survived an attempted coup

in November. General Suharto,

: commander of the army's
: strategic reserve, emerged the

victor in the power struggle
Meanwhile, the lights went out

: inthe US on November 9 during
| the biggest blackout in US

history. More than 30 million

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The Black Panthers, a black nationalist group based in Oakland, California, argued for working class unity. Here
supporters hold up copies of Mao Zedong’s Little Red Book.

Donald Campbell was attempting to break the world speed record when
his speedboat Bluebird crashed, killing him instantly.

WITH INCREASED FIGHTING IN
VIETNAM, 1966 SAW THE US
launch its largest offensive
against the Viet Cong in Operation
Crimp, to capture the Viet Cong's
Saigon area headquarters. By the
end of 19464, the number of US
troops in Vietnam had reached
385,000, amid increased public
protests about the war.
Pakistani and Indian leaders

THAILAND
met more peacefully in January at
Tashkent in Uzbekistan to sign a
declaration agreeing to resolve
their dispute (see 1965) by CAMBODIA

peaceful means. Shortly
afterward, Lal Bahadur Ahastri,
prime minister of India, died of a
heart attack. He was succeeded by
Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru.

In Northern Ireland, violence
erupted following the 50th
anniversaries of the Battle of the
Somme and the Easter Rising—
symbolic dates for Protestants
and Catholics respectively. The
murder of two Catholics by a
“loyalist” terror group called the
Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)
sparked more riots in May and
June. The UVF was banned, but
the cycle of sectarian killings,
known as the Troubles, had begun.

The shock assassination of
Hendrik Verwoerd, prime
minister of South Africa and the
architect of apartheid, raised
queries about the future of South
Africa. He was stabbed to death on
September 6 by Dimitri Tsafendas,
who claimed not enough was
being done for whites.

Race continued to be a dominant
issue in the US, with race riots

occurring in many cities throughout :

Laos

* Vientiane

KEY

= Demilitarized zone

State of play in Vietnam

This map shows North and South
Vietnam in 1964, divided bya
demilitarized zone. In 1966 the North
Vietnamese crossed the zone and
one of the largest battles to date
broke out near Dong Ha.

the mid-1960s. Student radicals
were becoming impatient with
Martin Luther King's strategy of
nonviolence, and in June, activist
Stokely Carmichael popularized
the term “Black Power.” In
October he formed the Black
Panther Party, combining
traditional civil rights slogans with
Marxist rhetoric, and the language
of black separatism.

The Little Red Book

Full of Mao's quotations, this book
added to his cult and had a profound
impact on the masses during the
Chinese Cultural Revolution.

In August, Chinese communist
leader Mao Zedong launched the
Cultural Revolution, aiming to
purge the country of “impure”
elements. One-and-a-half million
people died and much of the
country’s cultural heritage was
destroyed. In September 1967,
with many Chinese cities on the
verge of anarchy, Mao sent in the
army to restore order.

By the end of 1966, the decade
known as the “Swinging
Sixties”—so called because of
the collapse of social taboos
relating to race, sex, and
gender—was in full flow. It
was epitomized by rock music,
photography, and fashion, with
London and youth culture at
its heart.

THE YEAR BEGAN WITH THE
TRAGIC DEATH OF DONALD
CAMPBELL, who was killed on
January 4 at Coniston Water in
the Lake District, England, while
attempting to break his own
water speed record. He was
traveling at more than 300mph
(480 kph) when his boat flipped.
Tensions were running high in
the Middle East after Egypt asked
for UN forces in the Sinai to be
removed. The Israelis responded

with a pre-emptive attack, which =

ended after six days with Israel
in control of Sinai, Gaza, the
West Bank, the Golan Heights,
and Jerusalem.

Meanwhile, in Bolivia, Ernesto
“Che” Guevara (see panel, right)
was captured and shot dead, on

the Bolivian president's orders, on? :

June. Guevara was in Latin
America helping guerrilla groups.
More interested in saving lives,
South African surgeon Christiaan

11,500

EGYPT

Syria

Casualties in the Six-Day War
Israel won a decisive victory in the
Six-Day War between Israel, Egypt,
Jordan, and Syria, with 759 casualties.
Arab losses, in contrast, were high.

CHE GUEVARA (1928-67)

Ernesto “Che” Guevara was
born in Argentina in 1928,
and became involved in the
opposition to Juan Peron. He
traveled extensively through
Latin America, where he saw
poverty and social injustice
that helped forge his radical
political views. Che became
an associate of Fidel Castro,
and played a role in the fight
for Cuba. He left Cuba to help
revolutionaries abroad, and
was executed in Bolivia.

| Barnard conducted the first

: heart transplant on December 3.

| Although the patient died later of

£ pneumonia, the procedure was a

: great step forward for medicine.

In Europe, Nicolae Ceausescu

: became premier of Romania on

: December 9, defying the Soviets
by establishing diplomatic

: relations with Germany.

' In Greece, after army officers

: seized power on April 21, a counter
coup by King Constantine II failed,

: and he fled to Rome.

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During the first manned mission to the Moon, the three astronauts on board
Apollo 8 beamed back images of Earth as a planet in space.

THE MY LAI MASSACRE IN
VIETNAM SENT SHOCK WAVES
through the US political
establishment. My Lai lies
in the South Vietnamese
district of Son My, an area
where the Viet Cong were
deeply entrenched. On
March 16, US troops,

who had been on a
“search and destroy”
mission to root out
communist fighters, killed
more than 500 Vietnamese
civilians in cold blood, many of
them women and children. The
massacre helped to turn public
opinion against the Vietnam War,
although the story was not made
public until the following year.

By 1968, the Vietnam War was
costing the US $66 million a day.
Protests against the war
escalated as people questioned
the US's role in the conflict. Vivid
news reports showed horrific
civilian casualties. On August 28,
during the Democratic national
convention in Chicago, 10,000
antiwar protesters gathered
and were confronted by 26,000
police and national guardsmen.
The event was covered live on
network TV.

War paraphernalia
A Chinese compass, amap case, and =

a map with enemy bases marked on, : left many American downtowns

formed the basic kit for Vietcong
militia during the Vietnam War.

he delivered his
famous speech,
“Ihave seen the
mountaintop ...”

in Memphis, which
seemed to predict his
end, “... I've seen the
promised land.

| may not get there
with you”.

King’s death
sparked widespread
race riots across the
US that cost dozens
of lives and led to
damage worth
millions of dollars.

It hastened the
process of “white

i flight” from the inner cities that

: virtually abandoned. James
: Earl Ray, a petty criminal, was

assassinated in the southern US
city of Memphis, Tennessee. King
was shot on the balcony of his
hotel as he was preparing to lead
a march of sanitation workers

| protesting against low wages.

The day before his assassination,

sentenced to 99 years in prison.
Senator Robert Kennedy

: (1925-68), increasingly opposed

i to the Vietnam War, struggled

: president, Lyndon Johnson. His
: younger brother, Edward (Teddy),
: was against it; his wife, Ethel,
urged him on. Many feared he

: would suffer the same fate as

: announced his candidacy on

: March 16, and two weeks later

: Johnson dropped out of the race.

THE NUMBER OF WARSAW
PACT TROOPS THAT INVADED
CZECHOSLOVAKIA

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America was a wounded nation,

: reeling from the war and inner-

» city riots. Kennedy based his
| presidential election campaign on
: inequality and social justice.

On 5 June, Robert Kennedy
was shot ina Los Angeles hotel
after giving a victory speech ta
celebrate his win in the California
Primary. A Palestinian
immigrant, Sirhan Sirhan, fired
at Kennedy as he was being
escorted through the kitchen
pantry of the Ambassador Hotel.
Robert Kennedy's support for
Israel was believed to have
prompted the attack. He died the
following day. His death, coming

King, Jr., made 1968 one of the
most volatile and traumatic,
years in US history.

On November 6, Republican

emerged victorious in the US
presidential election. He had
based his campaign on rising
crime and claimed he would
restore law and order. It was a

MARTIN LUTHER KING,
IR. (1929-68)

A leading African-American
civil rights campaigner in the
US, Martin Luther King, Jr. rose
to prominence in 1955, when
he led a boycott of buses in
Montgomery, Alabarna, in
protest against the state's
transport segregation laws.
In this, and his subsequent
campaigns, he insisted on
non-violence. King was
awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1964. Four years
later, he was assassinated
by a white gunman in
Memphis, Tennessee.

: dramatic comeback; Nixon was

: Dwight D. Eisenhower's vice-

: president and lost the presidential
race to John F. Kennedy in 1960.

Enoch Powell (1912-98), a

: British right-wing politician,
: made a hugely controversial
: Speech on April 20, in which he

warned the government against

: opening the “floodgates” to
: black immigrants. He called

for an immediate reduction in

| immigration, and viewed the
63 days after that of Martin Luther :

future with foreboding. Quoting

: the Roman poet Virgil, he said,

: “like the Roman, | seem to see
: the river Tiber foaming with much
: blood.” His speech caused a

: storm of protest, and ended

: Powells political ambitions.

Elsewhere in Europe, France

_ experienced student riots, mass
: protests, and strikes throughout

May, which brought the country

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44 THANK YOU APOLLO 8.
YOU SAVED 1968. 99

Anonymous telegram received by Frank Borman,
after the success of the Apollo 8 mission

to its knees. It began as a series
of student protests that broke

out at universities in Paris,
following confrontations with
administrators and police. Further
police action inflamed the
situation, leading to a general
strike by over 10 million workers
across France—roughly two-thirds
of the workforce. The government
came close to collapse; President
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970)

Protest in Paris

When French strikers took to the
streets in May, the country was on
the verge of revolution. The largest
rallies were held in Paris.

eee ee

—

called for new parliamentary
elections on June 23. Although De
Gaulle won the election, the Paris
riots were regarded as a cultural
and social revolution.

Troops from five Warsaw Pact
countries (see 1955} stormed into
Czechoslovakia on August 20
to seize control and restore
communism to the country.
During an eight-month period that
became known as the Prague
Spring, the incumbent prime
minister Alexander Dubcek had
made substantial reforms,
including freedom of speech.

He was arrested, and his
government replaced with

a repressive regime (see 1989).
The invasion drew condemnation
from around the world. Jan
Palach, a Czech student, burned
himself to death in protest

over the Soviet occupation. An
estimated 500,000 gathered to
watch his funeral procession.

On September 7, a prominent
gathering of women disrupted
the staging of Miss America, a
long-standing beauty pageant
held at Atlantic City’s convention
hall. The protest was organized by
the New York Radical Women
(NYRW), a group active in the civil
rights and antiwar movements.
They attacked the pageant’s

beauty standards as racist—no
black woman had ever made it to
the final. The demonstrators
brandished signs that read
“Women’s Liberation,” and threw
bras into bins as a sign of protest,
which began the myth that
feminists “burn their bras.”
Americans, finally, had cause to
rejoice at the end of the year when

BEAUTY
CONTESTANTS

orbit the moon, was launched
into space on December 21. Live
pictures of the lunar surface were
beamed back to Earth. The crew,
Frank Borman, James Lovell, and
William Anders, returned on
December 27 as national heroes.

Beauty and backlash

The glamorous contestants
appearing in the Miss America
Pageant, in Atlanta, were
outnumbered three to one by
the protestors.

umcnaur sm coun
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1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS oe ‘a

Watson and
Crick’s DNA
model

For thousands of years, humans have wondered how characteristics are
inherited, but it was not until the 19th century that scientists began to
understand the fundamental mechanisms. Now, the knowledge that DNA
carries genetic information has provided insight into the basis of Life itself.

One of the earliest theories of heredity was that

of the ancient Greek Hippocrates, who proposed
that elements from all of the body became
concentrated in semen, which then made a human
in the womb containing the characteristics of

both parents. Charles Darwin later called this
mechanism of inheritance “pangenesis.”

It was not until the 19th century that the basic
rules of heredity were discovered, by the Austrian
monk Gregor Mendel. At about the same time, the
Swiss scientist Friedrich Miescher extracted from
the cell nucleus a substance he called “nuclein”
(now known as DNA). In the early 20th century,
American biologist Thomas Hunt Morgan's
experiments with fruit flies confirmed that

genes reside on chromosomes. However, it was
still thought that protein, not DNA, was the
substance that transmits inherited traits.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DNA

In the 1940s, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod,

and Maclyn McCarty discovered that DNA is the
hereditary molecule in most organisms and is

the chemical basis of genetic information. In the
early 1750s, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin
discovered that DNA has a helix shape, and in 1953,
these findings were put together by Francis Crick
and James Watson in their double-helix model of
DNA. The Human Genome Project went further,
mapping all the human genes.

A gene is a portion of DNA containing information
for making a specific protein (comprising a specific

sequence of amino acids}. This is encoded as an
“alphabet” of bases: A (standing for adenine],

C [cytosine], G (guanine), and T (thymine). These
are arranged into “words” (codons) of three
letters; each codon corresponds to a particular
amino acid. Ina cell, a gene's codon sequence is
translated into a sequence of specific amino acids,
making the specific protein coded for by that gene.

44 YOU, YOUR JOYS AND YOUR SORROWS, YOUR MEMORIES
AND AMBITIONS, YOUR SENSE OF PERSONAL IDENTITY AND
FREE WILL, ARE ... NO MORE THAN THE BEHAVIOUR

OF... NERVE CELLS AND ... MOLECULES. 99

Francis Crick, The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul, 1994

Peer

c. 460-375 BCE

1859

THE OLLGUN OF species

c. 1868-69

Hippocrates’ pangenesis
hypothesis

Hippocrates devises the
theory that hereditary
material collects from
throughout the body and
reassembles inside the
womb to form human life.

Theory of natural selection
Charles Darwin publishes The
Origin of Species, in which he
puts forward his theory that
the fittest organisms survive
and pass on their traits.

Hypocrates

The Origin of Species —_—

1663-65

Cells first described

English scientist Robert Hooke
coins the term “cell” to
describe the microscopic
units he observed while
examining a section of cork

1863

Gregor Mendel
Experimenting with peas,
Austrian monk Gregor
Mendel finds that traits,
such as whether peas are
round or wrinkled, are
passed on by independent
units, later called genes.

Round and
wrinkled peas

Robert Hooke's
microscope

with an early compound
microscope.

Nuclein discovered

Swiss scientist Friedrich
Miescher discovers a
substance he calls
“nuclein” in the nuclei of
white blood cells. Later
called nucleic acid, nuclein
is now known as DNA.

White blood cell

1880s

Meiosis discovered

Meiosis, the process of cell
division that produces gametes
{sex cells}, is described in the
early 1880s. Its significance for
inheritance is elucidated in the
1890s by German biologist
August Weismann.

1888

Chromosomes discovered
German anatomist Heinrich
Waldeyer notices that the
central part of the cell

(the nucleus) sometimes
contains threadlike bodies,
for which he coins the term
“chromosomes.”

plate representing
the base guanine

Watson and Crick’s DNA model
James Watson and Francis Crick made a model
of the DNA molecule using metal plates and
rods in their laboratory in Cambridge, England.
They proposed that DNA was a double-helix
polymer, shaped like a twisted ladder, and
noted that this structure allows for replication
of genetic material. This reconstruction uses
some of the plates from the original model.

Early 20th century
Role of chromosomes in heredity
Working with fruit flies, American
geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan
establishes that genes controlling
heredity are positioned along
chromosomes, and links the
inheritance of a specific trait with
a particular chromosome.

1905
Sex chromosomes identified
American geneticists Nettie
Stevens and E. B. Wilson
independently identify

the XY chromosome
sex-determination system:
males have XY and females
have XX sex chromosomes. X chromosome

TS aluminum plates

represent four
chemical bases
in DNA model

plate representing
— the base cytosine

plate representing
the base thymine

Ne plate representing

the base adenine

\_ bonds between bases.
represented by rods

1953
Structure of DNA discovered
American biologist James
Watson and British biologist
Francis Crick discover that
the DNA molecule consists
of two helical chains of
nucleotides wound loosely
around each other.

1972

Recombinant DNA

American biochemists Paul Berg
and Herb Boyer produce the first
recombinant DNA molecules
(recombinant DNA is DNA that

has been created artificially), an
achievement that is considered the
birth of modern biotechnology.

1940-44
DNA identified as genetic messenger
Using Streptococcus pneumoniae
bacteria, American scientists
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod,
and Maclyn McCarty discover
that DNA is the hereditary
material in most living
organisms. Streptococcus pneumoniae

1989-present

Human Genome Project

The Human Genome
Organization maps the human
DNA sequence and discovers
it contains only about 20,000
to 25,000 genes. Full analysis
of the results continues.

44 THAT'S ONE SMALL
STEP FOR [A] MAN, ONE
GIANT LEAP FOR MANKIND. 99

Neil Armstrong, on first setting foot on the Moon, on July 21, 1969

YASSER ARAFAT (1929-2004), A
PALESTINIAN FREEDOM FIGHTER,
became the leader of the
Palestine Liberation
Organization (PLO) in February.
He had formed the radical group
Al-Fatah in the late 1950s, which
was merged with the Popular
Front for the Liberation of
Palestine [PFLP] to form the PLO.

In Libya, Mu’ammar al-Gaddafi
(b. 1940) led a group of army
officers to depose King Idris
(1890-1983) on September 1, ina
bloodless coup, and established
the Libyan Arab Republic.

Nigeria banned food aid from
the Red Cross to the breakaway
state of Biafra, bringing millions
of people to the brink of
starvation. Biafra accused
Nigeria of using starvation and
genocide to win the civil war
(1967-70), and pleaded for help
from the world.

On August 14, Britain sent
troops into Northern Ireland
following three days of violence in
the predominantly Catholic
bogside area of Londonderry.
Although intended to be a brief
intervention, the troops remained
after the violence intensified.

Willy Brandt (1913-92) was
sworn in as the Chancellor of
West Germany on October 21,
becoming the first Socialist
politician to lead a German
government since 1930.

Eagle returns

Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle,
holding astronauts Neil Armstrong
and Buzz Aldrin, makes its way back
to the command module.

Biafra starves

A child suffers the effects of hunger
and malnutrition during the Biafran
blockade. Pictures of the famine
garnered worldwide sympathy.

Concorde, the supersonic
airliner, made its maiden flight in
March. Piloted by Andre Turcot,
the Anglo-French plane took off
from Toulouse in France; it
reached 10,000 ft (3,050 m], and
was in the air for 27 minutes.

Elsewhere in Europe, Beatle
John Lennon (1940-80) and his
wife Yoko Ono spent two weeks
in bed, drawing the world’s
attention to peace. They spent the
first week at the Hilton Amsterdam,
in March, and the second at the
Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal,
where the song Give Peace a
Chance was recorded, in May.

Large-scale music festivals
were held in Europe and the US
during a summer that epitomized
the hippie movement. The British
band The Rolling Stones played a

free concert at Hyde Park, London;
the American musician, Bob Dylan
{b. 1941], performed the headline
act at the Isle of Wight Festival,
England; and up to 400,000 turned
up at Woodstock, New York.

Millions marched across the US
on October 15 to protest against
the Vietnam War. In Washington
DC, 250,000 people gathered to
participate in antiwar rallies and
hear activists speak.

On July 21, Neil Armstrong
(b. 1930) and Edwin Aldrin
(b. 1930) took man’s first steps
on the moon from their
spacecraft Apollo 717. Millions
watched this televised event that
represented a symbolic victory
for the US over the USSR during
the Cold War.

Time spent on the moon
21 hours, 31 minutes, and
20 seconds,

Mission duration
8 days, 3 hours,
18 minutes, and 35 seconds

The lunar mission

The prime mission objective of
Apollo 11 was stated simply
as: “perform a manned lunar
landing and return.”

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This photograph shows hijacked planes that were set on fire by Palestinian
militants belonging to Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).

IN CAMBODIA, THE HEAD OF STATE,
PRINCE NORODOM SIHANOUK
(b. 1922) was overthrown by
General Lon Nolin a coup, on
March 18. Lon Nol claimed to
have support from the US. In
April, President Richard Nixon
(1913-94) ordered US troops and
B-52 bombers into Cambodia to
destroy North Vietnamese and
Vietcong sanctuaries and supplies.
In early September, Palestinian
militants forced two planes to fly

to the Jordanian desert, where the i

hijackers blew up the aircraft
after releasing most of the
hostages. A third plane was flown
to Cairo and was also blown up.
After 24 days of talks, the
remaining hostages were freed
in exchange for seven Palestinian
prisoners. On September 16,
fighting broke out between
Jordanian troops and PLO
guerrillas. Egyptian President
Gamal Abdel Nasser (b. 1918}
brokered a settlement on
September 27. Nasser died of
a heart attack the next day. He
had become the most powerful
figure in the Middle East while
attempting to unify Arab nations.
A catastrophic cyclone hit East
Pakistan (modern Bangladesh] on
November 12. The Bhola Cyclone
was the deadliest ever recorded,

with up to 500,000 casualties.
Alleging neglect and lack of help
from West Pakistan, the Bengalis
went on to vote for Sheikh Mujibur
: Rahman's Awami League,
: which demanded autonomy
: from West Pakistan in the
: following elections (see 1971).
Elections were held in Chile on
» September 4, and Salvador
Allende’s Marxist coalition was
: elected. Allende instituted a
: program of sweeping
nationalization and reforms.
In April, the German
: pharmaceutical company
Griinenthal pledged to pay DM
100 million to thalidomide
victims. Thalidomide, a drug
: given to pregnant women for
+ nausea, was withdrawn in 1961
: after nearly 10,000 babies were
© born with major disabilities.
Charles De Gaulle (b. 1890),
who led the French resistance to
the Nazi occupation during World
: War Il and became the President
: of liberated France, died on
November 9. His funeral was held
= on Armistice Day, November 11.
The Beatles, the most famous
music band in the world, split
when Paul McCartney (b. 1942]
announced his decision to leave
© in April. The group officially
» disbanded on December 31.

THE NUMBER

KILLED IN THE
CYCLONE IN
BANGLADESH

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464 [AMNOTA

POLITICIAN, BUT

A SOLDIER.

Idi Amin, in his first speech to the Ugandan nation,

January 1971

IN UGANDA, GENERAL IDI AMIN
SEIZED POWER from President
Milton Obote in a military coup
on January 25, while the president
was out of the country attending
the Commonwealth conference

in Singapore (see 1979).

Sierra Leone, in West Africa,
and Qatar, in the Middle East,
formally achieved independence
from Britain in this year.

In March, a civil war broke
out between Pakistan and its
dominion, East Pakistan (modern ©
Bangladesh]. Nearly nine million
refugees fled to India. In
December, Indian troops entered
East Pakistan, following a
surprise attack on Indian
airfields. There was also heavy
fighting in Kashmir. In a campaign
lasting only 13 days, Indian troops
crushed Pakistani forces in the
east. On December 20, the
independent state of Bangladesh
was born (see 1972).

In Northern Ireland, the
Provisional IRA stepped up its
campaign against British security
forces (see 1969]. In August, the
Northern Ireland government
introduced internment without
trial to stop the growing violence.

On September 15, a small team
of activists set sail from Vancouver,
Canada, on the ship Phyllis
Cormack to protest against US
nuclear tests in Alaska. They later
adopted the name Greenpeace.

The Walt Disney World resort
officially opened near Orlando in
Florida on October 1. It featured
Adventureland, Fantasyland,
Frontierland, Liberty Square, and
Tomorrowland.

IDI AMIN (1925-2003)

Idi Amin became known as
the “Butcher of Uganda.”
After seizing power in 1971,
he ruled by terror—an
estimated 300,000 people
died during his reign. His
behavior was both barbaric
and eccentric: famously, he
declared himself the “King of
Scotland.” Idi Amin’s rule
ended in 1979 after he was.
ousted by troops from
neighboring Tanzania then
forced to flee the country.

On October 25, China’s

- admission to the UN boosted the
* country’s international status.

The US president, Richard Nixon
(1913-94), sent his national
security adviser, Henry Kissinger

: (b. 1923), to China for secret talks.
: Kissinger also began talks with

one regarding access to Berlin.

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British troops remove civil rights protestors from Londonderry, Northern Ireland, after the army opened fire
on demonstrators during “Bloody Sunday.” Among the 13 civilians killed were seven teenagers.

BRITISH MINERS WALKED OUT ON
NATIONAL STRIKE on January 9
after refusing a government pay
offer. All 289 pits across the country
were closed. On February 19, they
agreed to anew pay deal and
returned to work on February 25.

On January 30, British troops
opened fire on demonstrators in
Londonderry, Northern Ireland,
killing 13 people and injuring 14.
The marchers were protesting
against the policy of internment
without trial. This day came to be
known as “Bloody Sunday.”

In the largest attack on mainland
Britain since “The Troubles” (see
1966}, the IRA bombed the 16th
Parachute Brigade headquarters
at Aldershot, Hampshire, on
February 22, killing seven civilians.

President Nixon flew to China
in February and met Mao Zedong
(1893-1976), marking a new
cordiality in US-China relations.
In May, Nixon paid a state visit to
Moscow to sign 10 agreements,
the most important of which
were the nuclear arms limitation
treaties known as SALT I.

On June 8, South Vietnamese
planes dropped a napalm bomb
on Trang Bang, which was under
North Vietnamese occupation.
Napalm was an incendiary liquid
that burned everything it touched.
Images of burned civilians were
shown around the world and
increased pressure on the US
to withdraw from Vietnam.

The prime ministers of India and
Pakistan, Indira Gandhi (1917-84)
and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1954-79),
signed the Simla Agreement in
July, in the wake of the 1971 war.

The agreement reiterated the
promises for peaceful negotiations
made in Tashkent (see 1964).

The terrorist group Black
September, a faction of the
Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO}, took members of the
Israeli team hostage during the
Summer Olympics at Munich,
West Germany. They later killed

: 11 athletes, launching a new era
of international terrorism.

New horizons
For the Munich Olympics, leading
: artists made 35 posters, including
: the one shown below. Their aim was
: to erase the memory of the 1936
: games, held during Hitler's reign.

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on Watergate, April 30, 1973

ON JANUARY 30, SEVEN MEN WERE
CONVICTED of breaking into

the Democratic Party's
Watergate headquarters in
Washington, DC and bugging it.
President Nixon, who had just
been reelected, continually
denied any connection between
Watergate and the White House.
However, Washington Post
reporters Bob Woodward and
Carl Bernstein brought to light
the president's involvement in the
bugging, which would eventually
lead to his impeachment and
resignation from office (see 1974).
Their work on the “Watergate
scandal,” helped by crucial
information from the mysterious
informant, “Deep Throat,” led to
the Washington Post being
awarded the Pulitzer Prize.

Allende’s reforms

The Chilean president's sweeping

nationalization and reforms resulted =
: retaliation for the execution of

in costly welfare schemes and
economic chaos in the country.

446 THERE WILL BE NO
WHITEWASH AT THE
WHITE HOUSE. 99

Richard Nixon, US president, in a TV speech

The White House, the official residence of the US President, was rocked by the
Watergate scandal and the subsequent resignation of President Nixon.

In a landmark judgement
referred to as the Roe v. Wade
case, the Supreme Court
legalized abortions in the US.
The ruling came after Norma
McCorvey, under the pseudonym
“Jane Roe,” challenged the

The Vietnam war was officially

ceasefire agreement in January

after months of talks in Paris.
Britain, Ireland, and Denmark

became full-fledged members

bringing the number of member
states to nine. It was the first
enlargement of the organization

: since its inception in 1957.

The IRA extended its bombing
campaign in mainland Britain. On
September 8, there were bombs in

: Manchester city center and at

Victoria station, London. Two days
later, explosions ripped through
King’s Cross and Euston stations.
On November 14, an IRA gang was
convicted of the bombings.

In September, Chilean president
Salvador Allende (1908-73) was
killed in a coup led by his trusted

: ally General Augusto Pinochet

(1915-2006), and backed by the US.
Pinochet killed 3,000 supporters
of the Allende regime, shut the

: Chilean Parliament, and banned
: all political activity. In 1974, he
: made himself president (see 1998).

In December, the Basque
separatist movement, ETA, killed
Spanish prime minister Admiral
Luis Carrero Blanco in Madrid, in

Basque militants [see 1959).

PRICEIN DOLLARS

0
1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

Costing dear

When OPEC shut off oil supplies to the western nations
that had supported Israel, it sent prices shooting up
from less than $3a barrel to $11 in a matter of weeks.

1974

Heavy fighting broke out between
Arab and Israeli forces in what
came to be known as the Yom
Kippur War, in October. Egyptian
forces broke the Israeli line on the
eastern bank of the Suez Canal,
and in the north, Syrian troops
battled with Israeli defenses along
the Golan Heights, seized by
Israel from Syria in 1967. A peace

deal, signed on November 11
between Egypt and Israel, ended
the strife. Following the war, the
Arab oil-producing countries
imposed an oil embargo on all
the countries that had supported
Israel. In October, oil prices
soared around the world, from
under $3 a barrel before the war
to over $11 by early 1974.

The Arab oil embargo
caused global chaos, The
Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC)
switched off supply at a time
when the market was already
starting to suffer shortages.
The crisis revealed oil as a
powerful political weapon.
Countries in the Middle East
were seen to have acquired
control of a vital commodity,
and Western nations were
vulnerable because they
relied on oil imports.

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Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie,
had been crowned “King of Kings.”

THE OIL EMBARGO OF 1973 HAD A
DRASTIC EFFECT on the developed
world, leading to a long-term
recession. Unemployment and
inflation soared, and stock
markets crashed globally.

In Portugal, General Antonio
de Spinola (1910-96) led a
bloodless military coup, ending
50 years of dictatorship. Known as
the Carnation Revolution, this
event ushered in a new era of
democracy in the country.

In Britain, the IRA attacked the
Houses of Parliament on June 17,
the Tower of London in July, anda
Guildford pub in October.

In July, Turkish troops invaded
northern Cyprus following a coup
in which President Archbishop
Makarios, a Greek Cypriot, was
deposed. The island was split in
two parts, with Greek-Cypriots
fleeing to the south and the
Turkish community, to the north.

After years of war and famine in
Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie
(1892-1975] was overthrown in a
coup, on September 12. General
Tafari Benti (1921-77) became
head of state.

In the US, the Watergate
breakin (see 1973) was traced toa
Nixon support group. In July, the
Supreme Court ordered Nixon to
turn over the tape recordings
relating to the scandal. He was
impeached, and resigned from
office in August.

Disco, a genre of dance music
that had started in the clubs of
New York in the late 1960s,
peaked at this time with new
music, polyester suits, and films
such as Saturday Night Fever.

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433

464 VIETNAM WAS LOST IN THE LIVING

ROOMS OF AMERICA, NOT ON THE
BATTLEFIELDS OF VIETNAM. 99

Marshall McLuhan, media commentator, writing at the end of the Vietnam War

MARGARET THATCHER BECAME
THE FIRST WOMAN to lead a
political party in Britain on
February 11, when she won the
Conservative Party vote.

In the Middle East, Saudi
Arabia's King Faisal (1906-75)
was assassinated by his nephew,
Prince Faisal Ibu Musaed.

Prince Juan Carlos was sworn
in as King of Spain, two days after
dictator General Francisco Franco
died on November 20.

In April, the Cambodian capital,
Phnom Penh, fell to the radical
communist movement, the
Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot.
They transformed Cambodia into
acommunist, rural society. All
inhabitants of cities were expelled

to work in agricultural communes. :

After almost two decades of
fighting, the Vietnam War finally

1,200
1,000
800
600

400

DEATHS (IN THOUSANDS)

North South us
Vietnam Vietnam

Vietnamese war casualties
More than one million North
Vietnamese troops died, compared
to around 220,000 from South
Vietnam, and 58,000 from the US.

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: The North Vietnam troops (pictured)
met little resistance in Saigon,
but the final hours of America’s

= presence were marked by chaos.

: ended on April 30 as the
© government in Saigon
» surrendered to the North
: Vietnam forces. Saigon was
| renamed Ho ChiMinh City and
the following year, North and
: South Vietnam were reunified.
Mozambique became
independent on June 25, after a
: coup in Portugal ended colonial
rule (see 1974). Four
months later, Angola
also gained its
independence (see 1976]
Iraq stepped up its
military pressure against

: Iraq. The Kurds were
| crushed with the razing
: of Zakho and Qala Diza.
In Lebanon, Christian
militia attacked a bus
full of Palestinians in

: ‘ )

one, 4
P mili i world of personal
: Kurdish rebels in northern computing.
J during the Vietnam War.

Beirut. This started a civil war

: that lasted for 15 years [see 1990).

This was a year of global

"terrorism, as Arab terrorists

: held hostages at Orly airport in

: Moluccan terrorists took over

: the Indonesian Embassy in

H Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

In November, oil began to flow

Microsoft was officially
founded on April 4 by
Bill Gates (b. 1955)
and Paul Allen

(b. 1953), starting the

US Purple Heart
AUS military decoration
awarded to the wounded
or killed, 351,794 Purple
Hearts were awarded

‘
Two punks kiss on the Kings Road in London. Punk rock emerged during
the mid-70's as an angry expression of contempt for politics and society.

THE MARXIST PEOPLE’S MOVEMENT
FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA
(MPLA) took nominal control of
the whole country by February,
and the new Angola People’s
Republic was recognized. This
was preceded by intense fighting
that also involved the National
Front for the Liberation of Angola
(FNLA) and the Union for the Total
Independence of Angola (UNITA).

Antiapartheid protests in
Soweto, South Africa turned
violent on June 16. Demonstrators
clashed with police and more than
300 people were killed.

MILLION
THE NUMBER
OF DEATHS
CAUSED BY
MAO’S REGIME

Mao Zedong (b. 1893), the
founder of the People’s Republic
of China, died of a heart attack
on September 9.

Syrian peacekeeping troops
entered Lebanon on 9 June. In
December, after more than 50
ceasefires had been violated,
uneasy peace prevailed.

The Seychelles gained
independence from Britain on
June 29, with James Mancham
as president and France Rene as
prime minister of the coalition.

THE ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA,
DR. JANANI LUWUM (b. 1922), was
murdered on February 16 for
being an Anglican, and for
protesting against the excesses
of Idi Amin’s regime (see 1971).

Steven Biko [see panel, right], a
prominent black rights leader in
South Africa, died in prison on
September 12. He had been
detained under the terrorism act.
His death caused international
outrage but an inquest cleared
the police of any wrongdoing.

In Pakistan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP)
was accused of vote rigging. This
prompted Army Chief General
Mohammed Zia ul-Haq to depose
Bhutto in a military coup on July 4.

The right-wing Menachem
Begin (1913-92) hada surprise
win at the Israeli elections in May,
ending 29 years of Labor rule. As
premier, he initiated a peace
process with Egypt [see 1979).

Fruit of knowledge

Apple Inc. computers went on sale
this year. The distinctive lago—a
rainbow-colored apple with a bite
taken out—symbolized knowledge.

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oe a
yt s 325 ae
ee Re
yt eS Se os ot
gor NS
do? oe Re
5 ae eS < DON a
ser” a? eee

STEVEN BIKO (1946-77)

In 1968, Steve Biko was the
first president and cofounder
of the all-black South African
Students’ Organization
(SASO], which aimed to raise
black consciousness. The
government banned him in
1973, but he continued

to spread his word. On
August 18, 1977, the police
seized Biko, held him for

24 days, and tortured him

to death. The Rand Daily Mail
exposed their brutality.

Amnesty International, the
human rights organization, won
the Nobel Peace Prize for having
“contributed to securing the
ground for freedom, for justice,
and thereby also for peace in the
world.” The movement proclaimed
1977 “Prisoners of Conscience
Year.” The following year,
Amnesty also received the United
Nations Human Rights Award.

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Dr. Robert Edwards holds the world’s first test tube baby, Louise Brown.
It was a medical breakthrough fraught with controversy.

ISRAELI SOLDIERS CROSSED THE
LEBANESE BORDER on March 14,
in Operation Litani. Thousands
of Palestinians fled the area and
hundreds died. Israel claimed
Palestinian fighters were using
southern Lebanon to mount
attacks against civilian and
military targets in Israel.
Demonstrators on the streets of
Tehran, capital of lran, had been
shouting dissent all year, but in
September, protests grew against
the policies of Iran's supreme ruler,
Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi
(1919-80). The challenge stunned
the Shah and his generals, and
rioters were attacked. Many
people were killed, and martial
law was imposed in major cities.
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat
(1918-81) arrived in Washington,
DC for talks with President Jimmy
Carter [b. 1924), in February. His
visit represented a change in
Egyptian foreign policy which
had previously sought favor from
the Soviet Union. Shortly after,
Israeli Prime Minister Menachem
Begin met President Carter.
These initial talks paved the way
for historic joint meetings at
Camp David, Maryland, in
September 5-17. Here, both sides
signed the Camp David Peace
Accord for peace in the Middle
East. Sadat and Begin later
received the Nobel Peace Prize.
Cambodia was invaded by
Vietnam on December 25 ina
lightning assault. The Vietnamese
forced out Pol Pot’s Khmer
Rouge regime, but the war that
followed continued to be a major
source of international tension.

46 ALL EXAMINATIONS
SHOWED THAT THE BABY
IS QUITE NORMAL. 99

Obstetrician Patrick Steptoe, after the birth of Louise Brown

Pol Pot's army was not completely
defeated; thousands of his troops
fled to the Thai-Cambodia
border, where they were able

to build up their strength, and
skirmishes forced the Vietnamese
to stay in Cambodia for the next
decade [see 1991).

Former Italian prime minister
Aldo Moro was kidnapped in
Rome on March 16. The extreme
left-wing Red Brigade, who
wished to overthrow capitalist
Italy, claimed responsibility and
demanded that the trial of their
leader, Renato Curcio, be stopped.
The government refused, and eight
weeks later, Moro’s body was
found in the trunk ofa car in Rome.

The oil tanker Amoco Cadiz ran
aground on Portsall Rocks, three
miles off the Brittany coast, when
its steering mechanism failed. The
entire cargo of 1.6 million barrels
spilled into the sea, causing an
oil slick 18 miles (30km) wide and
80 miles (130km] long. Dozens of
Breton beaches were polluted.
Devastating scenes of marine
animals covered in oil and dying
were broadcast around the world.

The world’s first test tube baby
was born on July 25. Louise
Brown was born in Oldham,
Lancashire, England, with the
help of gynecologist Patrick
Steptoe, who had pioneered the
technique along with Dr. Robert
Edwards (see 1769].

Khmer Rouge fighter

Under Pol Pot, Khmer Rouge
soldiers, often teenagers, controlled
Cambodia. They were responsible
for killing over 1 million people.

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435

ESTABLISH LAWS BELONG
EXCLUSIVELY TO GOD. 99

Ayatollah Khomeini, from his lectures on Islamic Government

-£2A 22222 China viewed the Vietnamese
attack on Cambodia as a serious
provocation, and, on February 17,
Chinese forces invaded Vietnam
Casualties on both sides were
high, and each side claimed to

| have won the upper hand.

When Afghan communists took
power through a coup in 1978,
they found themselves pulled
three ways: between the Soviets,
the Americans, and the Islamic
regime in Iran. In March, a
resistance group declared a holy
war against the “godless” Marxist
regime and killed Soviet citizens
in Herat, western Afghanistan.

In the countryside, revolt grew

: against repressive government
initiatives, and the Afghan army
faced total collapse. In light of
this, the Soviet Union feared an
lranian-style Islamist revolution
Citing the 1978 Treaty of
Friendship, the Soviets invaded

—_=

War casualties
2 0 a Afghans paid a
LS heavy price for
the Soviet invasion—for every Soviet
who was killed or wounded,

20 Afghan soldiers lost their lives.

VIETNAMESE FORCES ENTERED
CAMBODIA in 1978, in response to
repeated border attacks by the
Khmer Rouge [see 1978). On
January 7, 1979, they seized the
Cambodian capital of Phnom
Penh and the Khmer Rouge were
driven from power. Pol Pot, leader
of the Khmer Rouge, fled to the
jungle in Thailand and began a
guerrilla war against a succession
of Cambodian governments.

On April 2, Vietnamese forces
discovered a mass grave in

the northeast—this was the first
of many mass graves from the
Pol Pot era to be discovered. It
became apparent that between
1975 and 1979 Pol Pot was
responsible for the slaughter of
more than 1 million people.

Rings of Jupiter

An image taken by NASA's Voyager 2
spacecraft shows Jupiter's ring
system, never seen before, being
bombarded by tiny meteorites.

44 IN ISLAM, THE LEGISLATIVE
POWER AND COMPETENCE TO

: In doing so, they were confident

: April 1. Western influences were

Iranian women holding posters of Ayatollah Khomeini show support for the Islamic Revolution.

Mass demonstrations brought the country to a halt.

Afghanistan on December 24. rear sight —_
of military superiority. However,
the US had been covertly
training anti-
government forces,
the Mujahideen
(warriors), and the
Soviets were met
with fierce resistance
when they stormed
into Kabul.

As the political
situation in Iran
deteriorated (see 1978), the Shah
was forced into exile. Ayatollah

detachable
magazine

Ayatollah Khomeini, angered by
America’s long support of the
Shah, took control of the US
embassy in Tehran. They seized
63 hostages, and vowed not to
release them until the US
returned the Shah for trial. In
response, President Carter
embargoed Iranian oil. Female
and non-US citizen hostages were
released, and then a male
hostage who became seriously
ill, in 1980, but 52 Americans
remained hostage until 1981.

The left-wing Sandinista
National Liberation Front
succeeded in overthrowing
the US-backed regime in the
republic of Nicaragua and took
the capital, Managua. This ended
seven years of civil war against
the Somoza government. The
Sandinistas established a
revolutionary government on
July 20, led by Daniel and
Humberto Ortega

Both the Irish Republican Army
(IRA) and the Irish National
Liberation Army (INLA) were active

a Shiite Muslim cleric, returned
from 15 years of exile to jubilant
crowds, and the Islamic Republic
of Iran was proclaimed on

suppressed, and many who had
been educated in the West fled
the country. Young supporters of

AK-47 Kalashnikov assault rifle
The AK-47 became an iconic weapon
during the Soviet war in Afghanistan.
Used by both sides, Kalashnikovs
were cheap and readily available.

this year. On March 30, shadow
Northern Ireland secretary Airey
Neave was killed by an INLA car
bomb. On August 27, Lord Louis
Mountbatten [a member of the
British royal family) was killed by
an IRA bomb blast. Hours later, 18
soldiers were killed in booby-trap
bomb explosions close to the
border with the Irish Republic
The deaths unleashed a series of
civilian killings.

Ugandan leader Idi Amin
(1925-2003) was forced to flee the
capital city of Kampala on April 11
as Tanzanian troops, along with
exiles and the Uganda National
Liberation Front, closed in. Two
days later, Kampala fell anda
coalition government took power.
Yusufu Lule (1912-85), who had
been driven into exile by Amin,
became president. Amin escaped
to Libya, leaving behind a country
with its economy in tatters.

The Sony Walkman was
launched in Japan on June 22.
The first Walkman featured a
cassette player and the world’s
first lightweight headphones.

It cost US$200, and sold out
within a month.

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MILES

THE HEIGHT OF THE ERUPTION
COLUMN IN THE MOUNT

ST. HELENS EXPLOSION

vie 15

Mount St. Helens in Washington State erupted, with a massive avalanche in May,
and a cloud of ash that screened out all sunlight as far as 250 miles (400 km) away.

ROBERT MUGABE WON A

SWEEPING VICTORY on March 4,
becoming prime minister of
Rhodesia. A Marxist guerrilla
fighter, he was hated by lan Smith's
white-minority regime. On April 18,
Rhodesia became Zimbabwe.

Parts of Africa suffered extreme
deprivation due to famine in 1980.
Drought, cattle raiding, anda
breakdown in civil order caused
a food shortage. The famine in
Uganda is regarded as one of the
worst in history—21 percent of
the population died.

Smallpox was declared extinct
on May 8 by the World Health
Organization, 21 years after the
global eradication program had
begun. The last natural case of
smallpox was in Somalia in
October 1977. Around 300 million

people died from smallpox in
the 20th century alone.

The Iranian Embassy in
London became involved in a
dramatic siege on April 30, when

70%
SURVIVED

Smallpox eradication

A global vaccination campaign led to
WHO declaring smallpox eradicated
in 1980. Smallpox was a devastating
illness, with a mortality rate of 30%.

six gunmen from a group opposed
to Ayatollah Khomeini took over
the building. They demanded the
release of 91 Iranian political
prisoners. The siege ended after a
raid by the Special Air Service
(SAS). Nineteen hostages were
set free, but one died and two
were injured in the cross-fire.

On September 22, Iraq invaded
Iran sparking a bitter eight-year
war, which destabilized the whole
region. By the end of October,
Khorramshahr, the largest port
in Iran, fell to Iraqi forces.

Under President Tito's grip (see
1943], Yugoslavia had achieved
internal peace. Tito’s death, on
May 4, combined with the decline
of communist ideology, led to
the weakening of Yugoslavia’s
unifying factors. Ethnic and

nationalist differences flared,
and individual republics began
pushing for independence.

A huge bomb ripped through a
railway station in Bologna, Italy,
on August 2, killing 85 people and
injuring hundreds in one of the
worst terrorist attacks in Italian
history. Right-wing extremists
were thought to be responsible.

Poland experienced a turning
point with the Gdansk shipyard
strike: the first political mass

movement to emerge inthe Soviet :

bloc. On August 30, the Polish
government reached an agreement
with striking shipyard workers,
led by Lech Walesa. It authorized
the establishment of Solidarity,
anew trade union free of
communist control. Membership
rapidly swelled to over 10 million.

Mount St. Helens, a volcano
in Washington State, northwest
US, violently erupted on

: May 18, spewing a huge cloud of

: ash. It triggered an earthquake

: measuring 5.2 on the Richter
scale; the north face of the

= mountain collapsed, and

: 57 people died.

Ronald Reagan, a former
Hollywood actor and Republican
governor of California, won the
US presidential election on
November 4, beating Jimmy
| Carter in a landslide victory. He

would go on to serve two terms.

: Iran-Iraq War

: An Iraqi soldier watches an oil

: refinery burn during the Iran-Iraq
: war. Oil fields and refineries were
: heavily targeted by both sides.

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437

Demonstrators carry a banner reading Solidarnos¢, or “Solidarity,”
the name of the first noncommunist Polish trade union.

FORMER ACTOR RONALD REAGAN
BECAME THE 4OTH PRESIDENT

of the US on January 20. Two
months later he survived an
assassination attempt by John
Hinckley, who was obsessed with
actress Jodie Foster, and believed
an assassination of the president
would impress her.

Pope John Paul Il survived
being shot four times on May 13
as he travlled through crowds in
his “popemobile” in St. Peter's
Square, Rome. Police arrested
Mehmet Ali Hagca, a Turkish
citizen, who was sentenced to life
imprisonment in July.

A state of emergency was

declared in Egypt after President —

Anwar Sadat was assassinated
at a military parade. A group
calling itself the Independent
Organization for the Liberation
of Egypt said it carried out the
attack. Vice-President Hosni
Mubarak succeeded President
Sadat as head of state.

46 IFW.

ESIGN TODAY WE WILL
BURY OUR HOPES FOR FREEDOM
FOR MANY YEARS TO COME. SEVERAL

_ THOUSAND P.

BHOPL

E: CANNOT

OVERCOME TEN MILLION. 99

: Solidarity, trade union, message to the people of Poland, December 1981

© On January 20, Iran finally
agreed to release 52 American
hostages, who had been held for
444 days. This followed a guarantee
from the US that it would release
"Iranian assets that had been frozen
in American banks since the US
embassy was seized in Tehran.
Iran also saw renewed political
: terrorism this year. The Mujahidin,
a group of muslim fighters,
mounted waves of bombings and
assassinations. In August, both
the new president Ali Rajai
and the prime minister Javad
Bahonar were killed. In October,
Ali Khamenei was
elected president ina
landslide victory.
Spain was in turmoil
after an attempted
right wing coup, led
by Lieutenant Colonel
Antonio Tejero Molina
(b. 1932], who stormed

Spanish coup

Colonel Antonio Tejero
stormed the Spanish
parliament, firing shots
into the air as he
announced a military
coup. The coup
collapsed within hours.

: the Spanish parliament along with
200 soldiers. Armed forces put
down the coup on February 23.
| Israel shocked the world by
blowing up a nuclear plant near
: Baghdad, Iraq, on June 7. They
claimed it had the capability of
making nuclear weapons to
: destroy Israel - Iraq denied this.
In the face of union protests, the
» Polish government declared
© a state of emergency on
December 13, and placed leaders
of the Solidarity trade union
under arrest. In response,
: members of Solidarity called for
: anational strike (see 1982).
Brixton, south London, erupted
© into riots on April 11 after a black
man was arrested by police. The
: violence spread to other cities
where there had been unrest due
to poor relations between black
© communities and the police.
Columbia became the first
: shuttle to fly into space on
April 12. The maiden flight was
: piloted by veteran US astronauts
John Young (b. 1930) and Robert
Crippen (b. 1937], and heralded a
= new era in space exploration.
| Bob Marley (b. 1945), the
| international face of reggae
music, died of cancer on May 11.

He was 36 years old. Bob Marley
and the Wailers was the world’s
most recognized reggae band.
AIDS [see panel, below) came to
the fore in June after the deaths
of five men in Los Angeles.
Previously, no cases had been
reported outside the gay
community; it became clear that
the disease affected other groups.
The unknown condition came to
be named Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

HIV is a virus that causes
Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome [AIDS], a disease
of the immune system.

The HIV virus was discovered
in May 1983 by doctors at
the Pasteur Institute in
France. The isolation of the
HIV virus made it possible

to develop drugs that could
dramatically extend the life
expectancy of those with
AIDS, athough no vaccine
has yet been found. At least
28 million people worldwide
have died from the disease;
Africa has been the worst
affected area.

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The frigate HMS Antelope exploded
on May 23, during the Falklands War.

ARGENTINA INVADED THE BRITISH
TERRITORY of the Falkland
Islands in the South Atlantic on
April 2. The sovereignty of the
islands had lang been disputed
British prime minister Margaret
Thatcher (b. 1925) sent a naval
task force to liberate the islands.
The subsequent conflict cost the
lives of hundreds of Argentine and
British servicemen, many of them
through missile attacks on navy
warships. The conflict ended on
June 14, when the commander of
the Argentine garrison at Port
Stanley surrendered to the British.
lran launched Operation
Undeniable Victory in March, as
part of its war against Iraq (see
1980). This marked a major turning
point, and Iran forced the Iraqis
to retreat. Within a week, Iran
succeeded in destroying a large

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RAARARA

219
- War, which lasted

74 days, 255 British and 649
Argentine soldiers were killed.
More than 11,000 Argentine
soldiers were taken prisoner.

part of three Iraqi divisions. Iranian:

president Ali Khamenei (b. 1939)
rejected an Iraqi offer of a ceasefire
and sent thousands of young
Iranians to their death in
“human-wave” attacks that
cleared the way for Iranian tanks.
However, by the year's end, Iraq
had been resupplied with new
Soviet arms, and the ground war
entered a new phase (see 1983).

Israel invaded Lebanon on
June 6, in an attempt to wipe out
guerrilla positions on Israel's
northern border. By September 15,
the Israeli army occupied West
Beirut. On September 16-18, the
Phalangists, loyal to Israel, killed
hundreds of Palestinians in
refugee camps. Defense minister
Ariel Sharon resigned after an
Israeli inquiry stated he had failed
to act to prevent the massacre.

The IRA continued their
campaign against British rule in
Northern Ireland by exploding

: two bombs in London parks. The
first, at Hyde Park, killed four
soldiers from the Household
Cavalry. Horses were also slain.
The second, placed underneath
the bandstand in Regents Park,
killed seven soldiers.

Israel attacks Lebanon

Many cities were bombarded by
heavy artillery during the Israeli
invasion of Lebanon - an attempt

King of pop

The dominant pop
star of the 80s,
Michael Jackson
released the album
Thriller in 1962. It
became, and remains,
the best-selling album
of all time.

Solidarity (see
1981], the Polish
Trade Union
Movement, was
banned by the Polish
government on
October 8. This

was greeted by
international condemnation and
street protests. US President
Ronald Reagan put pressure on
Poland by imposing economic
sanctions. Lech Walesa (b. 1943),
the Solidarity leader, was released
on November 12, after 11 months
of internment.

Leonid Brezhnev (b. 1906),
leader of the Soviet Union, died on
November 10. He had served as
general secretary for 18 years. He
was succeeded by Yuri Andropov
(1914-84). During his leadership,
Brezhnev had pushed for better
relations with the West, and
increased Soviet military and
industrial strength, but living
standards remained poor.

The world's first test tube twins
were born in Manchester,
England, on April 28. The twins
were conceived outside the womb
after their mother underwent
in-vitro fertilization (IVF).

to drive out the PLO.
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44 A FLAGRANT
VIOLATION OF
INTERNATIONAL LAW. 99

UN Security Council, on the US invasion of Grenada in 1983

ON JANUARY 17, NIGERIA
ANNOUNCED that it would expel
all resident aliens. Over a million
foreigners were forced out. The
move was condemned abroad, but
appeared popular in Nigeria.

Drought struck Ethiopia this
year. Harvests failed and there
were massive food shortages. The
crisis was exacerbated by the
communist government's military
spending and censorship of the
emerging crisis.

The US embassy in Beirut
was hit by a suicide bomber on
April 19. The US government

: Secret hunger

believed the attack was carried out
by Hezbollah, a militant Islamic
group. Later in the year, terrorists
bombed the French and American
peacekeeping headquarters in
Beirut, with extensive loss of life.

In the Iraq-Iran War, Iraq had
begun using chemical weapons
—the blister agent mustard gas
was deployed as Irag fought back
against attacks from the “human
waves” of Iranian troops.

Vicious attacks were carried

out against members of the Tamil :

ethnic group in Sri Lanka on

THE PROPOSED
COST OF
“STAR WARS”

A mother holds her child during the

: Ethiopian famine. The Ethiopian

government initially hid the famine
from the rest of the world.

killed 13 Sri Lankan soldiers. The

The Soviets were accused of

| shooting down a Korean airliner
: on September 1. They claimed the
: airliner flew into their airspace and

did not respond to communication.
President Reagan had

: spearheaded a strategy to support
: anticommunist insurgencies

bent on overthrowing Marxist

: regimes. In May, Reagan openly
: expressed support for the Contras,
: the Nicaraguan opposition to

Communist Sandinista rule. In
October, the US overthrew the
Marxist government of Grenada.
On March 23, President Reagan
launched his Strategic Defence

Initiative (SDI), an ambitious

: scheme to combat nuclear

| weapons in space. Reagan's SDI
» became known as “Star Wars.”

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439

Arthur Scargill, leader of the National Union of Miners (NUM), confronts a battalion
of police during the British miners’ strike, which lasted a year.

: BRITISH COAL MINERS WENT ON
STRIKE from March 12 over pay
and mine closures. The dispute
: lasted an entire year.
Police constable Yvonne Fletcher
was killed outside the Libyan
Embassy in London during a
demonstration on April 17.
Her death led to a police
siege of the building.
Subsequently, the UK
expelled Libyan diplomats
from the country.

On December 19,
China and Britain
signed a treaty to
transfer Hong Kong, a

* British colony, to Chinese
rule in 1997,

An IRA bomb went off at
the Grand Hotel, Brighton, on

55,000

15,000

have died since |
|
died within weeks

Bhopal gas victims

The Bhopal tragedy injured many
© thousands and killed 3,000 people
: within weeks. At least 15,000 are
thought to have died subsequently.

Free in space

US astronaut Bruce McCandless
floats free in space. He used a jet
pack to fly nearly 300 feet (91m)
away from the shuttle Challenger.

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Red ribbon
Asymbol of
solidarity for those
suffering from
HIV/AIDS, the Red
Ribbon Foundation
was formed in
1993 to promote
awareness about
the disease.

October 12, targeting the British
cabinet who had gathered for the
Conservative Party conference.
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher
(b. 1925) had a narrow escape.

Major General Mohammed
Buhari (b. 1942) seized power in
Nigeria in a bloodless military
coup on January 1, citing the
government's corruption record.

Indira Gandhi (b. 1917), the
prime minister of India, was
assassinated on October 31. The
killing was carried out by Sikh
extremists in response to an
attack on the Sikh shrine, the
Golden Temple of Amritsar.
Ghandi ordered the attack, known
as Operation Blue Star, to remove
Sikh separatists, who were thought
to be amassing weapons at the
temple. The operation resulted
in up to 1,000 deaths.

On December 3, a poison-gas
leak at the US-owned Union
Carbide pesticide plant near
Bhopal, India, became one of the
worst industrial accidents in history.

The US president Ronald
Reagan (1911-2004) declared the
withdrawal of peacekeeping
troops from the Lebanese capital
of Beirut, on February 7, following
increased terrorist attacks.

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Two billion viewers in 60 countries
watched the Live Aid concerts.

TANCREDO NEVES (1910-85) WAS
ELECTED PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL on
15 January, after 21 years of
military rule. Democracy also
returned to Uruguay, in March,
and to Bolivia, in August.

On 25 May, hundreds died in
attacks on Palestinian strongholds
in Beirut by Syrian-backed Shi'ite
troops. Prime minister Shimon
Peres (b.1923] withdrew Israeli
troops from Lebanon, but Israel
held a 12 mile- (19km-] wide
security zone in the south.

Later in the year, on October 7,
Palestinian Liberation Organization
(PLO) militants hijacked an Italian
cruise liner, the Achille Lauro,
demanding the release of 50
Palestinian prisoners held in
Israel. The crisis ended after they

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1985 1990 1995

Hole in the ozone layer

This graph shows the average size

of the hole in the ozone layer in each
year from 1985-95. As a comparison,
the area of Europe is about 4 million sq
miles (10 million sq km].

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killed a passenger, on October 10, KEY The Soviet Union admitted to
when the hijackers abandoned the —_—Highly Reyidavity an accident at a nuclear power
liner in exchange for safe conduct. contaminated area station in Chernobyl, Ukraine, on
The Siege of Gibraltar ended - Bread range of April 26. The accident was the
after 16 years, when the Spanish worst disaster in the history of
government opened the border, nuclear power. Itreleased ahigh :
on February 4. The dispute over Londawelf level of radioactive contamination, :
the island's sovereignty continued. i which spread to Europe.
British scientists discovered a Mir, the Soviet space station,
Nuclear fallout Madride:

hole in the ozone layer over
Antarctica. Their findings,
published in the May issue of
Nature, rallied environmentalists.

Live Aid rocked the world in July
with two huge concerts held
simultaneously in London and
Philadelphia to raise money for
famine relief in Ethiopia.

Mikhail Gorbachev became
leader of the Soviet Union on
March 11, 1985. He was the
architect of glasnost (openness)
and perestroika [restructuring].
He built bridges with the
West and renounced Stalinist
ideas. He won the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1990, but his
policies led to the implosion
of the Soviet Union.

The Russian space station Mir (peace) provides a home for visiting
astronauts. The first crew arrived on March 15.

Following the nuclear
power plant accident
at Chernobyl, radiation
spread across Europe
as far as Paris.

WITH THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR IN ITS
SIXTH YEAR, Iran launched a
surprise assault and captured
the abandoned Iraqi oil port of
Faw in February. Iraq was
accused of using mustard gas in
its efforts to hold off the attack.

“Irangate,” a scandal involving
US president Ronald Reagan,
came to light in October in the
US. The Reagan administration
had been selling arms to Iran to
secure the release of US hostages
in Lebanon. The profits of the deal
were used to fund Contra rebels
fighting the Marxist regime in
Nicaragua. Reagan survived, but
his chief of staff, Donald Regan,
and national security adviser,
John Poindexter, resigned.

US planes bombed military
targets in Tripoli, Libya, on
April 15. President Reagan cited
self-defence to justify the move.
Days earlier, US soldiers had died
in a bomb attack at the La Belle
disco in West Berlin, believed to
have been ordered by Libya.

John McCarthy (b. 1954), a
British journalist, was kidnapped

by Islamic terrorists in Beirut, on
April 17. On the same day, three
British hostages were killed in
retaliation for Britain's support of
the US bombing of Libya [see 1991).
Yemen experienced turmoil in
January as power struggles within
the Yemen Socialist Party [YSP]
led to a brutal war between the

north and south. Britain’s Royal
yacht, Britannia, helped evacuate
British citizens.

Challenger badge

On January 28, the American space
shuttle Challenger broke apart 72
seconds after take off, causing the
death of all seven crew members.

Re at

was launched on February 20,

as part of a space city to house
cosmonauts. The first crew
arrived on board the space station
on March 15.

On June 12, South Africa
imposed a state of emergency
before the 10th anniversary of the
black student uprising in Soweto.

The government enforced curfews —

and banned television cameras
from filming “unrest.”

Ferdinand Marcos [1917-89]
was forced to quit as dictator of
the Philippines on February 25,
after the military and a tide of
world opinion turned against him.
Corazon Aquino (1933-2009), the
first female leader of the country,
was sworn in as his successor.

Nearly 50,000 students
gathered in Shanghai's People’s
Square on 21 December, urging
for more social freedom.

50,000

THE NUMBER OF
STUDENTS WHO
MARCHED IN
SHANGHAI FOR
DEMOCRACY

Olof Palme led the Swedish
Social Democratic Party
from 1969. As prime minister
he initiated major reforms
and was an avid supporter of
women’s rights, healthcare,
and welfare standards. His
party was also a forerunner
of green politics. He was
accused of being pro-Soviet,
which some thought led to
his death in 1986.

: Students all across China held
: demonstrations in major cities,
» demanding democratic reforms.

Spain and Portugal joined

: the European Union (EU) on

: January 1, taking its membership
: to 12. Anew flag was also adopted
: as the official symbol of Europe.

The Australia Act, signed on

i March 3, made Australian law

| independent of the British legal

: system. It also transferred control
: of Australian constitutional

: documents into Australian hands.

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IRAN 2 After the collapse of the USSR, the
) former empire split into 15 new siates.
— TAJIKISTAN KEY The independent governments formed
AFGHANISTAN Russian Federation —_g logse union: the Commonwealth of

Former USSR Independent States (CIS).

BEFORE Communist regimes could be found across the
world at the high point of communist influence. After Soviet
triumph in World War II, communism was embraced by
one-third of the world’s population. Fear that it would
spread further dominated the conduct of the Cold War.

AFTER Today, there are only five communist countries
in the world. China remains one of the most prominent,
while Laos, Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba also have
communist regimes. Communist parties still exist in
many democratic nations.

COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION

, 9

Sea of
Okhotsk

Yakutsk

Svobodnyy

Blagoveshchensk

Vladivostok

Sea of Japan
(East
China Seal

THE RISE AND FALL OF COMMUNISM
Communism was one of the most
powerful political movements of the
modern world, inspiring great thinkers
and guerrilla fighters alike. It was
supposed to offer ordinary people freedom
from want and oppression, and it united
Western critics of the capitalist system.

The great experiment, which began
with the seizure of the Winter Palace in
Petrograd in 1917, ended in 1989-91, as
the Berlin Wall was torn down and the
empire of the USSR came apart. China,
Cuba, Vietnam, and North Korea still
call themselves communist, yet the
consensus is that, without the Soviet
Union to hold it together, communism
is at a dead end.

44 UPON THE
SUCCESS OF
PERESTROIKA
DEPENDS THE
FUTURE OF
PEACE. 99

Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet statesman, 1987

COEFARSE OF THE

In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of a stagnating Soviet
Union. He realized that the Soviet Bloc needed radical reforms, and tried to
modernize socialism. The result was the total disintegration of the USSR,
which transformed the map of Europe and brought about a new world order.

Mikhail Gorbachev was a popular choice for leader.
He introduced two new concepts, glasnost and
perestroika—“openness” and “restructuring"—

and championed a more liberal, dynamic society.
Although Gorbachev's popularity was affirmed
when he withdrew troops from Afghanistan,
non-Russian minority groups throughout the USSR
agitated for independence. In July 1989, Gorbachev
announced that countries within the Warsaw Pact
(see 1955) could determine their own futures in
openly contested elections.

East and Central Europe responded to
Gorbachev's greater freedoms: in 198? Poland
elected to end communist rule; Hungary opened
its borders with the West; and the Berlin Wall was
torn down. When Gorbachev did not respond with
force, Czechoslovakia and Romania broke free,
followed by Ukraine and Armenia in 1990, and then
Turkmenistan and Tajikistan in 1991.

Lithuania
25.174 mi?

Latvia
333,820 mi?

Georgia
26,911 mi?

Ukraine
233,062 mi?

To outsiders, Gorbachev was a hero. He wona
Nobel Peace Prize and was feted by foreign
leaders. But at home, living standards fell and he
wrestled with deep economic problems. Gorbachev
struggled to hold the empire together as his
ministers deserted him and the clamor for
independence in the Baltic States became
overwhelming. In July 1991, Boris Yeltsin was
elected president of Russia and emerged as a
champion of reform when he saved Gorbachev
from a coup by hard-line opponents in August. That
same month, Yeltsin ordered the Soviet Communist
Party to cease its activities in Russia. The Soviet
Union faced oblivion when Ukraine, Russia, and
Belarus secretly planned to form a new union.

His position untenable, on Christmas Day 1991,
Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president. Of the 15
remaining Soviet republics, 12 became sovereign
states, and the USSR passed into history.

Armenia
11,484 mi?

Estonia Azerbaijan
17,463 mi?, 33,437 mi?

Moldova
13,068 mi?

Soviet dissolution
Territory that once belonged to the Soviet Union now
forms a number of new states. By far the largest is

the Russian Federation.

BILLION DOLLARS

THE DECLINE IN THE
VALUE OF QUOTED
SHARES ON BLACK
MONDAY

. ¥

The New York Stock Exchange crash on “Black Monday”
saw the Dow Jones drop more than 500 points.

| : and held in Beirut (see 1991). The came to be known, was almost
. = In May, France was forced to $8. 6 = twice as bad as the crash of
THE WORLD » pay $8.6 million to Greenpeace MILLION October 29, 1929.
: for the sinking of their flagship, Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925}
POPULATION : Rainbow Warrior. The vessel, | visited Moscow in March. It was
IN 1987 _ which was to lead a Greenpeace Payment ial : the first official visit by a British
. flotilla protesting against French Greenpeace 1987 prime minister in 12 years, and
: nuclear testing in the Pacific, had : ‘ marked the normalization of
: _ French compensation

IN JULY, THE WORLD POPULATION
REACHED FIVE BILLION. This was
double what it was in 1950, and

a billion higher than in 1974.
The population of the world was
growing at arate of 220,000
people a day. Much of the growth
was Seen in parts of the world

least able to sustain it. The concern =

about the social and economic

impact of population growth led to
July 11 being known as the Day of
Five Billion. Thereafter, July 11
became World Population Day.

Terry Waite (b. 1939), special

i envoy to the Archbishop of

: hostages from Western countries, :
: including the journalist John i
_ McCarthy (see 1986). However, he

himself was captured by militants =

: been sunk by an explosion on

: July 10, 1985, in Auckland harbor,
: New Zealand. A photographer,

i Fernando Pereira, was killed in

: the blast. The incident provoked

» aninternationalscandaland led —
= to the cooling of relations between |
: New Zealand and France. Two
French secret agents, implicated H
: in the bombing, were imprisoned.
| France paid $6.5 million to

: New Zealand as compensation

: and for returning its agents to

: French jurisdiction.

Payment in
. Canterbury, traveled to Lebanon, return for triggered by fears about the weak
: in January, to seek the release of agents dollar and the US trade deficit. It

: France paid New Zealand $6.5 million
| to return its agents. It also paid $8.5

: million to Greenpeace for the sinking
: of its ship, Rainbow Warrior.

On March 20, the drug
azidothymidine (AZT) was

: approved by the US Food and

Drug Administration. It was the

first antiretroviral drug made

| specifically to combat HIV/AIDS.
| While AZT could not cure AIDS, it
: proved that the disease could be
= managed, and that HIV was not
| adeath sentence.

On October 19, the Dow-Jones

» average in the US declined by

| 22.6 percent—the largest

Stock Exchange saw £50 billion

: wiped off its share values.

Negotiating freedom

Terry Waite became a familiar figure
in Lebanon. As a church envoy, he
made many missions to negotiate
the release of hostages held by
Islamic militant organizations.

: Stock markets around the globe

: condemned the Brezhnev doctrine

: implied that the Eastern Bloc

» based nuclear arsenal. Known as

: Forces (INF) Treaty, its aim was
: to reverse the nuclear arms race

also plummeted. The crash was

was aggravated by news of the US

in the Persian Gulf by bombing an
oil rig. “Black Monday,” as it

British-Soviet ties. During
the talks, Mikhail Gorbachev
(b. 1931), the Soviet premier,

and called the “Iron Curtain”
archaic, suggesting more liberal
policies toward Eastern Europe.
The next month, Gorbachev visited
Prague, Czechoslovakia, and

countries could be independent.
In December, the leaders of the

USSR and US signed atreaty to

reduce the size of their ground-

the Intermediate-range Nuclear

by destroying all medium- and
short-range nuclear weapons in
Europe, capable of hitting targets
at ranges of 300-3,000 miles
(500-5,500 km). This was the first
time the superpowers had agreed
to reduce their massive nuclear
arsenals.

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44 READ MY LIPS: NO

THREE MEMBERS OF THE IRISH
REPUBLICAN ARMY [IRA) were shot
dead by the Secret Air Service
(SAS) in Gibraltar, on 6 March. The
IRA was planning to detonate a
bomb during a “change of guard”
ceremony in the British territory.
The event was to be attended by
the 1st Battalion Royal Anglian
Regiment, following a tour of
Northern Ireland. The incident led
to a wave of violence in Belfast.
This year saw the first
documented use of chemical
weapons in the Iran-Irag war, when
lraq dropped bombs containing
mustard gas and nerve agents
on the Kurdish city of Halabja in
Iraq, in March. Between 3,000 and
5,000 civilians died, and many
more suffered long-term health
problems. The massacre is known
as “Bloody Friday” (see 2010).
On 8 August, a UN-arranged
ceasefire ended the Iran-Iraq
war (see 1980). Lasting eight
years, the war resulted in more
than 1 million casualties.
Throughout 1988, Palestinian
Arabs of the Gaza Strip and West
Bank continued a mass uprising
against Israeli occupation of
Palestinian territories. Known
as “intifada”, it took the form of
general strikes, boycott of Israeli
products, demonstrations, and
use of petrol bombs. On
14 November, the Palestine

Horsehead nebula

The resumption of shuttle flights,

in 1968, meant that NASA's Hubble
Space Telescope programme was
back on track. Hubble would produce
stunning images of the universe.

NEW TAXES. 99

George Bush, accepting the Republican presidential nomination
in New Orleans, August 18, 1988

Liberation Organization (PLO)
accepted the “two-state
solution” (see 1947], officially
recognizing Israel's right to exist.

On 2 December, Benazir Bhutto
(see panel, below) was sworn in
as Pakistan’s first female prime
minister. At 35, she also became
the youngest leader of a world
nation (see 2007).

Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika
(economic and political reforms),
and glasnost [open debate], played
a key role in ending the Cold War
(see 1948). In a dramatic speech to

the UN, on 7 December, Gorbachev =

announced unilateral arms and
troop reductions, and withdrawal
of forces from Eastern Europe.

On 21 December, Pan Am flight
103 crashed at Lockerbie,
Scotland, killing all 259 passengers
and crew, and 11 on the ground.
Evidence of a bomb instigated a
huge investigation. Two Libyan
intelligence agents were linked to
the bombing, although it took over
11 years to bring them to trial.

George Bush (b.1924) became
H the first US vice president since
1836 to win the presidential
election. On 8 November, he
claimed a comfortable victory over
© democrat Michael Dukakis.
South Africa's border war with
Namibia and Angola had been
ongoing since 1966. South Africa
was under intense pressure from
the international community to
grant Namibia independence.
They agreed to do this, but only if
Cuba removed its troops from
Angola. Initially the UN rejected
this proposal, but on 22 December
the participants met in New York
where a bilateral agreement was
signed by Cuba and Angola, anda
tripartite accord, by Angola,
Cuba, and South Africa.
In April, Stephen Hawking
* (b.1942) published A Brief History
of Time, a story of the Universe
from the “Big Bang”. The most
popular science book ever, it was
translated into 40 languages and
sold more than 10 million copies.

BENAZIR BHUTTO (1953-2007)

Benazir Bhutto set up the
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP] in
London after her father, Zulfikar
Ali Bhutto, was assassinated in
1979. She returned to Pakistan
in 1986 and served as prime
minister from 1988-90 and
1993-96. Benazir was exiled in
1999 on corruption charges,
but returned in 2007 for fresh
elections. Two months later,
she was assassinated in a
suicide attack.

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Thousands gather during the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia, a bloodless uprising
that saw the overthrow of the communist government on December 29.

IN SOUTH AFRICA, F.W. DE KLERK
(B. 1936) WAS ELECTED LEADER of
the National Party on February 2.

The party had governed the country :

since 1948 on the principle of
apartheid. However, De Klerk
was more willing than his
predecessors to modernize the

political system. On August 15, the :

incumbent president, P.W. Botha
(1916-2006) suffered a stroke and
De Klerk took over. Klerk began
releasing prominent black
leaders who had been imprisoned,
including Walter Sisulu, a close

friend of Nelson Mandela (b. 1918),

one of the the leaders of the
African National Congress (ANC).
On February 14, Ayatollah
Khomeini (1902-89), the spiritual
leader of Iran, issued a fatwa, or
decree, calling for the death of
author Salman Rushdie [b. 1947]
and the publishers of his book,
The Satanic Verses. The book was
considered to be a blasphemy
against Islam. Rushdie was
forced into hiding, under armed

guard, to protect his life (see 1998). |

Later in the year, on June 3,
Khomeini died in Tehran. His
death was mourned by millions.
Eight people were killed in the
stampede and hundreds more
injured while approaching the
body to pay obeisance. The
incumbent president, Ali Khamenei
became Supreme Leader of Iran.

Vietnam promised to withdraw
its troops from Cambodia by the
end of September, a decade after
invading the country [see 1979).

In a declaration made on April 5,
Vietnam also urged the world to
ensure that the Cambodian civil

would never be allowed to return
to power again.

In China, a demonstration held
in Tiananmen Square, Beijing,

» ended in bloodshed on June 4,

after civilians were killed by the
People’s Liberation Army. Tanks
were lined up in the streets

: students, who had been stationed
| there for seven weeks. The

= crowds, which swelled to more

than 100,000, called for economic

Almost a decade after they had

: February. They left the economy
: in ruins. Many Afghans had fled,

Making a stand
: The figure of a lone man in front of
: army tanks in Tiananmen Square,
) China, became a poignant symbol
) of the protests.

: and civil war continued as the

: Mujahideen [Persian for “warriors")
: pushed to overthrow President

| Najibullah’s Soviet-backed

On April 17, Solidarity, Poland's

» free trade union movement, was
: legalized after a ban of seven

: years. It grew into a political

i movement, and in elections held

on June 5, Solidarity won

§ an overwhelming majority. After

: stormed the country, Soviettroops ;
: withdrew from Afghanistan in

45 years, communist rule in

: Poland ended. Solidarity formed
: anew noncommunist government
: in the former Eastern Bloc. On

Tiananmen Square massacre
The Chinese Army shot dead nearly
3,000 of the 100,000 demonstrators
who protested in Tiananmen
Square in Beijing.

September 12, Tadeusz Mazowiecki
became prime minister.
By the start of 1989, communist

for 45 years. By the end of the
year they had all been routed by
extraordinary public uprisings.

Following the election of Solidarity °
in Poland, Hungary's rulers
published a plan for independence.
A coup in Bulgaria brought down
party leader Todor Zhivkov, On

: November 28, the Czechoslovak

communist regime surrendered

: to the people. A month later,

: Vaclav Havel became President

» the nonviolent Velvet Revolution.
= In Romania, the incumbent

: president, Nicolae Ceausescu

: was removed from office and shot
: in December.

3,000 killed |
: German Democratic Republic,

: entered 1989 confident that the

: Teforms in neighboring countries
» would not affect his country, but

Erich Honecker, leader of the

electric fence along the Austrian

» frontier, part of the Iron Curtain—
| the heavily guarded border
regimes had ruled Eastern Europe ~
' Eastern Bloc and the rest of

: Europe. By September, when the
: border controls were lifted,

between the countries of the

60,000 East Germans were in

Hungary waiting to pour through
i to the West. On October 2, ahuge
' protest calling for reform

gathered in Leipzig, and decided

Espionage epitomized the Cold
War. Intelligence gathered by
electronic devices, satellites,
and spies was used for military

information and technology. The

US Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA), the Soviet KGB, and East
German secret police, or Stasi

(see badge, right], spent decades

spying on the enemy and
undermining rivals through
covert action.

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44 WE HAVE BEEN TOO LONG
IN DARKNESS. ONCE ALREADY
WE HAVE BEEN IN THE LIGHT,
AND WE WANT IT AGAIN. 99

Alexander Dubcek, Czechoslovakian leader, 1989

Huge crowds demonstrate for the end of communist rule in Hungary. The Republic
of Hungary was proclaimed on October 23, marking a new era in Europe.

to keep meeting every Monday
until their demands were met.
On October 9, the army refused to
fire on the crowds. Honecker was
ousted from office on October 18.

low-gain
antenna __a

After the fall of Honecker’s radioisotope _/
regime, the leader of the East thermoelectric
Berlin communist party, Gunter generator (RTC)

Schabowski, announced on
November 9 that the border with
West Berlin would be opened
for “private trips abroad.” That
night, 50,000 East Berliners
rushed to the Berlin Wall (see
1961). The guards let them
pass. The crowds were
met by ecstatic West
Berliners on the other side. ff
jupiter

The next morning, they started atmospheric ‘
bringing the wall down. probe high-gain

On December 3, the US and the antenna
USSR met in Malta and declared
the end of the Cold War. At a joint | ethnic tension between Serbs

Galileo space probe
Named after astronomer Galilei

news conference held on board and Albanians for control of the Galileo, the probe travelled a
the Soviet cruise ship, Maxim province. Serbs argued that they distance of more than 4.5 billion
Gorky, President George Bush were being persecuted by the km [nearly 3 billion miles),
(b. 1924] and President Mikhail majority Albanians. When circling Jupiter 34 times.
Gorbachev (b. 1931] announced Slobodan Milosevic became
plans for substantial reductions president of Serbia on May 8, he Jones industrial average, a stock
in weapons in Europe. Praised used this alleged persecution asa © market index, in history, and
by those outside the USSR, justification for stripping Kosovo became known as the “Friday-
internally it placed Gorbachev's of its autonomy and became a the-13th mini-crash.”
position as Soviet leader at risk champion of Serbian nationalism. The US launched Galileo, an
(see pp.442-43). On December 20, US troops unmanned probe to Jupiter and
Kosovo, an autonomous invaded Panama in a bid to oust its moons, aboard the space
province of Serbia, had been dictator Manuel Noriega. Over 200 : shuttle Atlantis on October 18.
clamoring for independence civilians died in the fighting. At a cost of $1.5 billion, Galileo
since the death of Josip Tito Anew government, headed by reached its final destination in
(see 1980). There was increasing Guillermo Endara, was installed. 1994 after taking detailed images
In New York, Wall Street of Venus and the asteroid belt
The Wall falls suffered a crash on Friday on the way.
An East German border guard peers October, ee a failed buyout of
through a hole in the Berlin Wall, United Airlines caused share
brought down in 1989, a potent values to plummet. It was the
symbol of the end of communism. second largest drop of the Dow
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44 | GREET YO
INTHE NAME
OF PEACE,

DEMOCRACY,

AND FREEDOM. 99

Nelson Mandela, ANC leader

THE 30-YEAR BAN ON THE AFRICAN :
: president of Nicaragua.

NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC)

in South Africa was lifted by
President De Klerk on February 2.
This started the long process

of dismantling the apartheid
system. In sweeping reforms,

De Klerk also announced that the

" leader Saddam Hussein (1937-

: become apart of Iraq. World

: leaders condemned the invasion.

: Soon after, allied forces led by the

| USwere sent to the Gulf (see 1991). °

Party and the Pan-Africanist
Congress would be allowed to
resume legal political activities.

Nine days later, Nelson Mandela
(b. 1918], the leader of the ANC,
walked free after spending 27
years injail.

Neighboring Namibia became
the 47th African country to gain
independence after 25 years of
struggle against South African
rule. Sam Nujoma was elected as
the first president in March.

In Central America, free
elections were held in Nicaragua
on February 25. National
Opposition Union, a coalition of
political parties backed by US
funding, defeated the left-wing
Sandinistas. Violeta Chamorro

Nelson Mandela and his wife Winnie pu!

inch the air in a victory salute after

his release from Victor Verster prison. He was held in captivity for 27 years.

(b. 1929] became the first female

In the Persian Gulf, Iraq

| invaded Kuwait on August 2. The
: invasion was preceded by border
i disputes between the two

: countries, and Iraq's inability to

: repay money borrowed from

Kuwait during the Iraq-lran War

On August 23, Saddam Hussein

: appeared on television with

: Western hostages, mostly of

: British origin, captured in Iraq. He
» denied accusations that he was

' using these hostages as “human

: shields” against a potential US-led
: coalition attack.

Farther north, Soviet troops were :

: ordered into Baku, Azerbaijan, on
i the evening of January 19 to put

: down a separatist movement by

: Azerbaijani nationalists. The

LECH WALESA (1943-]

One of the founding members
of Poland’s Solidarity trade
union movement, Lech
Walesa was awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1983.
In 1990, he became Poland's
first post-communist
president. He failed to gain a
second term in office, as he
had alienated voters with his
erratic leadership style.

next day, thousands of Azerbaijanis

: set fire to their Communist Party

Warbah : membership cards.
‘Abdalien SV IRAN i B .
\ Germany was reunited on
IRAQ : October 3, nearly a year after the
Bubiyan : fall of the Berlin Wall [see 1989).
Ae Persian War zone © Helmut Kohl [b. 1930) was elected
KUWAIT Gulf Kuwait, a small : as the first chancellor of the
nes kuwait cr oil-rich Arab nation, ___reunified nation.
Ash ishinveyer ele was annexed by On December 1, the Channel
neighboring Iraq. : Tunnel, the world's longest
Mina’ al Abmaci_ ~The seven-month- | undersea railroad tunnel linkin
ASN SUSYEEMS ina ‘Abd Allah long occupation Leite aa q
oe Britain with France, came a
ended after military aaa ti letion. Th
SAUDI Tt» intervention by US-led | St€P Closer to completion. the
ARABIA Saison forces in Operation | construction workers drilled
Qasr Desert Storm, a i through the final section of rock to
largely air offensive. _: join the two halves of the tunnel.
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448 . <

Aman tries to put out a fire at an oil well in Burhan, Kuwait. Iraqi troops had
set alight more than 600 oil fields during their occupation of the country.

ON JANUARY 13, SOVIET TROOPS
STORMED INTO LITHUANIA to
suppress dissident nationalists. In
the crackdown, 14 people were
killed and more than 500 injured.

a TV station after a broadcast
called for people to defend
government buildings from the
Soviet troops.

On June 13, Boris Yeltsin
(1931-2007) became the first
popularly elected president of
Russia, inflicting a heavy defeat on
the Communist Party. The win gave
him a power base to challenge the
incumbent leader of the Soviet

Union, Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931].
: declared independence in June.

A military coup attempted to
remove Gorbachev from power

when he was on holiday in August. :

Yeltsin organized a resistance and
the coup collapsed on August 21.
Subsequently, Yeltsin ordered the

= N
cs 3

MILITARY LOSSES (IN THOUSANDS)
S

8.
4
0

Iraq Coalition

forces

Iraq-Kuwait war casualties
The superiority of coalition forces
is starkly illustrated by the
disproportionately heavy losses
inflicted on the Iraqi military.

Communist Party of the Soviet

i Union to end its rule in Russia.

The USSR disintegrated into

» 15 separate countries as the

: world looked on in amazement.
Protestors had gathered to protect =
: of the Soviet Union's 15 republics,
: Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus,

: met to disband the Soviet Union

On December 8, heads of three

and form a new union, the

» Commonwealth of Independent

: States. On December 21, eight

: others joined it. After four days,

: Mikhail Gorbachev announced he

: was resigning as Soviet president;
| the USSRwas no more.

Yugoslavia was also breaking
up—Slovenia and Croatia

Serban president Slobodan
Milosevic sent troops to both
regions to stop them from

seceding. The city of Vukovar in

eastern Croatia was devastated
after a three-month siege by

| Serbs, which ended in November.

In Northern Ireland, the main

i political parties held an historic

meeting on June 18 to discuss

there was an overwhelming public

| desire to end bloodshed

Peace talks were also held on

30. It was the first time in over

Elsewhere, the United Nations

_ (UN) issued an ultimatum to
| Saddam Hussein to withdraw Iraqi
: troops from Kuwait by January 15

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ro

Residents of Sarajevo, Bosnia, duck sniper shots at a peace march during
the Bosnian War as radical Serbs open fire on them.

AUSTRIA
HUNGARY

Ljubljana

SLOVENIA 7agreb

CROATIA ROMANIA

Vojvodina
@ Novi Sad

.
Belgrade

BOSNIA AND

HERZEGOVINA

Sarajevo®

SERBIA

MONTENEGRO
Pristina BULGARIA

Kosovo

.
Titograd
eskopje

ITALY MACEDONIA

ALBANIA GREECE

KEY
New Countries

The division of Yugoslavia

After 72 years, Yugoslavia disappeared from the
map of Europe after war and political upheaval
led to the formation of six independent countries.

(see 1990). He refused to comply,
and on January 17, the US and
coalition forces launched
“Operation Desert Storm,” also
known as the First Gulf War
(1990-91). Kuwait was liberated
after five weeks.

The First Gulf War left Saddam
Hussein vulnerable in Iraq. There
were antigovernment uprisings
by Shi'ite Muslims in the south of
the country and by Kurds in the
north. During March and April,
thousands of people were killed
as Saddam crushed the revolts.

In India, Rajiv Gandhi (b. 1944),
the former prime minister, was
assassinated on May 21. He was

killed by a bomb in the town of
Sriperumbudur while campaigning
with his party for the forthcoming
elections. A female suicide
bomber from Liberation Tigers

of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a guerilla
group in Sri Lanka also known as

On August 8, John McCarthy, a
British journalist held hostage by
an Islamic extremist group in
Lebanon, was released after five
years in captivity [see 1986). Later
in the year, fellow British hostage

: Terry Waite, and Americans Terry
: Anderson and Tom Sutherland

were also freed.

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THE IDEA OF A UNITED EUROPE
CAME CLOSER TO REALIZATION
when leaders of 12 European
countries signed the treaty on
European Union and the
Maastricht Final Act on
February 7. It heralded common
citizenship, and common
economic and defence policies.
The break up of Yugoslavia
continued as Bosnia and
Herzegovina declared
independence on March 3, Serbs
living in Bosnia, however, resisted
the move. War broke out and the

: Salvation Front, a fundamentalist
: party, whom many believed was

THE NUMBER
OF BOSNIANS
AND CROATS
HELD IN
OMARSKA
DEATH CAMP

Yugoslav army under Slobodan
Milosevic attacked the Muslim
population of Bosnia. The capital,
Sarajevo, came under siege from
Bosnian Serbs. Supplies became
short and people struggled for
survival (see 1996).

In August, footage of Serbian
prison camps, showing starving
men behind barbed-wire fences,
sparked outrage around the world.

United Nations Peacekeeping
emerged out of World War II
as a way to place military
personnel between warring
countries or communities to
stop fighting. UN forces were
first used as an observer to
monitor the armistice
between Israel and the Arab
states in 1948. Its role has
grown substantially since
then: supervising elections,
checking human rights,
clearing land mines, and
intervening in failed states.
By 1992, UN Peacekeeping
forces had made 26
interventions worldwide.

The camps, mostly in Bosnia, were
part of Serbia's “ethnic cleansing
policy” that called for the removal
of other ethnic groups from
Serb-dominated communities.

On December 20, Slobodan
Milosevic was reelected as
Serbian president. Prime minister
Milan Panic called for fresh
elections, citing fraud. After nine
days, Panic lost a parliamentary
vote of no confidence.

Algerian president Mohammed
Boudiaf was assassinated on
June 29 at a rally in Annaba.
Boudiaf had been instrumental in
the Algerian uprising against
France (see 1958). He had recently ©
returned from exile to help the

responsible for the assassination.
US Marines waded onto the
shores of Somalia on December 9.
Somalia was stricken by famine,
but extortion and looting prevented

: foreign aid from getting through.
| The US-led operation aimed to

hold Mogadishu’s airport to
enable supplies to be airlifted to
starving locals.

The Los Angeles police
department was accused of

racism and excessive force after
: a video of four policemen savagely

beating a black man, Rodney
King, was broadcast in 1991. The

triggering race riots on April 29,
which led to 55 casualties.
On November 4, Democrat

George Bush [b. 1924) in the
US presidential elections.
Clinton promised to Lift the

: US out of economic stagnation.

43%
BILL CLINTON

: Clinton's victory

Bill Clinton became the 42nd
president of the US by beating
opponents Ross Perot and

government combat the Islamic = George Bush.
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Prague, famed for its architecturally diverse castle district shown above, became the capital
of the newly formed Czech Republic. The castle is the official seat of the Czech head of state.

THE SINGLE MARKET CAME INTO
FORCE across European Union
(EU) countries in January. It gave
greater freedom to citizens of
member states to live and work in
other EU countries and paved the

way for a single currency, the Euro.

On January 1, Czechoslovakia
was split into Slovakia and the
Czech Republic, dissolving the
74-year-old federation. The
creation of the Czech Republic,
with its capital in Prague, and
Slovakia, with its capital in
Bratislava, became known as the
“Velvet Divorce” following the
Velvet Revolution (see 1989).

Russian president Boris Yeltsin
(1931-2007) faced mounting

: opposition to his “shock therapy”

program of reforms, which he had
initiated in 1992. The measures

_ towards a market-driven model,

: but they were widely regarded as

: being capitalist and “Western.”

The Russian parliament tried to

: impeach Yeltsin, who responded
: with a decree dissolving the
: parliament on September 21.

Under increasing pressure from

vacate the parliament building.

A series of bomb blasts rocked
© India’s financial capital Mumbai
(formerly Bombay] on March 12,
» killing 257 people and injuring 713
: others. They were carried out by
an underworld crime syndicate.
The Irish Republican Army
(IRA) exploded a massive bomb in
: the City of London, the economic
© heart of the English capital, on 24
? April. This came a month after an
» IRA blast in Warrington, which
killed two children. Later in the
year, on December 15, the leaders
of Northern Ireland and Britain
: signed a peace declaration, aiming
to end violence in the province.
» Moves toward peace were also
: underway between Israel and the

437

WOUNDED

Coup casualties

Russian president Boris Yeltsin
seized absolute authority by storming
the parliament in Moscow, ending a
rebellion by hardline opponents.

Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO). They signed the Oslo
Accords in Washington, DC in
the presence of the US president
Bill Clinton in September. Aimed
at mutual recognition, the
accords were preceded by secret
talks between the two parties,
encouraged by the Norwegian
government.

On April 19, a siege at the
headquarters of a US religious
sect, the Branch Davidian, near
Waco, Texas killed at least 70
people, including its leader, David
Koresh, when it ended ina fire.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) had surrounded the building
since February, when four agents
with the Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, and Firearms [ATF] were
killed while trying to arrest Koresh
for illegally possessing firearms.

Mostar Bridge

A 16th-century bridge spanned the
Neretva River for 427 years before it
was destroyed during the fighting
between Croats and Muslims.

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Refugees flee the civil war in Rwanda

+t
and head for refugee camps in Zaire.

IN SOUTH AFRICA, ZULUS AND
AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
(ANC) supporters clashed on
March 28—more than 18 people
were killed. The Zulus were
responding to calls by their
leaders to boycott the forthcoming
national elections. The elections
went ahead, and on May 10,
Nelson Mandela became South
Africa's first black president
after more than three centuries of
white rule. His party, the ANC (see
panel, opposite], won 252 of the
400 seats in the first democratic
elections in South Africa's history.

Elsewhere in Africa, the
president of Rwanda, Juvenal
Habyarimana (b.1937), a Hutu,
was killed when his plane was
shot down above Kigali airport
on April 6. The incident catalyzed
a mass genocide. Between April
and June, about 800,000
Rwandans were killed, most
of them Tutsis killed by Hutus.

On July 1, PLO chairman Yasser
Arafat (1929-2004) returned to
the Gaza Strip after 27 years in
exile. It marked the start of the
enactment of the Declaration
of Principles agreed at the Oslo
Accords, signed in Washington,
DC the previous year (see 1993).

Israel and Jordan signed a
historic peace deal on October 26,
ending 46 years of war. US
president Bill Clinton witnessed
the treaty between Israeli prime
minister Yitzhak Rabin (1922-95)
and King Hussein at a ceremony
in Wadi Araba, on the Israel-
Jordan border.

On August 31, the IRA declared
aceasefire after 25 years of

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armed struggle against British
rule in Northern Ireland. The
ceasefire indicated the IRA's
willingness to enter into peace
talks on the political future of the

province. The Irish prime minister, |

Albert Reynolds, asked loyalist
paramilitaries to toe the
same line. However, loyalists
were suspicious of this
declaration and feared that
Northern Ireland's position in
Great Britain would be threatened,
but in the end, on October 13, they
announced their own ceasefire.
War continued in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and on February 5,
a marketplace in downtown
Sarajevo was devastated by a
mortar bomb, killing 68 people
and injuring a further 200. The
international community
condemned the atrocity, which

Brazil's Samba Boys

Marcio Santos of Brazil holds the
FIFA World Cup trophy to celebrate
victory. Brazil, known as the Samba
Boys, beat Italy in the final.

Eurostar’s maiden run

: The high-speed rail service, Eurostar,

which travels through the Channel

: Tunnel, linking England and France,

made its maiden voyage in 1994.

was believed to have been carried
out by Serbians.

On December 11, Russian
president Boris Yeltsin ordered
troops into the rebel region of
Chechnya to prevent it from
breaking away from the country.
This Muslim-dominated region

had declared its independence

from Moscow three years before
under the leadership of General
Dzhokhar Dudayev.

On September 19, the US led
an invasion force in Haiti to
bring the military junta to an end

» and restore democracy under
: President Aristide, exiled three

years earlier. No shots were fired.
On May 6, Queen Elizabeth

: of Britain and President Francois

Mitterand [1916-96] of France

: formally opened the Channel

Tunnel. Linking England and
France, the tunnel took eight

: years to build.

MS Estonia, a car and passenger
ferry, sank in the Baltic Sea on

: September 28—852 passengers

died, half of whom were Swedes.

An investigation into the accident
found that stormy weather, poor
maintenance, and high speed
contributed to the disaster.
Millions watched in horror as
the Formula One racing champion,
Ayrton Senna, plowed off the
track at the San Marino Grand
Prix on May 1, in a fatal crash.
Astate funeral was held in his
home city of Sao Paulo. Senna
was a national hero in Brazil and
had given millions to help the
country’s underprivileged children.

Founded in 1912 with the aim

of increasing the rights of
black South Africans, the
African National Congress
(ANC) came to power in
1994, when Nelson Mandela
was elected president of
South Africa. The ANC still
enjoys majority support, but
is troubled by internal power
struggles between Thabo
Mbeki and Jacob Zuma, the
twa successors of Mandela,
and the challenges of poverty
and AIDS.

44... THE GREATEST
FAILURE OF THE WEST
SINCE THE 1930s. 99

Richard Holbrooke, US Assistant Secretary of State,

on the Bosnian crisis

THE CITY OF KOBE IN JAPAN WAS
DEVASTATED BY AN EARTHQUAKE
on January 17. Measuring 7.2 on
the Richter scale, it resulted in
hundreds of deaths and over
13,000 injuries.

Barings, a British investment
bank, was declared bankrupt
after an employee, Nick Leeson,
risked huge amounts of money on
the Nikkei, the Japanese stock
market index. The index collapsed
after the Kobe earthquake.

On March 20, Turkey launched
a major military offensive,
involving 35,000 troops, against
the Kurds in northern Iraq. This
was an attempt to pursue rebel
Turkish Kurds who had fled into
the region and prevent them from
setting up permanent bases
there. The Kurds had been
engaged in an armed struggle for
a separate homeland since 1984
and had grievances over the lack
of rights for Kurds within Turkey.

315 cases

The Ebola scare

An outbreak of Ebola occurred in
1995 in Zaire. Of the 315 cases
identified, 254 died, giving a fatality
rate of 81 percent.

Oklahoma bombing
: Amassive truck bomb exploded in
: front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
: Building in Oklahoma City on April 19.
: [twas felt 30 miles (48km) away.

: Party (PKK) responsible for more
: than 30,000 deaths over the

i course of the conflict. Repeated

: military operations by Turkey

i against the PKK have not proved

: effective and the conflict continues.

A powerful bomb exploded

was convicted of the attack. The

: bombing was in reaction to the
= government's handling of the
Waco siege (see 1993).

Srebrenica, a Muslim enclave

: and UN-designated safe haven,
| Was overrun by Bosnian Serbs
: on July 10 and “ethnically

: cleansed.”

In December, the
leaders of Bosnia, Serbia, and

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es 451

1914-2011

1957 The Treaty of Rome is
signed, establishing the

| TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

1973 The Treaty of Accession:
Denmark, Ireland, and the

1981 Greece becomes the 10th
member of the EU. It had applied

1986 Spain and Portugal join
the EU. The Single European Act

1995 Austria, Finland
Sweden join the EU, bringing

membership of the EU up to
15 countries.

United Kingdom join the EU,
giving nine member states.

to join in 1975, after the
restoration of its democracy.

is signed in 1987, aiming to
create a single market.

European Economic Community
(EEC), with six members.

Ireland
GDP: $172.3 billion
Population: 4,670,976

Europe emerged from World War II impoverished, war weary, and politically
unstable. Born of a desire for peace and unity that would make another
European war unthinkable, in 1957 six European countries joined in economic
union. Since then, the European Union has grown substantially.

THE NUMBER
OF COUNTRIES
WITH THE
EURO AS THEIR
OFFICIAL
CURRENCY

work, travel, and do business with other member
states, and the EU has become the largest economy in
the world. Supporters of enlargement of the EU
highlight this, and the benefits of political stability.
Critics worry about immigration issues, the economic
burden of supporting poorer countries, and the huge
bureaucracy needed to run the organization.

The modern age of the European Union (EU) began in
1987 with the Single European Act, an attempt to unify
Europe further and create a “single market” for trade.
The EU works toward increased cooperation in areas
such as the environment, transportation, and
employment. European citizenship and the introduction
of the euro, a common currency, have made it easier to

EU
population

J City living
- The EU has a mainly
oO urban population,

Portugal
GDP: $247 billion

Population: 10,760,305.

Population comparison
The population of the EU is
the world's third largest,
after China and India.

People of Europe
The EU has over half

a billion people, which
is 7.3 percent of the
world's population.
Itis less than half the
size of the US, but

its population is over

50 percent larger. 92 7%

World
population

with 75 percent living in cities rather
than in the countryside. By contrast,
only around 45 percent of Africa's
population lives in cities.

INDIA

1,210,000,000

44 EUROPE IS THE FORCE THAT PREVENTS HATE

FROM BEING ETERNAL. WE MUST OPEN OUR
HEARTS TO THIS NEW EUROPE. 99

Jean-Pierre Raffarin, French prime minister, 2004

501,000,000

2007 The Lisbon Reform
Treaty is signed. Bulgaria
and Romania join the

EU, bringing the total
membership up to 27.
The Treaty aimed to make
the EU more democratic
and better able to tackle
important issues. such

as security and climate
change, jointly.

2004 On May |, the EU takes in
10 new members, most of them
former communist countries, in
its biggest enlargement.

Sweden
GDP: $354 billion
Population: _«,
9,088,728 ~~

LE) az
Denmark :

GDP: $201.4 billion

Population: 5,529,888

—o)
=)
Netherlands

GDP: $680.4 billion
Population: 16,847,007

Germany Poland
GDP: $2.96 trillion

Population: 81,471,834

Luxembourg
GDP: $40.81 billion
Population: 503,302

Belgium
GDP: $396.9 billion
Population: 10,431,477

France
GDP: $2.16 trillion
Population: 65,102,719

Austria
GDP: $332.6 billion
Population: 8,217,280

Spain
GDP: $1.36 trillion
Population: 46,754,784

GDP: $725.2 billion
Population: 38,441,588

100

Finland

bey

—

Hungary
GDP: $190 billion
Population: 9,976,062

Slovenia
GDP: $56.81 billion
Population: 2,000,092

GDP: $187.6 billion
Population: 5,259,250

[ Latvia
jammed GDP: $32.2 billion

—=

European parliament

The European Parliament is the
only part of the EU that is directly
elected by the citizens of its
member states. It manages the
budget and drafts legislation.

It has 736 seats, which are divided
between member states in
proportion to their population.
NUMBER OF SEATS

80 60 40 20 0

Germany
France

Italy

United Kingdom
Poland

Spain

Romania
Netherlands
Belgium
Greece
Hungary

Czech Republic
Portugal
Sweden

— Estonia
GDP: $24.65 billion

Population: 1,282,963

Austria
Bulgaria
Luxembourg
Slovakia

Population: 2,204,708

Denmark
Ireland
Lithuania
Latvia
Slovenia
Finland
Estonia
Cyprus
Malta

Lithuania
GDP: $56.22 billion
Population: 3,535,547

Czech Republic
GDP: $262.8 billion
Population: 10,190,213

Slovakia
GDP: $121.3 billion
Population: 5,477,038

Romania
GDP: $253.3 billion
Population: 21,904,551

com

Bulgaria
GDP: $92.21 billion
Population: 7,093.635

453

$1,835,300,000

THE GROSS REVENUE EARNED AT THE
BOX OFFICE BY THE FILM TITANIC

Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult animal's
DNA, in her pen at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.

CHECHNYAN REBEL LEADER
Salman Raduyev was shot on
March 6 and reported dead (he
had in fact disappeared abroad
for medical treatment). A
ceasefire was signed between
Russia and Chechnya (see 1994]
on August 31.

Romanian elections were won
by the Romanian Democratic
Convention, bringing 48 years
of communist rule to an end.

Civil war began in Afghanistan,
when Taliban rebels seized Kabul
on September 27, forcing
hundreds to flee the war-torn city.

The Kurdish civil war continued,
and Iraq seized a city inside the
Kurdish “safe haven” protected by

THE NUMBER
OF MONTHS
THE IRA
CEASEFIRE
LASTED

US-led troops on August 31. In
response, America launched
Operation Desert Strike,
firing missiles at Iraqi
military targets.

The IRA [Irish Republican
Army) exploded a bomb in
the Docklands area of East
London on February 10, ending
a 17-month ceasefire (see 1994),
which had tried to enable both

1,353 __—/

if
i
900 _/

Ireland

France

183,841
UK

: BSE cases
: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy,
: or “mad-cow disease’, caused a

major health scare in Europe. Most

: cases of BSE occurred in the UK.

- sides to find a solution to Northern
: Ireland's political problems.

US president Bill Clinton
won another term in office on

: November 6. When Clinton

_ reshuffled his cabinet on

' December 12, Madeleine

: Albright became the first female
: American Secretary of State.

Science fact met science

| fiction when Dolly, a sheep, was

born on July 5 in Edinburgh,

» Scotland. Dolly was the first
: mammal to be cloned from
: anadult cell.

: The online auction site eBay boomed

VIOLENCE IN ZAIRE ESCALATED in
February, intensifying the misery
of Rwandan-Hutu refugees who
had fled there to escape the civil
war in Rwanda. In April, rebel
soldiers, mainly Tutsis, sealed off
camps in eastern Zaire, where
refugees were trapped in
appalling conditions. Thousands
were massacred. The government
of Zaire collapsed on April 3, and
Etienne Tshisekedi (b. 1932]
became prime minister of the new
government. As the violence
escalated 56,000 Zaireans fled
into Tanzania.

Albania was consumed by
anarchy during March and April,
as law and order collapsed. When

Guggenheim museum

This museum in Bilbao, Spain,
designed by US architect Frank
Gehry, was opened on October 18.

government insurgents began
nearing the capital Tirana, those
loyal to President Sali Berisha
armed civilians in Tirana,
opening up stores of guns and
ammunition. The result was
chaos, and foreign nationals were
urged to leave.

Hong Kong was handed back to
the Chinese authorities on July 1
after 150 years of British rule. The

: new chief executive, Tung Chee
Hwa, formulated a policy based
on “one country, two systems,” to
preserve Hong Kong's role as a
capitalist center in Asia.

Diana, Princess of Wales,
died in acar crash on August 31
ina Paris underpass. The news
of her death was greeted with
unprecedented scenes of
mourning around the world.

Iraq refused to allow UN
weapons inspectors entry in

October. The inspectors had been

: sentin the aftermath of the 1991

| Gulf War with a remit to destroy
Iraq's nuclear, biological, and

chemical weapons arsenal. This
action provoked a diplomatic

In Japan, the Kyoto Protocol

was signed on December 11. It
committed industrialized nations
to reducing emissions of
greenhouse gases, principally
carbon dioxide, in an attempt to

» combat global warming.

The film Titanic, about the

ill-fated voyage of the famous

: passenger liner that sank in 1912,

: was premiered in December. At the

» time, it was the most expensive

: film ever made, but also the

i most successful, grossing over

| ry

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Bill Clinton hugs White House intern Monica Lewinsky the day after his reelection
in 1996. The image was later said to be evidence of their relationship.

IN JANUARY, US PRESIDENT BILL
CLINTON became the center of a
scandal involving his relationship
with a former White House intern,
Monica Lewinsky. Clinton was
already implicated in a sexual
harassment case and was being
investigated by independent
counsel Kenneth Starr. The
president denied the relationship.
In December, he became only the
second president in US history to

6.1

THE MAGNITUDE
OF THE
AFGHANISTAN
EARTHQUAKE

be impeached (Andrew Johnson

in front of a grand jury, but
acquitted the following year.

A devastating earthquake
hit northern Afghanistan on
February 4. It killed an estimated
4,000 people, and left around
30,000 homeless.

The Good Friday Agreement
was signed on April 10. It marked

» amajor breakthrough in the

Northern Ireland peace process.
Areferendum held in Northern
Ireland and the Republic of Ireland
on May 22 was overwhelmingly in

» favour of the accord.

Pol Pot, former Khmer Rouge
ruler of Cambodia (see 1978},

: died on April 15. The Khmer

Rouge had deposed him as
leader and sentenced him to life
imprisonment in 1997.

Eritrean and Ethiopian border
clashes turned into a full-scale war
in May. Both countries, among the
poorest in the world, spent millions
on sophisticated weaponry.

India and Pakistan went

: nuclear this year. India performed :
: underground nuclear explosions

on May 12 near the Pakistani
border; Pakistan responded

: by carrying out its own tests

on May 28.

Japan officially entered a
recession on June 12. It was the
first time its economy had shrunk

: in 12 years. The news caused

global stock markets to slump.
US missiles pounded targets in
Afghanistan and Sudan on

: August 20, in retaliation for the

bombing of US Embassies in

| Tanzania and Kenya earlier in the
was the first, in 1868). Clinton was -
charged with committing perjury

month. America said one target
was a base for Osama Bin Laden,
founder of the Islamic extremist
organization al-Qaeda.

General Pinochet, former
Chilean dictator [see 1973), was
arrested in London on October
16 by police acting on behalf of
Spain, who alleged Pinochet had
committed atrocities against
Spanish citizens. Pinochet was
deemed too ill for extradition and
released in 2000.

On May 1, Saddam Hussein
wrote an open letter to the UN
Security Council threatening “grave
consequences” if sanctions against
Iraq were not lifted. The attempts
by UN weapons inspectors to
verify the weapons arsenal in Iraq
ended on December 16, when the
lragis refused to co-operate. US
and British air strikes on Iraq,
known as Operation Desert Fox,
began hours later.

2.0

0.5

GDP GROWTH (IN PERCENTAGE)

1996

1997 1998 1999

Recession in Japan

Japan's recession was at its worst
in 1998. Itwas caused bya drop in
exports, weak domestic demand,
and a fall in property prices.

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Police confront demonstrators at the WTO conference in Seattle, northwest
US. The protests were against large corporations and globalization.

A SINGLE EUROPEAN CURRENCY,
the Euro, was launched on

January 1. Eleven European Union i

member states decided to adopt
the Euro, which became a full
economic currency in 2002.

The international community
accused President Slobodan
Milosevic of “ethnic cleansing”
when 45 ethnic Albanians were
found dead, apparently executed by
Serbs. Kosovo peace talks ended
without agreement on February 23
and a week later NATO forces
announced they would escalate
their bombardment of
Yugoslavia. The purging of
Albanians by Serbian troops
increased, and half a million
Albanians fled Kosovo. Milosevic
agreed to withdraw his troops on
June 9, in response to unrelenting
NATO bombing.

Thabo Mbeki won the South
African presidential elections
on June 2, succeeding Nelson
Mandela. He faced huge economic
and social challenges, including
the terrible impact of HIV/AIDS.

East Timor, in Southeast Asia,
asked for intervention from
international troops after a
complete breakdown in law and
order in September. This followed
a referendum, which voted for
independence from Indonesia.
Anti-independence Timorese
rebels, supported by the
Indonesian military, killed
an estimated 1,400 Timorese,
and 300,000 people fled to
neighboring West Timor.

Amilitary coup in Pakistan on
October 12 brought to power
General Pervez Musharraf

: Solar eclipse

: A total solar eclipse occurred
: on August 11, 1999. It was

: watched by over 350 million

people in Asia and Europe.

~ (b. 1943), who took the role

of “chief executive.” The
international community

: condemned the coup and many
: nations imposed sanctions

against Pakistan
The World Trade Organization

_ (WTO) held a conference in

i Seattle, US, late in the year, which
: was delayed by protesters

: campaigning for environmental

issues and against globalization.

: Demonstrators clashed with
: police before being dispersed.

NASA lost contact with its Mars
Polar Lander shortly before its
planned entry into the Martian
atmosphere. The failure of the

: mission was blamed ona

software error.
Macau reverted from
Portuguese to Chinese rule on

: December 20, after 442 years of

: Portuguese control. Macau was

: in Asia. Edmond Ho Hau-wah

: (b. 1955), a banker, became leader
: of the new government.

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Atrader despairs at the fall of the Nasdaq Stock Market and the New York Stock Exchange
when the dot-com bubble burst. The Nasdaq never fully recovered.

Vi Ai

IN JANUARY, THE UN WAR CRIMES
TRIBUNAL in The Hague
sentenced five Bosnian Croat
militiamen to 25 years in prison
for a 1993 murder spree that
emptied a Bosnian village of all
its Muslim inhabitants during the
Bosnian War (1992-95).

Opposition supporters from
Serbia stormed the Yugoslav
parliament building in Belgrade
on October 5 using a bulldozer,
proclaiming Vojislav Kostunica
as the new Yugoslav president
after discrepancies in September
elections caused outrage.
President Milosevic announced
his resignation the next day.

In 1991, Denmark and Sweden:
agreed to build a bridge connecting :
the two countries. The 10-mile
(16-km]) long Oresund Link—

Millennium celebrations
Fireworks explode in a spectacular
display over Sydney Harbor Bridge
and Opera House as Australia
welcomed in the new millennium.

Israel announced its withdrawal
: from South Lebanon in May, 22
: years after occupying it. The
: occupation had become unpopular
: with the Israeli electorate.
North and South Korea held a
© summit in June, the first since the
: peninsula was divided in 1945.
| The South Korean president Kim
Dae-jung received the Nobel
Peace Prize for his efforts.
More than 800 followers of a
: Ugandan cult known as the
: Restoration of the Ten

= » Commandments of God died in

: running between the Danish
: capital, Copenhagen, and the
: Swedish port of Malmo—was
: opened to traffic this year.

In March, stock markets around

: the world crashed when internet
: companies began to fail and the

dot-com bubble, caused by

: speculative investment into
: internet-based companies, burst.

Antiglobalization protestors

: descended on Prague in
: September during meetings
: between the World Bank and the

International Monetary Fund.

: The police presence was huge,
: and more than 600 people were
: injured in riots.

The first crew arrived at the
International Space Station

» in November, with NASA astronaut
: Bill Shepherd as commander.

their churches in March. It is
: uncertain whether they committed
: mass suicide or were murdered
: by the leaders of the cult.
| The year ended in bloodshed
: as aseries of terrorist bombs
: went off on December 30 in the
© Philippines. They became known
: as the Rizal Day bombings
: because of the national holiday
» celebrated on this day.

First crew of ISS

The International

Space Station received
its first crew in 2000. The crew was

: composed of three men: two

: Russians and one American.

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George W. Bush was elected president of the US in 2001. Here he shakes hands with

Al Gore, the defeated Democrat candidate, outside the US Capitol in Washington.

THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
WAS ON THE BRINK OF WAR
in March, as ethnic Albanian
rebels demanding equal rights
clashed with government
forces. In August, NATO
announced it would send a
peacekeeping force to this
former Yugoslavian republic.
The US experienced an
unprecedented day of terror on

September 11, when 19 al-Qaeda
terrorists hijacked four passenger -

airlines. Two flew into the twin
towers of the World Trade
Center, another into the
Pentagon. The fourth crashed
into a field near Pittsburgh.
Nearly 3,000 people were killed.
These events left America, and
the world, in a profound state of
shock. The devastating impact of
what became known simply as
“9/11,” September 11, prompted
President Bush to declare a “war
on terror.” NATO met the day
after the attacks, offering full
support and invoking a Cold
War-era treaty clause that stated

when one member is attacked; all

members are attacked.

Only a week after 9/11, letters
containing anthrax spores were
mailed to several news offices
and two Democratic US Senators.
Five people died and a further

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THE AMOUNT
OF MONEY LOST
BY ENRON
SHAREHOLDERS

: 17 were infected. The suspect

committed suicide.
In October, the US and Britain

: launched attacks on targets in

» Afghanistan, where Osama Bin

» Laden (1957-2011), head of the

: militant Islamic organization

» al-Qaeda, was believed to be
hiding. Operation “Enduring
Freedom” aimed to remove the
Taliban regime and replace it with

» a democratic government.

Large parts of the world were

: 9/11 terror attacks, and many in

: the business community were

: mourning deceased colleagues.
Economic problems worsened

: when Enron, an American

: in December in the world’s biggest

' corporate collapse.

In December, Argentina

: plunged into financial ruin.
The government announced
that its foreign debt could not

be paid back and billions of
dollars in government spending

: would be cut.

Another attempted terrorist

: the year. Richard Reid, a British

' passenger flying from Paris to
Miami, was caught trying to light a

_ fuse protruding from his shoe.
Reid, an Islamic fundamentalist

46 PEACEFUL TRANSFER OF AUTHORITY
IS RARE IN HISTORY, YET COMMON

IN OUR COUNTRY. WITH A SIMPLE
OATH, WE AFFIRM OLD TRADITIONS,
AND MAKE NEW BEGINNINGS. 99

George W. Bush, opening his inaugration speech, January 20, 2001

: and supporter of al-Qaeda, was

: sentenced to life imprisonment.

As the terrorist threat from

: al-Qaeda took center stage,

» the Irish Republican Army (IRA)

: made an historic announcement.

: On October 23, it stated that it had

* begun to disarm and had put

: some of its weapons “beyond use.”

: In India, the state of Gujarat was

: 20,000 people died and 400,000

. homes were destroyed.

: The free online encyclopedia
“Wikipedia” was launched on
January 15 by Jimmy Wales and

: Larry Sanger. By the end of the
year, it held more than 20,000

: articles in 18 languages. Articles

: are written by volunteers and can
be edited by anyone.

The Human Genome Project
(HGP) aimed to identify all
the genes in the human body.

: its first draft: a 90-percent

} complete sequence of all

: three billion base pairs in

: the human genome.

US technology company, Apple,
had high hopes for its new digital
music player, the iPod, which
was launched on October 23.

: The device could store hundreds

' of music tracks, yet was around

» the same size as a pack of cards.

Terror attack

Hijacked United Airlines Flight 175
crashed into the South Tower of the
World Trade Center and exploded,
killing hundreds of people.

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JIKRCHIIIOSHE

Members of a Chechen militant group speak to journalists inside a theater
in Moscow, during a standoff with Russian troops.

THE EURO BECAME LEGALTENDER :

at the start of the year when 12
countries in the Eurozone
{see 1999] abolished their
individual currencies.

Slobodan Milosevic,
the former Yugoslav
president, went on trial
on February 12, charged
with crimes against
humanity. He chose to defend
himself, and the trial faced many
delays due to his ill-health.
Milosevic died in 2006, before the
trial was completed.

President George W. Bush of
America and President Vladimir
Putin of Russia agreed to cut
numbers of nuclear warheads by
two-thirds each in the Treaty of
Moscow, signed on May 24.

In Moscow, a gang of heavily
armed Chechen militants
besieged a theater on October 23,

and threatened those inside if

: Russia did not withdraw from

Chechnya. Russian special forces
pumped gas into the building
before engaging the rebels in a

: gun battle—118 people were killed.

A nightclub on the Indonesian

: island of Bali became the target

of a terrorist attack in which
more than 200 people died.

: Common currency

A new currency for 12 members of
the European Union, the Euro,
was launched in January
2002. It has since become
secure as global tender.

Members of a violent
Islamist group, Jemaah
Islamiyah, were convicted

» of the attack.

US-led forces began the first

i large-scale campaign against the
: Taliban in Afghanistan—Operation
: Anaconda began in March.

The US journalist Daniel Pearl

Karachi, Pakistan. Pearl was

» investigating extremist Muslim
groups. His ransom demanded

the release and return to Pakistan
of prisoners from Guantanamo

: Bay,a US prison camp in Cuba.
: Pearl's body was found in May.

India and Pakistan came close

: to war in May, following a major
) terrorist attack on the Indian

Pakistan-based militant groups
fighting Indian rule in Kashmir,

: north India. Both countries
: positioned troops either side of the
: international border with Kashmir.

Tamil rebels signed a ceasefire

: Norwegian-led initiative that

: ended 19 years of civil war.

Meltdown

A massive chunk of Antarctica’s
Larsen ice shelf broke up in 2002—
it lost a total of about 1,255 sq miles
(3,250sq kr].

Sierra Leone in West Africa
emerged from a decade of civil war
with the help of a strong diplomatic
and military presence from Britain,
its former colonial ruler.

The 26-year civil war in Angola
ended in April when a ceasefire
was agreed between the Angolan
Army and UNITA (National Union
for the Total Independence of
Angola]. The civil war had been
ongoing since independence from
Portugal in 1975.

The African Union replaced the
Organization of African Unity in
July. The new union was intended
to reflect the different challenges
facing the continent.

44WE, ... TRUE
OWNERS OF
THIS LAND,
SHALL NOT
BUDGE, THE
LAND IS OURS. 99

Robert Mugabe, president of
Zimbabwe, December 2002

Robert Mugabe, president
of Zimbabwe, ordered white
farmers to leave as part of
his policy on land redistribution
to the black populace.
The declaration
was defied by
many farmers.

US millionaire Steve Fossett
became the first person to fly a
balloon solo nonstop around the
world. He completed the journey
on July 2 in 13 days and 12 hours.

THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR

was marred by tragedy when the
US space shuttle Columbia
disintegrated as it reentered

the Earth’s atmosphere. All seven
crew members were killed. An
investigation confirmed that a
heat shield had malfunctioned

on takeoff, causing it to break

up upon reentry.

The last commercial flight of
Concorde, the supersonic aircraft,
was made in October. Concorde
was given an emotional farewell
at Heathrow airport in London,
England. It had flown for 27 years
but spiraling costs and dwindling
ticket sales led to its demise.

Yugoslavia voted to end its
existence in February, becoming
Serbia and Montenegro. The
Yugoslavian Federation had
existed for 74 years, but had
lost its other four republics in

Speedy exit

The supersonic airliner Concorde
retired in 2002. Concorde was an
international icon and epitomized
the advance of modern technology.

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46 WE HAVE CONQUERED THE
SARS EPIDEMIC IN 2003. 99

Wen Jiabao, Premier of China

Doctors and healthcare workers attend a symposium on Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in Hong Kong.

: create an EU president and
: foreign minister.

Arnold Schwarzenegger, a
former actor famous for playing
the“Terminator” in Hollywood

: California in October.

_ Istanbul, Turkey, was rocked

: by two bombs on November 20,
which targeted the British
consulate and the headquarters

: of the British-owned HSBC bank

: The explosions claimed 60

: lives and were linked to al-Qaeda.

Iraq’s regime crumbled on

| March 20 when US-led troops

| invaded and toppled Saddam

: Hussein's government. They

Star power

Arnold Schwarzenegger, former
movie star, greets supporters during
his election campaign for governor
of California in the US in 2003.

a series of bloody conflicts
throughout the 1990s.

The treaty establishing a
Constitution for Europe was
approved in June. It aimed to

for the European Union (EU).

It was to replace the existing
European Union treaties with a
simplified single text, and would

: argued that Iraq was hiding
: weapons of mass destruction

(WMD). This triggered years of

was hugely controversial and

: many questioned its legality. As
' Western troops began losing their
i lives, extensive media coverage

fanned the flames of public

discontent. Mass protests were
held all over the world.
Neighboring Iran ended the
year with an earthquake in the
southeast, which devastated the

Civil war erupted in the western
region of Darfur, Sudan, as rebels
rose up against the government,
claiming the region was being
neglected by the authorities in the

Fall from grace

A statue of Saddam Hussein in
Baghdad, Iraq is toppled from
its plinth by Iraqi civilians, aided
by US marines.

7 ancient city of Bam. On the
UNESCO list of World Heritage
Sites, the city was more than

THE NUMBER OF 2,000 years old. The earthquake
PEOPLE WHO FLEW sledrerter2ompemt
WITH CONCORDE two nat

Syndrome [SARS] is a disease

found in humans, which is highly
: infectious and can be fatal. In
2003, an outbreak spread from
China to 37 other countries.
Governments took rigorous
measures to contain the virus.

Camera phones, which can
make calls and take photographs,
came into their own this year.
: They had a profound social
impact. Used for surveillance,
news gathering, but also
enabling voyeurism, they ignited
debates about privacy. Some
countries banned their use.

capital, Khartoum. So far in this
civil war, an estimated 200,000
people have died, and 2.5 million
have fled to refugee camps.
Avirus made headlines around
the world and caused considerable

relations between the two nations. = panic. Severe Acute Respiratory

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Afghan citizens in Kabul wait in line to vote at the Jaffaria Mosque, in the first

presidential elections since the overthrow of the Taliban government.

THE NEW AFGHAN CONSTITUTION
was signed in the capital Kabul on
January 26. Hamid Karzai, leader
of the transitional government,
was officially declared the winner
of Afghanistan's presidential
election on November 3. The
result of the election had been
delayed due to an investigation
into voting irregularities.

In April, the CBS news program
“Sixty Minutes” broadcast
shocking images in the US
showing abuse of prisoners at Abu

Ghraib in Iraq by members of the =
» Kadyrov died in an explosion

: ata stadium in Grozny, the capital
» of Chechnya, on May 9. The

: assassination, during a parade,

: was thought to be the work of

: Islamic militants.

US military police. President
George W. Bush issued an apology.
Bush was reelected for a second
term as US president on
November 2. He portrayed himself
as a strong leader in a time of war.
On October 29, Arabic TV station
al-Jazeera aired a video in which
Osama Bin Laden threatened
fresh attacks on the US. The
video was Bin Laden's clearest

: statement of responsibility for
: the terror attacks of 9/11.

US and Iraqi forces stormed into

| western areas of Fallujah, Iraq,

a rebel stronghold, early on

: November 8. The aim was to put
anend to guerrilla control of the
» Sunni Muslim city.

The European Union (EU) grew
on May 1, as ten more countries

: joined. It was the largest single
: enlargement in its history. Many
» of the new member states were
: former Eastern Bloc countries.

Chechen president Akhmad

Trouble continued in Chechnya

» when separatists stormed a

: children and staff hostage for

1,100

TAKEN HOSTAGE

331
KILLED

: Beslan crisis

: A group of armed Chechen

: separatists took more than 1,000

: people hostage at a Russian school
: —331 died, many of them children.

three days—hundreds of hostages
| died, including 186 children.

Spain also experienced terrorist

: attacks when explosions tore

: through three Madrid train

: stations on March 11, killing 191
» Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility.

The Summer Olympic Games

: were held in Athens, Greece,
: birthplace of the ancient games, for

the first time since 1896. The US

» won the most medals—103 in total.

An earthquake under the Indian

i Ocean near the Indonesian island

: of Sumatra on December 26

| unleashed a series of killer waves,
: tsunami, that sped across the

: sea. More than 200,000 people

» died and millions made homeless

: in 11 countries, making this the

most destructive tsunami in history.

Wave of destruction

Tsunami waves traveled 1,000 miles
(1,600 km] across the Indian Ocean
in only 90 minutes. They caused a
massive amount of damage.

~=> i

An aerial view of New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina,
in which 80 percent of the city was flooded.

YASSIR ARAFAT DIED IN 2004,
and the leader of the Palestine
Liberation Army, Rawhi Fattouh,
became interim president of

the Palestinian Authority. Under
Palestinian law he held the post
for 60 days until elections were
held. Mahmoud Abbas became
the new president on January 6.
Abbas and the Israeli prime
minister, Ariel Sharon, announced
a ceasefire on February 8. It was

in the region in many years.
The former Lebanese prime
minister Rafik Hariri was killed
by a suicide bomb in west Beirut
on February 14. Hariri had been
planning to make a comeback
in forthcoming elections. He
had called on Syria to cease its
involvement in Lebanese
affairs—Syria denied any
involvement in his death. The
assassination put further

EXTREME WEATHER

Weather became increasingly
wild in the 2000s. Hurricane
Katrina (pictured) in 2005 was
only one of an unprecedented
series of hurricanes and
tropical storms. Other weather
phenomena included record
levels of rainfall, melting
icecaps, and severe drought,
all contributing to increased
concerns about the prospect
of global warming. The
forecast is for more extreme
weather, disrupting lifestyles,
making animal species extinct,
and threatening human lives.

: pressure on Syria

» to remove their troops from

» Lebanon. On 26 April, they
announced that they had

| withdrawn. This was regarded as
an historic day in the Middle East.

Former leader of Iraq, Saddam

: Hussein, went on trial in

: October, nearly two years after
: his capture, for atrocities he

: carried out during his rule. He
: refused to acknowledge the
seen as the best chance for peace :
: and claimed that he was not

authority of the court trying him,

Four explosions ripped across

(4 IT'STOTALLY
WIPED OUT. 99

i George W. Bush, US president,
| surveying the damage to New
: Orleans, August 31, 2005

be \

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London on July 7. Coordinated
terrorist attacks struck three
underground trains anda
double-decker bus, killing

52 people, and injuring several
hundred more. The four suicide
bombers, all British men, were
backed by al-Qaeda.

Weeks after the al-Qaeda
attack on the London transport
system, the provisional IRA—
the paramilitary wing of the Irish
Republican Army—announced it
was Ceasing its armed campaign
on July 28. Two months later
there was a verification statement
from the independent arms
decommissioning body that the
IRA had put all its weapons
beyond use.

The Kyoto accord came into
force seven years after it was first
agreed (see 1997). It aimed to
curb the air pollution blamed
for global warming. The US,
the world’s top polluter, did not
sign up, as the protocol was not
thought to be in the best interest
of the American economy.

Hurricane Katrina hit New
Orleans in the US, on August 29
causing unprecedented damage.
The hurricane also battered large
swathes of the Louisiana and
Mississippi coastlines, leaving two
oil rigs adrift in the Gulf of Mexico
and causing destruction estimated
at $26 billion.

YouTube, a video-sharing
website, was launched in
February and soon grew into one
of the most popular websites
on the internet. After only a year
100 million videos were being
viewed every day.

44 FUTURE GENERATIONS »
MAY WELL ASK THEMSELVES,
WHAT WERE OUR
PARENTS THINKING? 99

Al Gore, US politician, An Inconvenient Truth, 2006

Former prime minister of Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto, campaigning
in Karachi before elections.

iPhone

A new type of

multimedia phone, the

iPhone connects to the
internet via a touch
screen. It was launched in
January by US technology
company Apple.

THE BASQUE SEPARATIST GROUP
ETA declared a permanent
ceasefire on March 22. They
aimed to pursue independence
for the Basque region through
a democratic process.
Montenegro became a
sovereign state on June 3 after

BULGARIA AND
ROMANIA joined the
European Union
on January 1.
They took the
membership of
the group from
25 to 27 member

Another nuclear power, North
» Korea, announced it had tested
: anuclear weapon on October 9,

provoking severe international

condemnation.

Construction began on the
| Freedom Tower in New York on
: April 26. The skyscraper was to

a referendum in which just over replace the twin towers destroyed _ states.

55 percent of the populace voted | inthe 9/11 attacks (see 2001). Direct rule to end the “dictatorship”
for independence. It meant the = Seven bombs exploded on the over Northern of President Musharraf.
end of the former Union of Serbia © suburban railway of Mumbai, Ireland by Within weeks he was

and Montenegro, created only © India, on July 11. Over 200 lost London deported to Saudi Arabia.
three years earlier from the : their lives. Tension between India __ officially Another former leader of
former Yugoslavia (see 2003). © and Pakistan increased when ended on Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto,

was assassinated on
December 27 during a political
rally. Islamist militants were
thought to be responsible.

On December 24, Nepal
announced that it would abolish

Iran announced that it had
produced the enriched uranium
needed to make nuclear fuel.

It insisted this was for generating
nuclear power, but the West was
concerned that Iran was making
a nuclear bomb.

evidence suggested that the
: Pakistani intelligence agency was
: involved in the attacks.
The Three Gorges Dam in
: China was completed on May 20.
At 1.4 miles (2.3km) long, it is one

May 8. Democratic
Unionist Party leader lan
Paisley and Sinn Fein’s Martin
McGuinness were sworn in as
first and deputy first ministers
of the new executive.

of the world's largest dams, and
one of the most controversial

: public works in modern times.

: The dam was engineered to

: prevent flooding along the
Yangtze River, but had a huge

: social and ecological impact.

Power generator

The building of the world’s largest
hydroelectric installation, the
Three Gorges Dam, was completed
in 2006, in China.

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Iranian forces captured 15
British sailors on March 23. The
sailors were accused of entering
Iranian waters and were held
prisoner for 11 days.

Nawaz Sharif, former prime
minister of Pakistan, returned
home from exile in August, vowing

its monarchy after elections,
which were to be held in 2008.
Some parties had refused to
serve in government until Nepal
became a republic.

A major scientific breakthough
was made when the first artificial
sperm was created in April. It was

grown from human bone marrow
samples ina laboratory in
Newcastle, England.

The mysterious dark matter
that makes up a quarter of the
universe was revealed in May by
a 3D map made by the Hubble
telescope. It helped explain how
the universe was formed.

The final book in the Harry
Potter series by J.K. Rowling was
released on July. Harry Potter and
the Deathly Hallows became the
fastest selling book of all time.

46 1 PUT MY LIFE
N DANGER AND
CAME HERE
BECAUSE I
BELIEVE MY
COUNTRY TO 8!
NDANGER. 99

Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani
politician, in a speech shortly
before her assassination

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THIS WAS THE YEAR OF “BLACK
MONDAYS” in the world of finance.
On Monday, January 21, the London
Stock Exchange experienced a
dramatic fall in overall value.

On Monday, September 15, the
US investment firm Lehman
Brothers declared bankruptcy,
and on the US stock market the
Dow Jones Industrial Average
lost 4.4 percent of its value. On
Monday, September 29, there was
a7-percent drop in the Dow.

BARACK OBAMA (1961- }

Democrat Barack Hussein
Obama made history when
he was elected to the

White House as the 44th
President of the US. Born in
Hawaii, he is the first
African-American to hold the
office, and gained admirers
for his relaxed charm and
stirring oratory. However, his
first year met with fierce
opposition as he attempted
to change the American
healthcare system, tackle
climate change, and reach
new agreements on nuclear
disarmament.

THE 100M
SPRINT

The Australian prime minister
Kevin Rudd (b. 1957] made an
official apology for years of
mistreatment inflicted on the
country’s Aboriginal people on
February 13. He singled out the
“Stolen Generations” —mixed-
race children who were forcibly
removed from their families under
a government-sanctioned policy of
white assimilation.

On January 7, New Jersey
became the first Northern state in
the US to apologize for its part in
the slave trade. It prohibited the
importation of slaves after 1786,
but was the last Northern state to
emancipate them.

Democrat Barack Obama won
the US presidential election on
November 4, becoming the first
African-American president, and
winning 52.5 percent of the
popular vote. Obama's main rival
was Republican John McCain.

Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro,
retired after half a century on
February 19. He had not appeared
in public since undergoing
stomach surgery. Castro's brother,

: Raul, became president.

Pakistan's president Pervez

: Musharraf bowed to intense

: pressure and resigned on

: August 18 ahead of impeachment
proceedings. He launched a
passionate defense of his record.

India suffered a series of
coordinated terrorist attacks
on November 28 across the city of

' Mumbai—166 people were killed.
India blamed the attacks on

! Pakistan-based militant groups,

: and the attacks derailed peace

| talks between the two nations.

USAIN BOLT'’S
RECORD IN

Usain Bolt became the fastest man on Earth when he sprinted his way
to a new 100m world record at the Summer Olympics in Beijing.

: source of enormous national
: pride for China.

Twenty years in the making,
the world’s largest “atom
smasher,” the Large Hadron
Collider, built near Geneva,
Switzerland, was started on
: September 10. It was designed
1 to look at the “Big Bang” and
: other mysteries of the universe.

Kosovo declared independence
from Serbia on February 17,
but the legitimacy of this was
disputed. Kosovo's bid to be
recognized as Europe's newest
country was the latest episode in
the dismemberment of the former
Yugoslavia, 17 years after its
dissolution began.

Radovan Karadzic, Europe's
most wanted man, was arrested
on July 21. The former Bosnian
Serb leader had been on the run
for 12 years, fleeing charges
of genocide.

South Ossetia became the focus
of a war between Russia and
Georgia in August when it tried to
break away from Georgia. Georgia
launched a full military offensive
to try to reconquer the region,
which lead to violent clashes with
Russia. After Georgia’s troops
were ejected, Russia withdrew
and recognized South Ossetia’s
independence.

Irish voters plunged the EU into
disarray on June 13 by rejecting
the Lisbon Treaty, which was
designed to bring more European
integration. All European member
states had to ratify the treaty for
it to go into force in 2009. It had
been approved by 18 countries,
but Ireland was the only one to put
the treaty to a public vote.

Usain Bolt sprinted into history
with a world-record-breaking run
on August 16 at the Summer

Olympics held in Beijing, China.
Bolt, from Jamaica, ran the 100m
final in a time of 9.69 seconds,
breaking his own record of 9.72
seconds set earlier in 2008. The
decision to pick Beijing as the host :
for the Summer Olympics of 2008
was controversial, as critics cited
China's record of human rights
violations. The event became a

The Hadron collider at CERN

The most intricate machine ever
built, itis hoped that the Large
Hadron Collider will unravel the
mystery of how the universe began.

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Islamic resistance movement,
from firing rockets into |srael.

A ceasefire was declared and
Israeli troops withdrew from
Gaza by the end of January.

Right-wing activists in the US
calling themselves the Tea Party
roared onto the political scene
this year, demanding fiscal
responsibility and lower taxes.

American car giants
General Motors and Chrysler
both filed for bankruptcy in
2009, as the ongoing financial
crisis took its toll on industries
around the world.

Zimbabwe's opposition leader
Morgan Tsvangirai (b. 1952) was
sworn in as prime minister in a
unity government with President
Robert Mugabe on February 11.
This power-sharing deal was
designed to put an end to the
ongoing political violence
in Zimbabwe.

The Copenhagen climate
summit was held in December.
Five nations, including China and
the US, agreed to attempt to limit
global temperature rises. Some
critics were disappointed, as they
thought that the agreement did
not go far enough.

Swiss tennis player Roger
Federer won the men’s tennis
final at Wimbledon in July; it
was his 15th Grand Slam win,
and made him the most
successful men’s tennis player
in Grand Slam history.

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BP workers lay an oil absorbent boom near a wildlife refuge off the Gulf of Mexico
to stop the spread of oil from the Deepwater Horizon platform disaster.

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AN EARTHQUAKE DEVASTATED the
Haitian capital Port au Prince on
January 12. It measured 7 on the
Richter scale, and around 230,000
people died. Many were housed
in badly constructed buildings.
An Icelandic volcano, dormant
for two hundred years, erupted
near the Eyjafjallajokull glacier
on April 14. It sent clouds of ash
soaring as high as 36,000ft
(11,000 m), disrupting air traffic in
Europe, and delaying millions of
air passengers across the world.
The US experienced an
environmental disaster in April
when the BP-owned Deepwater
Horizon oil rig exploded and sank.
Around four million barrels of oil
were pumped into the Gulf of
Mexico and 11 men were killed.

At the UN climate summit
held in Cancun, Mexico, a new
fund was created to give money
to developing countries trying to
tackle the consequences of
climate change.

Poland was plunged into
mourning when President Lech
Kaczynski, his wife Maria, and
other senior Polish figures were
killed in a plane crash in Russia
on April 10.

The global recession continued,
and the Greek economy faced the
threat of bankruptcy. On May 2,
the International Monetary Fund
(IMF] agreed to a €110 billion loan
for Greece, on the condition that
austerity measures were
enforced. Ireland asked the
European Union for a rescue

finance package on November 21,
after seven days of denying it
needed a bailout for its banking
system. People across Europe held
demonstrations on September 29,
protesting at austerity measures
made by their governments. They
were particularly angry at the vast
sums of money that had been
used to rescue banks.

The world held its breath in late
November as North Korea
bombarded a South Korean island
near a disputed maritime border,
leaving two soldiers dead. The
clash was one of the most serious
since the end of the Korean War
(see 1950). War was not declared,
but tensions continued to simmer.

Burma’s military regime
released pro-democracy leader
Aung San Suu Kyi (see panel,
below] on November 13.

The imprisoned Chinese
dissident Liu Xiaobo won this
year’s Nobel Peace Prize. The
ceremony was boycotted by China, =
which launched an unprecedented
campaign against the award. i

AUNG SAN SUU KYI (1945- }
Se ?

A Chilean miner is helped to the
surface after being trapped

| underground for 10 weeks following

the collapse of the San José mine.

On August 5, 33 Chilean miners
were trapped underground
following a cave-in. They spent
69 days in the mine and the world
became transfixed by their ordeal
and successful rescue, which was
completed on October 14.

Burmese opposition leader
Aung San Suu Kyi spent most of
the previous 20 years under
house arrest, due to her efforts
to bring democracy to Burma.
Her tireless determination to
stand for nonviolent resistance
in the face of a brutal military
regime inspired the world.

She was released from house
arrest in 2010 and called for
“national conciliation.”

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Prince William, second in line to the British throne, kisses his bride, Catherine Middleton, on the balcony
of Buckingham Palace following their wedding at Westminster Abbey on April 29.

EXTRAORDINARY EVENTS ACROSS
THE MIDDLE EAST led to what
became known as the "Arab
Spring." It began when a man in
Tunisia burned himself to death

in December 2010 in protest at his
treatment by police. This led to
pro-democracy rebellions, which
erupted across the Middle East.
After days of protests, Tunisian
president Zine el Abidine Ben Ali
promised more jobs while vowing
to punish rioters. On January 9,
protestors clashed with police and
there were calls for the president
to resign. A few days later he fled
to Saudi Arabia.

Riots began in Algeria over food
prices and unemployment. A man
burned himself to death in an
apparent echo of events in Tunisia
that sent new shockwaves across
North Africa. Antigovernment
activists announced a “day of
anger" in Egypt, and there were
calls for President Mubarak
(b. 1928) to resign. In response,
Mubarak shut down cellphone
and internet networks and then
appointed his first-ever vice
president in an attempt to calm
things down. Eventually, after 18
solid days of mass protest,
Mubarak surrendered power to
the army on February 11 and flew
out of Cairo.

The uprising in Egypt led to an
upsurge of violent protests
against repressive regimes in
Yemen, Jordan, Morocco, Oman,
and Iran. On February 16,
protests erupted in Libya’s second
largest city, Benghazi, following
the arrest of a human rights
campaigner. The uprising against

Colonel Muammar Gaddafi

(b. 1942] developed into an armed
conflict pitting rebels against
government forces. A NATO-led

cities became roughly split
between pro-Gaddafi forces

: Revolution in Egypt

An Egyptian man and boy celebrate
the resignation of Egyptian President
Hosni Mubarak in Tahir Square,

| Cairo after weeks of protests.

controlling the capital, Tripoli, and
the west, and rebels controlling

: Benghazi in the east.

The wave of popular unrest also
hit Syria, where the government
began a violent crackdown on
civilian dissenters. President
Assad (b. 1965) promised reform
on April 16, but the death toll rose
and scores of prominent

: intellectuals and activists went

: they struggled to end years of

: bloody conflict. In January, the

: Sudanese voted ina referendum

: awave of violence spread across

: rebel groups accused the
government of plotting to stay in
: power indefinitely, not representing

: development in rural areas. This

+ would fail as a country before it
» had even got started.

into hiding. Syrians demanded
greater political freedom, an
end to corruption, and the lifting

There was cautious optimism in

to split the country between north
and south and form a new state.
However, within months of the poll

southern Sudan as its army
clashed with rebel militia. These

all tribal groups, and neglecting

led to fears that Southern Sudan

The Ivory Coast held elections in

+ 2010. Ahigh turnout fostered the

belief that the country's post-civil
war division might come to an end

: The Constitutional Council named

incumbent president Laurence
Gbagbo the winner, but the
electoral commission named

| Alassane Ouattara, who was

immediately recognized by the UN,

: US, and the EU. Gbagbo fought to
: stayin power and there was fierce
: fighting between the two sides.

| The UN sent in troops, and on

Gbagbo's positions. Under the
auspices of the UN, French

: helicopters attacked Gbagbo's
: palace on April 9 and he was
: arrested two days later. Ouattara

bere,

Broken city

A family walks past cars upturned by
the tsunami in Japan. A massive 8.9
magnitude earthquake hit Sendai,
the capital of the Miyagi Prefecture.

became president, but inherited
a country politically and militarily
divided, half destroyed by civil
war, and with an economy starved
of investment.

Aseries of natural disasters
struck around the globe during
the first few months of the year,
causing unprecedented damage
and destruction. Brisbane,
Australia, resembled a muddy
lake in January following
catastrophic flooding, with
debris from houses and

businesses washed away down

: the Brisbane River. The floods

: spread to other parts of

» Queensland—more than 200,000
people in 20 towns and cities

| were affected.

Torrential rain caused deadly

mudslides and flooding in Brazil
: in one of its deadliest natural
disasters on record. Almost 500
people were killed across three
: cities north of Rio de Janeiro.

On February 22, a huge
earthquake ripped apart the
center of Christchurch, one of
New Zealand's biggest cities.

| The quake, measuring 6.3 on the
: Richter scale, hit at the height
of the working day and killed an

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estimated 181 people. It was the
worst disaster in New Zealand
in 80 years.

Japan experienced its most
powerful earthquake since
records began on March 11.
Measuring 9.0 on the Richter
scale, the earthquake struck the
northeast coast, causing a
massive Tsunami. A wall of water
racing inland swept away cars,
ships, and buildings. The official
death toll was 14,000, but many
thousands were missing and the
cost to human life is not yet fully
known. A state of emergency
was declared at a nuclear power
plant in Fukushima, where
pressure exceeded normal levels,

leading to worldwide concerns
about a nuclear disaster. By May,
the plant showed little sign of
calming down, and officials
announced a complete cold
shutdown by the end of the year.
The world was suffering from a
financial hangover in 2011, as
austerity measures began to bite.
A bailout package given to Ireland
and Greece in 2010 had been
intended to stop their euro debt
crisis from spreading to the rest
of Europe, but whispers of a
bailout in Portugal were enough
to put stocks on shaky ground and
raise fears that Spain was also in
trouble. A bailout for Portugal was
awarded on May 17. Eurozone
ministers met in the same month
to staunch the market's anxieties
about Greece, Portugal, and
Ireland, amid concerns that these
countries would be unable to meet
the repayments on their loans.

Elizabeth Taylor

One of the Hollywood greats,
British-born American actress
Elizabeth Taylor died on March 23
at the age of 79.

The future of the single currency
looked uncertain. But it was
not all gloom for the euro, as
Germany and France saw their
economies grow.

Terrorism struck again in the
heart of Russia, as two suicide
bombers blew themselves up
at Domodedovo Airport in
Moscow, on January 24,
devastating the international
arrivals hall and killing dozens
of people. They were believed
to be Islamist militants from
the North Caucasus.

Italy grappled with problems
of a different sort as its leader,
Silvio Berlusconi (b. 1936], who
had shown a knack for surviving
charges of corruption, faced
new charges in February of
having sex with an underage
girl. The scandal, combined with
the poor state of the country's
finances, lost Berlusconi his
key supporters.

The bitter debate over the Tea
Party movement (see 2009) in
the US and its inflammatory right-
wing rhetoric was reignited when
Democratic Congresswoman
Gabrielle Giffords was shot in
the head during a public meeting
in Tuscon, Arizona. Six people
were killed in the attack on
January 8, but Giffords survived.

President Obama continued to
have a tough time exerting his
authority, and budget cuts, ona
reluctant Congress. Bickering
between Republicans and
Democrats was intense, and
Republicans pushed for even
greater cuts. The US Congress
finally passed a budget bill in April

-s fr

that would cut $38.5 billion in
government spending over the
rest of the existing fiscal year.
Obama’s attempts to spotlight
positive initiatives were swamped
by the crush of news from Japan,
Egypt, and Libya.

Criticism of Obama's leadership
was overshadowed by the news
that Osama Bin Laden [b. 1957),
the leader of al-Qaeda and the
most hunted man in the world,
had been killed on May 1 ina fire-
fight with US forces in Pakistan.
The news sparked an outpouring
of emotion across the US, but led
to immediate fears of retaliation.
Retaliation was, indeed, swift.
The Pakistani Taliban carried out
a double suicide bombing on
May 13 that killed 80 recruits at
a military training center in the
northwest of the country.

A shaken world

The earthquake in Japan was the fifth
largest since records began—this
graph shows the magnitude of the 10
biggest earthquakes in history.

2011
2010
2004
1964
1960
1952
1906
1833
1730
1700

0 8 8.5

Death of Bin Laden

: Osama Bin Laden, hunted for three
decades, made headline news

: around the world after his death at
the hands of US special forces.

Only days after the dramatic
events of Osama Bin Laden's
death, the world’s last known
combat veteran of World War |,

: Claude Choules, died peacefully

in Australia at age 110. He had

: served in both World Wars.

Conflict shaped his life, and he
became a staunch pacifist. His
death marked the moment the
Great War passed from living

memory into the history books.

9 O56 10

MAGNITUDE [RICHTER SCALE)

1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS

Male

Although the US is the
wealthiest country in
the world, it is home
to only 5.2 percent of
the world’s population.
Forty-one percent of the
world’s millionaires live
in the US, but it also has
the highest level of total
household debt.

THE GLOBAL

UO NO [V

AN INCREASING DIVIDE BETWEEN RICH AND POOR

a 5 2 60 5040 30 20 10 0 0 10203040 50 60
The world is richer than ever, strengthened by international POPULATION [IN MILLIONS)
alliances and technology, but there is still widespread
poverty. Wars continue to be fought, and even developed

nations can be devastated by natural disasters.

There are currently almost 7 billion people living on the planet, .. .

three times the population of 1900. The fate of each person

depends on where they live, and the distribution of the world’s wealth has
changed little since World War Il. Many high-income countries are in the
northern hemisphere, with the world’s poorest in sub-Saharan Africa. The six NORTH Fe.
wealthiest countries account for more than half the world's Gross Domestic AMERICA

Product (GDP)—the value of all the goods and services a country produces—
while over half the world’s population live on less than $2.50 a day.

The countries of Western Europe and North America have well-established
business sectors, with multinational corporations selling products globally. The
nations of Africa and Central America have a smaller range of industries, and
many depend on trading a single commodity. But this is slowly changing, and the
economies of countries such as Mexico, Brazil, and India are growing rapidly.

OCEAN

Interdependent world

The economies of the world are based
ona vast range of industries, and
populations range from 800 (Vatican
City) to over a billion (India and China].
No countries are fully self-supporting,
however, and they all depend on trade
y with other countries to meet their
needs fully.

GDP PER CAPITA IN US DOLLARS (BILLIONS)
60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 140,000 150,000

40,000

Qatar
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Bermuda
Norway

Singapore In the money
Jersey When a country's wealth is divided
muna by the number of people who live PACIFIC SOUTH
runel in it, Qatar emerges as the richest
Us nation in the world. OCEAN wh

BRAZIL

On the up Out of pocket Brazil has the largest economy in South

The fastest- The poorest America, and the ninth largest in the
growing economies countries in the world. Well-established agriculture,
are mainly in world are all in mining, and service sectors have helped
developing sub-Saharan Africa. create a healthy economy, and Brazil is
countries. also rich in natural resources. Huge gaps ATLANTIC
remain between rich and poor, however.
OCEAN

Male

GROWTH RATE

GDP IN US DOLLARS (BILLIONS)

Iraq
Ethiopia

Mozambique
Niger

Eritrea

African Republic

Congo
Burundi

Malawi
Liberia
Zimbabwe

India
Angola
Sierra Leone

Somalia

Turkmenistan

40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40
POPULATION [IN MILLIONS)

ATLANTIC

THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

Fa SERMANY RUSSIA

Germany reacted to the AGE Female The world’s largest Male AGE Female
union of East and West Au country, Russia, has seen A &
Germany by becoming Seo huge changes since the 389
the largest economy on 50:38 fall of the Soviet Union beh
the European continent, eee It has vast natural ae
and the fifth wealthiest eae resources, such as oil pues —
in the world by GDP. ae and gas, and is the peas
Germany is the world’s he world’s largest oil 40-45 ——
second-largest trader in 34 producer, but many 30-34
imports and exports. 3h Russian people still 30-34

1% live in poverty. TBs

9 5-9

j= 0-4

40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS) } POPULATION [IN MILLIONS)

~ ra

CHINA

China, the world’s most populated country, has
one of the fastest-growing economies and is
the top exporter. Factories and mines produce
most of China's wealth, but in the future this

EUROPE may be slowed by an aging population.

Male ____ — __Female

Arabian
Sea

6050 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)

INDIA

Itis estimated that v
India’s economy will
grow faster than any other country's over
the next two decades. It has a young and

growing workforce, has opened up foreign
trade, and hosts millions of entrepreneurs
running small, but successful, businesses.

Male Female

nr
a

60 50 40 30 20 10 O 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africahas Male AGE Female ae

one of the largest pone Losi

economies on the oe

African continent, 80-84

but poverty is Tok AUSTRALIA

widespread. One oer

in seven people eee Australia’s economy stands out because
is infected with to-te it survived the global downturn without
HIV/AIDS, high 35-39 going into recession. It has a strong
crime and land os service-providing economy as well
redistribution crag as healthy exports of agriculture

remain an issue, Age and mining products. Natural gas

and unemployment 0-4 deposits are evenly spread throughout
is high. 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 the continent. 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40

POPULATION [IN MILLIONS) POPULATION [IN MILLIONS)

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